Environmental Studies - Study Material

UNIT-I
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE INTRODUCTION AND

NATURAL RESOURCES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means “surrounding”.
Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings, Plants, animals, microbes, etc and
abiotic factors such as light, air, water, soil, etc. Environment is a complex of many variables,
which surrounds man as well as the living organisms.
Environment includes water, air and land and the interrelation ships which exist among and
between water, air and land and human beings and other living creatures such as plants, animals
and micro organisms. She suggested that environment consists of an inseparable whole system
constituted by physical, chemical, biological, social and cultural elements, which are interlinked
individually and collectively in myriad ways. The natural environment consist of four interlinking
systems namely, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere. These four
systems are in constant change and such changes are affected by human activities andvice versa.
Components of Environment
Environment has been classified into four major components:
1. Hydrosphere,
2. Lithosphere,
3. Atmosphere,
4. Biosphere.
Hydrosphere includes all water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and ocean etc.
Hydrosphere functions in a cyclic nature, which is termed as hydrological cycle or water cycle.
Lithosphere means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth’s crust. The earth is a cold spherical
solid planet of the solar system, which spins in its axis and revolves around the sun at a certain
constant distance.
Lithosphere mainly, contains soil, earth rocks, mountain etc. Lithosphere is divided into three
layers-crusts, mantle and core (outer and inner). Atmosphere The cover of the air, that envelope
the earth is known as the atmosphere.
Atmosphere is a thin layer which contains gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. and which
protects the solid earth and human beings from the harmful radiations of the sun. There are five
concentric layers within the atmosphere, which can be differentiated on the basis of temperature
and each layer has its own characteristics. These include the troposphere, the stratosphere, the
mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere.
Biosphere it is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers to all organisms on the earth’s surface
and their interaction with water and air. It consists of plants, animals and micro-organisms, ranging
from the tiniest microscopic organism to the largest whales in the sea. Biology is
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Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

concerned with how millions of species of animals, plants and other organisms grow, feed, move,
reproduce and evolve over long periods of time in different environments. Its subject matter is
useful to other sciences and professions that deal with life, such as agriculture, forestry and
medicine. The richness of biosphere depends upon a number of factors like rainfall, temperature,
geographical reference etc. Apart from the physical environmental factors, the man made
environment includes human groups, the material infrastructures built by man, the production
relationships and institutional systems that he has devised. The social environment shows the way
in which human societies have organized themselves and how they function in order to satisfy their
needs.
1.1.1 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and

biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Soil
Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the study of the environment, and the
solution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an integrated, quantitative,
and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.
Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering.

Environmental studies incorporate more of the social sciences for understanding human
relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. Environmental engineering
focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality.
Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating
alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and the
effects of global climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of
physical, chemical, and biological processes.
1.1.2 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Because of environmental studies has been seen to be multidisciplinary in nature so it is considered

to be a subject with great scope. Environment is not limited to issues of sanitation andhealth but it
is now concerned with pollution control, biodiversity conservation, waste management and
conservation of natural resources. This requires expert eyes and hence is creating new job
opportunities. The opportunities in this field are immense not only for scientists but also for
engineers, biologists. There is a good chance of opportunity to find a job in this field as
environmental journalists. Environmental science can be applied in the following spheres:
Ecosystem Structure and Function
The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of the processes that link the leaving
organism or in other words biotic component to the non-living organism or a biotic component.
So for the study of environment we should aware with biotic and a biotic components.

Natural Resource Conservation
For managing and maintenance of forests which are natural resources and for the maintenance of
wildlife forms task under natural resource conservation. It is also a scope of environmental studies
Environmental Pollution Control
With the knowledge of environmental science everybody can control the pollution. He/she can
handle the waste management and also look for ways to control pollution on the aspect of pollution
control.
Environmental management
There are several independent environmental consultants who are working with Central and State
pollution control Board. They offer advice to solve the problems of environment the optimum
solution for the upcoming problems. They give direction for controlling pollution due to industrial
development. There are several current consultants who are working with government pollution
control boobs, involved in policy making, pollution control and maintenance of ecological balance.
The scope of environmental studies in industry
Environmental scientist’s work towards maintenance of ecological balance, they also worktowards
conservation of biodiversity and regulation of natural resources as well as on preservation of
natural resources. Most of the industries have a separate environmental research and development
section. These sections govern the impact that their industry has on the environment. Our
environment is being degraded by the rapid industrialization. To combat this

menace there is a growing trend towards manufacture of "green" goods and products. So we can
say that there is a good scope in the field of industry from environmental studies.
Research and development
Research and development have tremendous scope due to increment in public awareness regarding
the environment. Various universities and governmental organizations offer a scopefor such
research. These universities conduct research studies in order to develop the methods toward
monitoring and controlling the source of environmental pollution. Due to an increasing threat from
global warming, many steps are being undertaken for the reduction of greenhouse gases and the
adoption of renewable energy resources. They generate awareness now regarding the use of solar
energy for variety of purposes. This provides scope of environmental history in the field of research
and development.
Social Development
NGO (Nongovernmental organizations) help in creating awareness regarding the protection of the
environment and making the masses aware of various environmental issues . They also generate a
public opinion in this field. They work towards disseminating information and in bringing about
changes in political policies that are personally effect the environment. The social dimension of
this profession includes controlling population explosion through organizing advisory awareness
camps.
1.1.3 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of our
indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment.
Environment science has become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid
rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and
hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, and Transportation
Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed World.
The North, to cleanse their own environment has fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ Factories of
South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the Environmental impact of
its activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world
follows that.

3. Explosively Increase in Pollution
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in India. Evidently with
16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure
on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have recognized soils health problems
like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequent to our activities
Constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.
5. Need for Wise Planning of Development
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product have
all to by synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development our actions should be
planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.
1.1.4 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the Environmental
Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken would result in the extinction of
life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is essential to get the country acquainted
with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly.
Some of these challenges are as under:
1. Growing Population
A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over 17 million
people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural resources and reduces the
gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the population growth.
Although population control does automatically lead to development, yet the development leads
to a decrease in population growth rates. For this development of the women is essential.
2. Poverty
India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and environmental
degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people are directly dependent
on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder. About
40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment degradation has adverselyaffected
the poor who depend upon the resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of
poverty and the challenge environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge. The
population growth is essentially a function of poverty. Because, to the very poor, every child is an
earner and helper and global concerns have little relevance for him.

3. Agricultural Growth
The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural growth with
damaging the environment. High yielding varieties have caused soil salinity and damage to
physical structure of soil.
4. Need to Ground water

It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes, industrial
effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected
quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other water
bodies as lakes are an important challenge. It so finding our suitable strategies for consecrationof
water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean which are difficult
challenges is essential.
5. Development and Forests

Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to harness the
mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would submergeforests;
displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi
and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific Debate.
1.2 NATURAL RESOURCES
The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include water, air, soil,
minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are examples. All the resources are classified based on
quantity, quality, re-usability, men’s activity and availability.
Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their
relatively unmodified (natural) form. A natural resource’s value rests in the amount of the material
available and the demand for it. The term was introduced to a broad audience by E.F. Schumacher
in his 1970s book Small is Beautiful.
a) Renewable resource or inexhaustible resources

The renewable resources can maintain themselves or can be replaced if managed wisely. These
resources are constantly renewed in nature. The renewable resources are therefore not likely to be
lost due to excessive and unwise use.
b) Non-renewable resources or exhaustible resources

These resources once used are lost forever, as they are not restored. They include metallic minerals
and fossil fuels. At current rates of usage, all the industrial metals may lose for less than a century
and those of petroleum and natural gas may exhaust in 15-20 years.
Natural Resources and Associated Problems
Human population is growing day-by-day. Continuous increase in population caused an increasing

demand for natural resources. Due to urban expansion, electricity need and industrialization, man
started utilizing natural resources at a much larger scale. Non-renewable resources are limited.
They cannot be replaced easily. After some time, these resources may come to an end. It is a
matter of much concern and ensures a balance between population growth and utilization of
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resources. This overutilization creates many problems. In some regions there

are problems of water logging due to over irrigation. In some areas, there is no sufficient water for
industry and agriculture. Thus, there is need for conservation of natural resources.
There are many problems associated with natural resources:
Forest resources and associated problems

1. Use and over-exploitation.
2. Deforestation.
3. Timber extraction.
4. Mining and its effects on forest.
5. Dams and their effects on forests and tribal people.
Water resources and associated problems
1. Use and overutilization of water.
2. Floods, droughts etc.
3. Conflicts over water.
4. Dams and problems.
Mineral resource and associated problems
1. Use and exploitation.
2. Environmental effects of extracting and using minerals.
Food resources and associated problems
1. World food problems.
2. Changes caused by agriculture and over grazing.
3. Effects of modern agriculture.
4. Fertilizer-pesticide problems.
5. Water logging and salinity.
Energy resources and associated problems
1. Growing energy needs.
Land resources and associated problems
1. Land degradation.
2. Man-induced landslides.
3. Soil erosion and desertification.
1.3 FOREST RESOURCES
Forests are one of the most important natural resources and a part of biosphere since these are
natural assets on this earth. Forests predominantly composed of trees, shrubs, woody vegetation
etc… Approximately 1/3rd of the earth’s total land area is covered by forests. Forests are important
ecologically and economically. Ecologically forests are to be considered as earth’s lungs because
they consume CO2 and release O2which is required for sustaining the life on this earth. The
poisonous gas CO2 is absorbed by the trees of forests and reduces the global warming and helps to
continue hydrological cycle, reduce soil erosion. Forest ecosystems are extremely good & hold a
good quantity of water.
Economically forests provide timber, fodder to grazing animals, firewood(conventional fuel),
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bamboos, rubbers, medicines, gums, resins, food items etc.

USES OF FOREST
1. Watershed protection:
• Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water.
• Prevent flash floods and soil erosion.
• Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought.
2. Atmospheric regulation:
• Absorption of solar heat during evapo-transpiration.
• Maintaining carbon dioxide levels for plant growth.
• Maintaining the local climatic conditions.
3. Erosion control:
• Holding soil (by preventing rain from directly washing soil away).
4. Land bank:
• Maintenance of soil nutrients and structure.
5. Local use - Consumption of forest produce by local people who collect it for subsistence –
(Consumptive use)
• Food - gathering plants, fishing, hunting from the forest. (In the past when wildlife was
Plentiful, people could hunt and kill animals for food. Now those populations of most
Wildlife species have diminished; continued hunting would lead to extinction.)
• Fodder - for cattle.
• Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking, heating.
• Poles - building homes especially in rural and wilderness areas.
• Timber – household articles and construction.
• Fiber - weaving of baskets, ropes, nets, string, etc.
• Sericulture – for silk.
• Apiculture - bees for honey, forest bees also pollinate crops.
• Medicinal plants - traditionally used medicines, investigating them as potential Source for new
modern drugs.
6. Market use - (Productive use)
• Most of the above products used for consumptive purposes are also sold as source of income
for supporting the livelihoods of forest dwelling people.
• Minor forest produce - (non-wood products): Fuel wood, fruit, gum, fiber, etc.which are
Collected and sold in local markets as a source of income for forest dwellers.
• Major timber extraction - construction, industrial uses, paper pulp, etc. Timber extraction is
done in India by the Forest Department, but illegal logging continues in many of the forests of
India and the world.
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OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS
Forest has been known to possess huge potential for human use and they have been exploited
since early times for their vast potential. Exploitation of forest has taken place to meet human
demands in the following ways:
- Due to wood cutting and large scale logging for raw materials like timber,
pulp wood, fuel wood etc
- Deforestation due to road construction
- Clearing of forest to create more agricultural lands to meet the food needs
of growing population
- Encroachment of forests leading to destruction of about 19.57 lakh
hectares (2013)of forest in the country
- About 78% of forest area is under heavy grazing
- Mining activities leads to clearing of forests
- Big hydro electric projects result in large scale destruction of forest
In India, Joint forest management has come up as innovative approach involving community
participation so that the rural economy is strengthened as well as forest resources are conserved
through public involvement
DEFORESTATION
Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The term does
not include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or pines. Deforestation
has resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of their pre-agricultural area.
Indigenous forests now cover 21% of the earth's land surface. Deforestation refers to the loss of
forest cover (or) the aimless destruction of trees. The clearing of forests across the earth has been
occurring on a large scale basis for many centuries. This process involves the cutting down,
burning and damaging of forests. Currently 12 million hectares of forests are cleared annually and
the current rate of deforestation continues, the world’s forests will vanish within the next 100 years
about 80% of the original forests on the earth have already been cleared.
Major causes of Deforestation:
a. Shifting cultivation : There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting cultivators who
practice slash and burn agriculture and are supported so clear more than 5 lakh ha of forests for
shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this practice of North-East and to some extent in
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and M.P. which contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually.
b. Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population in India alone
has shooted up to 300-500 million tons in 2001 as compared to just 65 million tons during
independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests.
c. Raw materials for industrial use: Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway-sleepers, plywood,
match boxes, pulp for paper industry etc. have exerted tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood
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is in great demand for packing tea for Tea industry of Assam while fir tree wood is exploited
greatly for packing apples in J & K.
d. Development projects: Massive destruction of forests occurs for various development projects
like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining etc.
e. Growing food needs: In developing countries this is the main reason for deforestation. To meet
the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands and settlements are created
permanently by clearing forests.
f. Overgrazing: The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel leading to loss of
tree cover and the cleared lands are turned into the grazing lands. Overgrazing by the cattle leads
to further degradation of these lands.
g. Conversion of forests and woodlands to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of people
Major activities and threats to Forestsresources:
1. Timber Extraction: Logging for valuable timber, such as teak and Mahogany not only involves a
few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with
each other a by vines etc. Also road construction for making approach to the trees causes further
damage to the forests. The steps in timber extraction are:
a) Clear felling
b) Mechanized logging
c) Manual logging
d) Selective logging
2. Mining: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves vast
forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits
is done by sub-surface mining. More than80000 ha of land of the country is presently under the
stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along
with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography
and destruction of the landscape in the area. Large scale deforestation has been reported in
Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to indiscriminating mining of various minerals over a length
of about 40 Km.
DAMS AND OTHER EFFECTS ON FOREST AND TRIBAL PEOPLE
Forest are directly are indirectly effected by the forest. Hydro-electric dams are main cause for
deforestation. About 40,000 large dams are currently obstructing Workloads Rivers. Destruction
of forest occurs for constructing big dams, which alters ecological balance. In these way landslides,
droughts and floods conditions may rise in area. Socio-economic problems related to tribal and
native people results from big dam construction
Dam construction produces a number of health hazards. Thousands of workers who build the dams
attacked by the diseases like AIDS, measles, tuberculosis, syphilis etc. Dam building has resulted
in wide range human rights violations. Rehabilitation policy of the government is
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important and typical when most of the displaced persons are tribal people. Tribal life and culture
are mostly associated with forest
CASE STUDIES:
Chipko movement related to mining or quarrying opposed by SundarlalBahuguna in North India.

The first Chipko action took place spontaneously in April 1973 and over the next five years spread
to many districts of the Himalaya in Uttar Pradesh. The name of the movement comes from a word
meaning 'embrace': the villagers hug the trees, saving them by interposing their bodies between
them and the contractors' axes. The Chipko protests in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in
1980 with a 15-year ban on green felling in the Himalayan forests of that stateby order of India's
then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. Since then the movement has spread to Himachal Pradesh in
the North, Kamataka in the South, and Rajasthan in the West, Bihar in the East and to the Vindhyas
in Central India. In addition to the 15-year ban in Uttar Pradesh, the movement has stopped clear
felling in the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas and generated pressure for a natural resource policy
which is more sensitive to people's needs and ecological requirements.
Sardar Sarovar – Narmada project is a multipurpose project in Gujarat
1.4 WATER RESOURCES
Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include
agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all ofthese
human uses require fresh water.
Distribution of water on earth:
 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water. Only three percent is fresh water; slightly
over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice. The remaining unfrozenfreshwater
is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the
air
Fresh water occurs mainly in two forms

1. Ground water and 2. Surface water
1. Groundwater: About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of groundwater
and it is about 35-50 times that of surface water supplied
USES OF WATER:
1. DOMESTIC USE: Water used in the houses for the purposes of drinking, bathing,washing
Clothes, cooking, sanitary & other needs. The recommended value according to Indian
standard specification for domestic use is 135 liters/day
2. INDUSTRIAL USE: Water is required for various industries such as cement, mining,
textile, leather industries.
3. PUBLIC USE: This includes water used for public utility purpose such as watering parks,
Flushing streets, jails etc.
4. FIRE USE: Water is used in case of accidents and to prevent the fire issues.
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5. IRRIGATION: To grow crops which is the main sources for food?
6. OTHER USES: Hydro electric power generation requires water.
OVER UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER AND SURFACE WATER
Over use of groundwater has following effects.

1. Lowering of water table: Excessive use of ground water for drinking, irrigation and
Domestic purposes has resulted in rapid depletion of ground water in various regions
leading to lowering of water table & drying of wells.
The reasons for shortage of water are:
a. Increase in population,
b. Increasing demand of water for various purposes.
c. Unequal distribution of fresh water.
d. Increasing pollution of water sources cause over exploitation.
2. Ground subsidence: When ground water withdrawal is greater than its recharge rate, the
sediments in the aquifer become compacted. This is called ground subsidence which may cause
damage of buildings, destroy water supply systems etc.
3. Drought. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency
in its water supply whether surface or underground water. Generally, this occurs when a region
receives consistently below average precipitation.
We can define drought in four main ways:
a) Meteorological drought: related to rainfall amounts
b) Hydrological drought: determined by water levels in reservoirs
c) Agricultural drought: related to the availability of water for crops
d) Socioeconomic Drought: related to demand and supply of economic
goods
a) Meteorological Drought: Meteorological drought is generally defined by comparing the
rainfall in a particular place and at a particular time with the average rainfall for that Place. The
definition is, therefore, specific to a particular location. Meteorological drought leads to a depletion
of soil moisture and this almost always has an impact on crop production.
b) Hydrological Drought: Hydrological drought is associated with the effect of low rainfall on
water levels in rivers, reservoirs, lakes and aquifers. Hydrological droughts usually are noticed
some time after meteorological droughts. First precipitation decreases and, Sometime after that,
water levels in rivers and lakes drop.
C) Agricultural Drought: Agricultural drought mainly effects food production and farming.
Agricultural drought and precipitation shortages bring soil water deficits, reduced ground water or
reservoir levels, and so on. Deficient topsoil moisture at planting may stop germination, leading to
low plant populations.
d) Socioeconomic Drought: Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an economic
good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply. The supply of many
economic goods, such as water, forage, food grains, fish, and hydroelectric power, depends on
weather. Due to variability of climate, water supply is sufficient in some years but not satisfactory
to meet human and environmental needs in other year
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FLOODS
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is normally dry. The European Union
(EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by
water. Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river or lake, in
which the water overtops or breaks, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual boundaries,
or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an area flood. Floods
can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly
at bends in the waterway. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the
natural flood plains of rivers.
CONFLICTS OVER WATER
Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over an access
to water resources. The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing
interests of water users, public or private.
A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though rarely are traditional wars
waged over water alone. Instead, water has historically been a source of tension and a factor in
conflicts that start for other reasons. However, water conflicts arise for several reasons, including
territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic advantage.
These conflicts occur over both freshwater and saltwater, and between international boundaries.
However, conflicts occur mostly over freshwater; because freshwater resources are necessary, yet
limited, they are the center of water disputes arising out of need for potable water. As freshwater
is a vital, yet unevenly distributed natural resource, its availability often impacts the living and
economic conditions of a country or region. The lack of cost-effective water desalination
techniques in areas like the Middle East, among other elements of water crises can put severe
pressures on all water users
According to the 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment, Water is a vital
element for human life, and any human activity relates somehow to water. Unfortunately, it is
not a renewable resource and in the future it "might get worse with climate change
Water conflicts occur because the demand for water resources and potable water extend far beyond
the amount of water actually available. Elements of a water crisis may put pressures on affected
parties to obtain more of a shared water resource, causing diplomatic tension or outright conflict.
The Cauvery water dispute: Out of Indias 18 major rivers, 17 are shared between different states.
In all these cases, there are intense conflicts over these resources which badly seem to resolve. The
Cauvery river water is a born of contention between tamilnadu and Karnataka and the problem is
almost hundred years old. Tamilnadu occupying the downstream region of the river wants water-
use regulated in the upstream state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its privacy over the river
as upstream user. The river water is almost fully utilized and both the
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states having increasing demands for agriculture and industry. The consumption is more in
Tamilnadu than Karnataka where the catchment area is rockier. On June 2, 1990, the Cavery Water
dispute tribunal was set up which through an interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205
TMCF of water was made available in Tamilnadus mettur dam every year, till a settlement was
reached. In 1991-92 due to good monsoon, there was no disputr as there was good stock of water
in Mettur , but in 1995, the situation turned into a crisis due to delayed rains and an expert
committee was set up to look into the matter which found there was a complex cropping pattern in
Cauvery basin. Sambra paddy in winter, Kurvai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded
intensive water, thus aggravating the water crisis. Proper selection of crop varieties, optimum use
of water, better rationing and rational sharing patterns, and pricing of water are suggested as some
measures to solve the problem.
DAMS-BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS
Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important role in
communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic development.
Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on dams. Hydropower,
another contender for the use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of the world’s total electric
power supply and is used in over 150 countries. The world’s two most populous countries – China
and India – have built around 57% of the world’s large dams.
BENEFITS:
River valley projects with big dams have usually been considered to play a key role in the
development process due to their multiple uses. India has the distinction of having the largest
number of river valley projects. The tribal’s living in the area pin big hopes on these projects as
they aim at providing employment and raising the standard and quality of life. The dams have
tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth. They can help in checking floods and
famines, generate electricity and reduce water and power shortage, provide irrigation water to
lower areas, provide drinking water in remote areas and promote navigation, fishery etc
PROBLEMS:
• Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers.

• Serious impacts on riverine ecosystems.
• Social consequences of large dams due to displacement of people.
• Water logging and Stalinization of surrounding lands.
• Dislodging animal populations, damaging their habitat and cutting off their migration routes.
• Fishing and travel by boat disrupted.
Large dams have had serious impacts on the lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of
indigenous and tribal peoples. They have suffered disproportionately from the negative Impacts of
dams and often been excluded from sharing the benefits. In India, of the 16 to 18 million people
displaced by dams, 40 to 50% were tribal people, who account for only 8% of our nation’s one
billion people.
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1.5 MINERAL RESOURCES
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and identifiable

physical properties. An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from which a useful substance,
such as a metal, can be extracted and used to manufacture a useful product.
The geological processes are caused for the formation of the minerals over millions of years ago
in the earth’s crust. Minerals are generally localized in occurrence and the deposits are very
sporadic in distribution. Mineral resources are non renewable and the mineral /ore is extracted by
the process of mining.
Iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese and copper are important raw materials for industrial use.
Important non-metal resources include coal, salt, clay, cement and silica. Stone used for building
material, such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute another category of minerals. Minerals with
special properties that humans value for their aesthetic and ornamental value are gems such as
diamonds, emeralds and rubies. The luster of gold, silver and platinum is used for ornaments.
Minerals in the form of oil, gas and coal were formed when ancient plants and animals were
converted into underground fossil fuels.
Uses of minerals:
Minerals are used in a large number of ways for domestic, industrial, commercial
Sectors etc…
1. Generation of energy by using coal (lignite / anthracite); uranium, gold, silver, platinum,
diamond are used in jewellery. Copper, aluminum etc are used as cables for transmission of power.
2. Some of the minerals are used in ayurvedam as medicine.
Gold is reputed to strengthen the heart muscle and increase energy and stamina.
Mining and its Process:

Minerals and their ores need to be extracted from the earth’s interior so that they can be used. This
process is known as mining. Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological
materials from the earth, from an ore body, lode, vein, (coal) seam or reef, which forms the
mineralized horizon and package of economic interest to the miner.
Mining operations generally progress through four stages:
(1) Prospecting: Searching for minerals.
(2) Exploration: Assessing the size, shape, location,
(3) Development: Work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can be extracted
from it.
(4) Exploitation : Extracting the minerals from the mines.
Types of mining:
The method of mining has to be determined depending on whether the ore or mineral deposit is
nearer the surface or deep within the earth. The topography of the region and the Physical nature
of the ore deposit is studied. Mines are of two types
a) Surface (open cut or strip mines)
b) Deep or shaft mines.
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a) Surface Mining: Surface mining is used to obtain mineral ores that are close to Earth’s Surface.
The soil and rocks over the ore are removed by blasting. Typically, the remaining ore is drilled or
blasted so that large machines can fill trucks with the broken rocks. The trucks take the rocks to
factories where the ore will be separated from the rest of the rock. Surface mining includes open-
pit mining, quarrying, and strip mining.
1) Open-pit mining creates a big pit from which the ore is mined. The size of the pit grows
until it is no longer profitable to mine the remaining ore.
2) Strip mines are similar to pit mines, but the ore is removed in large strips.
3) A quarry is a type of open-pit mine that produces rocks and minerals that are used to
make buildings.
b) Underground Mining: Underground mining is used for ores that are deep in Earth's surface.
For deep ore deposits, it can be too expensive to remove all of the rocks above the ore.Underground
mines can be very deep. The deepest gold mine in South Africa is more than 3,700 meters deep
(that is more than 2 miles)! There are various methods of underground mining. These methods are
more expensive than surface mining because tunnels are made in the rock so that miners and
equipment can get to the ore. Underground mining is dangerous work. Fresh air and lights must
also be brought in to the tunnels for the miners. Miners breathe in lots of particles and dust while
they are underground. The ore is drilled, blasted, or cut away from the surrounding rock and taken
out of the tunnel
Environmental effects:
Mineral extraction and processing in mines involves a negative impact on environment. Much risk
is involved in mining process because of high temperature, pressure Variations, fire hazards and
lack of ventilation in mines.
 Mining process involves removal of over burden of soil, ore extraction & transportation,
crushing & grinding of ore, water treatment of ore, storage of waste material. As a result
of these activities cause air pollution, noise pollution, water pollution, loss of habitat of
wildlife, concentration of toxic substances in tailing ponds and spreading of dust.
 People working in mines often suffer from serious respiratory system and skin diseases.
 Mining often causes ground subsidence which results in tilting of buildings, cracks in
houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks etc.
 Exploration process before a mining involves, geochemical, geophysical surveys
Drilling activities which causes for air pollution, noise pollution etc...
 In addition, disturbance of all vegetation (flora) and fauna (animals) from that a region.
 Acid mine drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD): The outflow of acidic water
from (usually abandoned) metal mines or coal mines. However, other areas where the earth
has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites, subdivisions, transportation corridors, etc.) may
also contribute acid rock drainage to the environment
1.6 FOOD RESOURCES
The main sources of human food are plants and animals. Human beings consume almost all parts
of plants in the form of cereals (wheat, barley, millet, rye, oats, maize, corn, rice etc.); pulses
(peas, red grams, green grams); vegetables (carrot, cauliflower, beans); fruits (banana, orange,
grapes, pineapple) and spices (pepper, cloves). Also a number of products such as milk, butter,
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egg and meat supplement the requirements.
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WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS
Since world’s population is growing every year and the demand of food is also increasing
continuously. Although world’s food production has increased almost three times during the last
50 years, but at the same time rapid population growth outstripped the food production. So, the
world food problem is a complex one depending on food production, population increase, the
prevalence of poverty and environmental impacts.
Famines are due to lack of access to food but not lack of food. Modern agriculture is largely based
upon technological factors like the use of improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, synthetic pesticides
etc…
The green revolution however changed traditional agricultural practices with a rapid increase in
food production in developing countries. An American agricultural scientist, Norman Borlaug
developed a high yielding variety of wheat through new concepts in plant breeding. By the mid
1960’s, the green revolution was fully adopted in India.
CHANGES CAUSED BY AGRICULTURE AND OVER GRAZING
CHANGES CAUSED BY AGRICULTURE
There are two types of agricultural systems:

(1) Traditional system and (2) Modern and Industrialized system
(1) Traditional system:

The traditional system is again subdivided into two types namely:
(a) Traditional Subsistence Agriculture (TSA): In this system, only enough crops or livestock
Are produced for the use of family and a little surplus to sell to meet the needs.
(b) Traditional Intensive Agriculture( TIA ):Farmers increase their inputs of human labor,
Water fertilizers to get higher yields for the use of their families and to sell small quantities
for getting income.
(2) Modern and industrialized system: In the system of modern and industrialized
agriculture, a large extent of land will be brought under agriculture and huge quantities of fuel,
energy,
water, chemical fertilizers, pesticides used to produce large quantities of single crops purely for
sale. This system is spreading in India in the name of Green revolution. But this modern
agricultural system has its own adverse effects on environment.
a. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers to boost up the crop yield, contaminate groundwater
with nitrate. The presence of excess of nitrate in drinking water is dangerous for human Health.
Excess Nitrate reacts with hemoglobin and causes for “Blue Baby Syndrome” which kill the
infants.
b. The excessive N P K fertilizers in agriculture fields are often washed off with water and
leads to algal blooming and Eutrophication. Phosphates have been accumulating in soils, lake
sediments for decades change the ecology. Increased levels of phosphates in water bodies cause
Eutrophication ( growth of unwanted plants ).
c. The excessive use of pesticides enters the food chain and become hazardous to human life.
d. A large area of fertile land has become saline in recent years due to excessive irrigation.
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e. Consumption of fuel energy is more when shifting of human and animal labour to
agriculture machinery. Use of fuel leads to air pollution.
f. Continuing to increase input of fertilizers, water and pesticides eventually produces no
Additional increase in crop yield but slows down the productivity of the crop.
g. Due to increased irrigation, the underground aquifers are slowly and constantly become
dry. The rate at which they are being depleted is much faster than its recharge.
h. Excessive application of chemical fertilizers can increase soil salt content. The percolation
of domestic and industrial sewage also increase the salinity of soil.
i. The stagnation of water in the soil in the upper layers causes for water logging which
Causes for less oxygen availability for respiration of plants.
Modern, intensive agriculture causes many problems, including the following:

• Artificial fertilizers and herbicides are easily washed from the soil and pollute rivers, lakes and
Water courses.
• The prolonged use of artificial fertilizers results in soils with a low organic matter content
Which is easily eroded by wind and rain?
• Dependency on fertilizers. Greater amounts are needed every year to produce the same Yields
of crops.
• Artificial pesticides can stay in the soil for a long time and enter the food chain where they
build up in the bodies of animals and humans, causing health problems.
• Artificial chemicals destroy soil micro-organisms resulting in poor soil structure and aeration
and decreasing nutrient availability.
• Pests and diseases become more difficult to control as they become resistant to artificial
Pesticides. The numbers of natural enemies decrease because of pesticide use and habitat loss.
WATER LOGGING
Water logging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as waterlogged
when the water table of the groundwater is too high to conveniently permit an anticipated activity,
like agriculture. In agriculture, various crops need air (specifically, oxygen) to a greater or lesser
depth in the soil. Water logging of the soil stops air getting in. How near the water table must be
to the surface for the ground to be classed as waterlogged varies with the purpose in view. A crop's
demand for freedom from water logging may vary between seasons of the year, as with the growing
of rice (Oryza sativa).
In irrigated agricultural land, water logging is often accompanied by soil salinity as waterlogged
soils prevent leaching of the salts imported by the irrigation water
SALINITY
Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as
salinization. Salt is a natural element of soils and water. Salinization can be caused by natural
processes such as mineral weathering or the gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can also be
caused by artificial processes such as irrigation
Salinization is a process that results from:
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 High levels of salt in the water.
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 Landscape features that allow salts to become mobile(movement of water table).
 Climatic trends that favors accumulation.
 Human activities such as land clearing, aquaculture activities and the salting of icy roads.
CHANGES CAUSED BY OVER GRAZING
Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or
without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed
agricultural applications, or by overpopulations of native or native wild. Overgrazing reduces the
usefulness, productivity, and biodiversity of the land and is one cause of desertification and
erosion. Overgrazing is also seen as a cause of the spread of invasive species of non-native plants
and of weeds. Overgrazing typically increases soil erosion. Reduction in soil depth, soil organic
matter and soil fertility impair the land's future natural and agricultural productivity. Soil fertility
can sometimes be mitigated by applying the appropriate lime and organic fertilizers. However, the
loss of soil depth and organic matter takes centuries to correct. Their loss is critical in determining
the soil's water-holding capacity and how well pasture plants do during dry weather.
1.7 ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy is defined by physicists as the capacity to do work. Energy is found on ourplanet in a

variety of forms, some of which are immediately useful to do work, while others require a process
of transformation. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but transformed from oneform to
other. Energy is closely related to force. When a force causes an object to move, energyis being
transferred from the force to kinetic energy. Energy is present in a number of forms such as
mechanical, thermal, chemical, biological energy etc.. Energy production and utilization have
become essential to carry out many activities in modern life. Energy is one of the important
requirements that a country needs for its economic growth. At the same time, energy production
has its impact on environment due to pollution and finally affects the quality of life of people.
GROWING ENERGY NEEDS
Energy plays a key role in the process of economic growth of a nation. The industrial development
of any country is dependent on the organized development of its power resources'.
Energy is also indispensable for agriculture, transport, business and domestic requirements. In fact,
electricity has such a wide range of applications in modern economic development that its per
capita consumption is, to a great extent, an index of the material advancement of the country.
Energy is the capacity for doing useful work. It is an essential input for economic growth. This
energy is used in the form of electrical energy, thermal energy, light, mechanical energy and
chemical energy etc.
Energy is measured in joules in Si units. The annual per capita energy consumption in developed
countries ranges from 5 to 11 kW whereas in the developing countries it is between 1 to 1.5 KW
Only
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Uses of Energy
1. Energy is a primary input in any industrial operation.
2. It is also a major input in sectors such as commerce, transport, tele-communications etc.
3. The wide range of services required in the household and industrial sectors.
4. Owing to the far-reaching changes in the forms of energy and their respective roles in
supporting human activities, research and training on various aspects of energy and environment
have assumed great significance.
Types of energy: There are three main types of energy;

A. Non-renewable B. Renewable C.Nuclear energy
A. Non – renewable energy resources
Fossil fuels: Fossil means the remains of an animal or a plant which have become hard and turned
into rock. All these found in earth’s crusts which have been formed in the past by the geological
processes. Fossil fuels are solid coal (lignite), liquid (crude oil / petroleum) and gases (natural gas
).
a) Coal: Huge quantity of plant materials buried under earths crust and altered by geological
process and converted into carbon rich fuel. It is a non – renewable source because it takes a very
long period (million of years) for its formation.
Coal is extracted by the process of mining and involves accidents due to mine collapse, ground
water pollution, accumulation of poisonous material, explosive gases etc cause diseases. CO2
pollution leads to green house effect (global warming).
b) Crude oil: It is obtained in the form of liquid . The crude oil is heated up to 600 oC in the oil
refinery and condense the vapours of hydro – carbons. Petrol another petroleum products are
refined fuels from crude oil. Petroleum products are used in large quantities in the manufactureof
detergents, plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, synthetic rubber etc.. The transport sector
consumes about 40% of diesel; 25% industries and 19%household and rest 16% agriculture and
other sectors. .
c) Natural Gas: Gas deposits are trapped from the sedimentary formations by means drilling holes
into the rock formations. While burning of natural gas, the emission of CO2 is less andthus
reduces green house effect and global warming. A total of 734 billion cubic mts of gas is estimated
as proven reserves.
B. Renewable energy resources: Renewable energy systems use resources that are constantly
replaced and are usually less polluting.
Examples include hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal (energy from the heat inside the earth).
1. Solar energy: The energy which is derived from the sun is known as solar energy. It can be
used for direct heating or sun’s heat is converted into electricity. Photo voltaic cells convert direct
solar energy into electricity.
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A number of solar equipments have been developed to utilize sun rays to heat water, to cook food,
to pump water and to run certain machines and used for street lighting, railway signals etc. But the
major problem with solar energy is that during cloudy weather it is available in less quantity than
on sunny days.
How Solar Power Works

The sun's energy can be captured to generate electricity or heat through a system of panels or
mirrors.
 Solar, or photovoltaic, cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Most photovoltaic cells
are made primarily of silicon, the material used in computer semiconductor chips, andarranged
on rectangular panels. When sunlight hits a cell, the energy knocks electrons free oftheir atoms,
allowing them to flow through the material. The resulting DC (direct current) electricity is then
sent to a power inverter for conversion to AC (alternating current).
 Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of attached circulation tubes
to heat water or buildings.
 Solar concentration systems use mirrors -- usually arranged in a series of long, parabolic
troughs, a large round dish, or a circle surrounding a "power tower" -- to focus the sun's
reflected rays on a heat-collecting element. The concentrated sunlight heats water or a heat-
transferring fluid such as molten salt to generate steam, which is then used conventionally to
spin turbines and generate electricity.
 Passive solar design is the creative use of windows, skylights and sunrooms, building site and
orientation, and thermal construction materials to heat and light buildings, or to heat water, the
natural way.
2. Hydro-Power energy: Electrical power is generated by hydro-electric projects in which dams

are constructed across the river. The kinetic energy of water is converted into mechanical energy
by means of turbines and in turn, the mechanical energy is transferred into electrical energy by
generators. Hydro power projects lead to several environmental problems like destruction of
animal habitats, deforestation, migration of people etc..
3. Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy found within rock formations. Inside the earth the
temperature rises with depth .The temperature in earth’s crust is around 4000o C. Geysers ( a
natural spring that emits hot water ) and hot springs are examples for geothermal energy where the
steam and hot water come to the surface, in areas where the steam is tapped by drilling. The
obtained steam is then used to generate power. Air pollution results in case of geothermal energy
where the gases like H2S, NH3, CO2 present in the steam coming out of the geothermal sources.
The overall efficiency for power production is low (15%) as compared to fossil fuels (40%).
4. Wind energy: Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric
air. Wind mills convert the wind energy into electrical energy. On an average wind mills can
convert 30 – 40 % of available wind energy into electrical energy at a steady wind speed of 8.5mts
/ sec. The efficiency of wind mill is increased with the speed of wind and length of rotor blade.
The total wind energy potential in India’s estimate is 25,000 MW of this about6000 MW is located
in Tamil Nadu; 5000 MW in Gujarat and contribute thestates of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan forbalance quantity.
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Merits & demerits of wind energy:
1. It is a non – polluting and environment friendly source of energy.

2. It is a renewable energy available at free of cost
3. Power generation is cheaper with nil recurring expenses.
4. Wind mills are suitable to erect at on shore, remote and rural areaswhere wind blows with
required intensity.
5. Favorable in geographic locations which are away from cities.
6. Wind turbine design, manufacturing, installation is complex due tovarying atmospheric
conditions.
7. Wind power doesn’t suitable for large scale generation.
5. Ocean energy: Seas and oceans are large water bodies . Seas absorb solar radiation and large
amounts of solar energy are stored in the tides and waves of the ocean. Ocean energy is non –
polluting in nature and suitable at a few places only. Energy from seas or oceans is obtained from
the following:
(1) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: The oceans collect and store huge quantities of solar on
the surface of the water while the temperature of deepwater is very low. Using this temperature
difference it is possible to convert heat into electricity.
(2) Tidal energy: Tidal waves of the sea can be used to turn turbine and generate electricity.
Asia’s first tidal power plant of 800 - 1000 MW capacity is proposed to be set up at Kandla in Gulf
of Kutch.
6. Bio mass energy: Bio-mass is an organic material from living beings or its residues. It is a
renewable source of energy derived from the waste of various human and natural activities. The
bio-mass energy sources include Wood, animal manure, sugarcane waste, agriculture crops, house
hold waste, roots of plants, garbage etc. The simplest way of using bio-mass energy sources is to
allow them to dry out in the sun and burn them.
7. Bio-gas: Bio-gas is a sustainable source of energy by virtue of its production from available
natural organic wastes of cattle dung, human excreta, poultry waste, plant leaves, paddy husk
etc…. Bio-gas is amixture of methane (68%), CO2 (31%) and N2 (1%). Methane gas (CH4) is
produced by bio-gas plants and this gas is utilized as cooking gas whose calorific value varies from
4400 – 6200 Kilo Calories / cum. Heat value of biogas can be improved by reducing its
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CO2 content.Bio-gas production is carried out in an enclosed bio-gas plant made of bricks or steel.
Aslurry of waste organic matter is fed into the plant through an inlet and gas formed is tapped by
an inverted drum. As gas is produced the drum rises and the gas may be drawn through an
outlet.Bio-gas is commonly produced from cattle dung in a bio gas plant known as Gobar Gas
plant. Bio-gas is a clean, cheap fuel that can be used for lighting purpose, lifting water through
small pumps.
C. Nuclear Energy or Atomic power: It is the energy which is trapped inside the atom. It is non–
renewable source of energy which is released during fission or fusion of certain radioactive
elements. The most important advantage of atomic power is the production of an enormous amount
of energy from a small quantity of radioactive element. For eg: 1 kg of Uranium
liberates energy equivalent to 30000 kgs of coal.
Energy released during nuclear reaction (mass – energy equation as per Albert Einstein’s formula
E = mc2).
Nuclear Energy is produced by two processes namely (1) Nuclear Fission and (2) Nuclear Fusion.
Nuclear Fission: The nucleus in atoms is split by fast moving neutrons and in turn a tremendous
amount of energy in the form of heat, light etc is released by a chain of reactions. Uranium is used
as fuel. The energy released slowly in this process is utilized to generate electricity or else released
suddenly all at once, results a tremendous explosion as in the case of Atom bomb.
Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear energy can be generated by fusion process which involves two hydrogen
atoms combine to produce one helium atom.
Eg: hydrogen bomb. The disposal of nuclear wastes during mining, fuel production and reactor
operation for a long time period resulting in adverse effects on environment. Disposable of nuclear
waste is a national and global problem.
USE OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternativesare
intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels.
The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time,
as have controversies regarding energy use. Today, because of the variety of energy choices and
differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as "alternative" is highly
controversial.
In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently conceived, is that which is produced or

recovered without the undesirable consequences inherent in fossil fuel use, particularly high
carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming. Sometimes, this less
comprehensive meaning of "alternative energy" excludes nuclear energy
 Solar energy is the generation of electricity from the sun. It is split up into two types,
thermal and electric energy. These two subgroups mean that they heat up homes and
generate electricity respectively.
 Wind energy is the generation of electricity from the wind.
 Geothermal energy is using hot water or steam from the Earth’s interior for heating
buildings or electricity generation.
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 Biofuel and Ethanol are plant-derived substitutes of gasoline for powering vehicles.
 Nuclear binding energy uses nuclear fission to create energy.
 Hydrogen is used as clean fuel for spaceships, and some cars
CASE STUDIES
• In 1981, a plane called ‘The Solar Challenger ‘flew from Paris to England in 5hours, 20minutes.
It had 16,000 solar cells glued to the wings and tail of the plane and they produced enough power
to drive a small electric motor and propeller. Since 1987, every three years there is a World Solar
challenge for solar operated vehicles in Australia where the vehicles cover 3000 kms.
• The world’s first solar-powered hospitals in Mali in Africa. Being situated at the edge of the
Sahara desert, Mali receives a large amount of sunlight. Panel’s of solar cells supply the power
needed to run vital equipment and keep medical supplies cool in refrigerators.
• In recent years, the popularity of building integrated photovoltaic’s (BIPV’s) has grown
considerably. In this application, PV devices are designed as part of building materials (i.e. roofs
and siding) both to produce electricity and reduce costs by replacing the costs of normal
construction materials. There are more than 3, 000 BIPV systems in Germany and Japan has a
program that will build 70,000BIPV buildings.
1.8 LAND RESOURCES
Land as a resource: Landforms such as hills, valleys, plains, river basins and wetlands include
different resource generating areas that the people living in them depend on. Many traditional
farming societies had ways of preserving areas from which they used resources. If land is utilized
carefully it can be considered a renewable resource. The roots of trees and grasses bind the soil. If
forests are depleted, or grasslands overgrazed, the land becomes unproductive and wasteland is
formed. Intensive irrigation leads to water logging and salinization, on which crops cannot grow.
Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic industrial and nuclear
wastes are dumped on it. Land on earth is as finite as any of our other natural resources. While
mankind has learnt to adapt his lifestyle to various ecosystems world over, he cannot live
comfortably for instance on polar ice caps, on under the sea, or in space in the foreseeable future.
LAND DEGRADATION AND CONTROL OF LAND DEGRADATION
Land degradation can be defined as any change in the land that alter its conditions or reduces its
quality. Land degradation occurs due to both natural disasters like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
heavy rains, fire etc or human induced activities. The other causes of land degradation consist of
wind blow, salinity of water, water logging, soil acidity, loss of flora and fauna.
Desertification is land degradation occurring in the arid, semi-arid regions of the world. These
dry lands cover about 40% of the earth’s surface and puts at risk more than 1 billion people who
are dependent on these lands for survival.
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Land clearing and deforestation; Mining activity in forest areas; urban conversion; bringing more
land under cultivation; soil pollution ; loss of organic matter in the soils; alkalinization of soils;
salinity of water etc leads to land degradation. Severe land degradation affects in decreasing the
mineral wealth and economic development of nations.
The methods that are followed for the prevention of land degradation are called soil conservation
methods. Some of the popular methods are;
(a) Contour farming: The land is prepared with alternate furrows (a long narrow cut in the
Ground) and ridges at the same level. The water is caught and held in furrows and stores which
reduces run off and erosion.
(b) Mulching: Stems of maize, cotton, tobacco etc are used as a mulch (decay of leaves) to
reduce soil moisture, evaporation.
(c) Crop rotation: Growing same crop year after year depletes the nutrients and land becomes
Unproductive. This is overcome by changing the crops and cultivating legumes (plants like peas,
beans) after a regular crop.
(d) Strip cropping: It consists of planting crops in rows or strips along contours to check flow of
water.
LANDSLIDES AND MAN INDUCED LAND SLIDES
Landslides always exist on this planet and the term land slide is used to describe a wide variety
of process that result a downward movement of rocks under gravitational forces. In other words,
mass movement of rocks, debris and soil down a slope of land.
Landslides are primarily associated with steep slopes. Surface run-off and changes in drainage also
cause for landslides. Landslides can also be initiated by rainfall; earthquakes; volcanic activity,
changes in groundwater movement or any combination these factors.
Debris-flows can travel down a hillside of speeds up to 200 miles per hour (more commonly, 30
– 50 miles per hour) depending on the slope angle, water content, and type of earth and debris in
the flow.
While landslides are a naturally occurring environmental hazard they have recently increased in
frequency in certain areas due to human activities.
Building excavations collapses in mining (e.g.: coal mine) causes landslides. However,
landslides can be triggered by the human beings by induced changes in the environment.
Simply landslides can be explained in three ways:
(a) Inherent of rocks (weakness in the structure of a rock )
(b) Due to heavy seismic or volcanic activity and
(c) Due to various environmental conditions.
SOIL EROSION AND CAUSES FOR SOIL EROSION

The top layer of the earth is called as soil. Soil erosion occurs due to deforestation, overgrazing,
industrialization; desertification etc.
a. Deforestation: Mining, industrial, urban development etc causes deforestation and leads to
exposure of the land to wind and rains causing soil erosion. Cutting trees leads to deforestation
which in turn loss of organic matter in the soils.
b. Overgrazing: When sufficient amount of grass is available for the organisms usually the entire
land /area may be subjected to exhaust and the land is exposed without grass and ultimately the
land expose to wind/rain causing soil erosion. .
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c. Industrialization: Different processes carried out by industries and mining operations cause
soil pollution which leads to degradation of land
DESERTIFICATION:
Desertification is the process which turns productive into non- productive desert as a result of poor
land-management. Desertification occurs mainly in semi-arid areas (average annual rainfall less
than 600 mm) bordering on deserts. In the Sahel, (the semi-arid area south of the Sahara Desert),
for example, the desert moved 100 km southwards between 1950 and 1975.
CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION
* Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Plants of semi-arid areas are
adapted to being eaten by sparsely scattered, large, grazing mammals which move in response to
the patchy rainfall common to these regions. Early human pastoralists living in semi-arid areas
copied this natural system. They moved their small groups of domestic animals in response to food
and water availability. Such regular stock movement prevented overgrazing of the fragile plant
cover.
* Cultivation of marginal lands, i.e lands on which there is a high risk of crop failure and a very
low economic return, for example, some parts of South Africa where maize is grown.
* Destruction of vegetation in arid regions, often for fuelwood.
* Poor grazing management after accidental burning of semi-arid vegetation.
* Incorrect irrigation practices in arid areas can cause salinization, (the buildup of salts in the soil)
which can prevent plant growth.
When the practices described above coincide with drought, the rate of desertification increases
dramatically.
Increasing human population and poverty contribute to desertification as poor people may be
forced to overuse their environment in the short term, without the ability to plan for the long term
effects of their actions. Where livestock has a social importance beyond food, people might be
reluctant to reduce their stock numbers.
EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION
Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life, affecting wild species, domestic animals,
agricultural crops and people. The reduction in plant cover that accompanies desertification leads
to accelerated soil erosion by wind and water. South Africa losing approximately 300-400 million
tonnes of topsoil every year. As vegetation cover and soil layer are reduced, rain drop impact and
run-off increases.
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Water is lost off the land instead of soaking into the soil to provide moisture for plants. Even long-
lived plants that would normally survive droughts die. A reduction in plant cover also results in a
reduction in the quantity of humus and plant nutrients in the soil, and plant production drops
further. As protective plant cover disappears, floods become more frequent and more severe.
Desertification is self-reinforcing, i.e. once the process has started, and conditions are set for
continual deterioration.
1.8.1 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUALCONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources play a vital
role in the development of a nation. With our small individual efforts we can together helpin
conserving our natural resources to a large extent. Following are the ways:
a) Conserve Water:
1. Don’t keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing.
2. In washing machines fill the machine only to the level required for your clothes.
3. Install water saving toilets that use not more than 6 liters per flush.
4. Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.
5. Reuse the soapy water of washing from clothes for gardening, driveways etc.
6. Water the plants and the lawns in the evening when evaporation losses are minimum.
Never water the plants in mid-day.
7. Install a system to capture rain water.
b) Conserve energy:
1. Turn off lights fans and other appliances when not in use.
2. Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Dry the clothes in sun instead
of direr if possible.
3. Use solar cooker for cooking which will be more nutritious and will save your LPG
Expenses.
4. Build your house with provision for sunspace which will keep your house warmer and
will provide more light.
5. Drive less, make fewer trips and use public transportations whenever possible.Share
a car-pool if possible.
6. Control the use of A.C.
7. Recycle and reuse glass, metals and papers.
8. Use bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using vehicle.
Protect the Soil:
1. Grow different types of ornamental plants, herbs and trees in your garden. Grow grass
in the open areas which will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.
2. Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden.
3. Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water as it would wash off the soil.
4. Better use sprinkling irrigation.
Promote Sustainable Agriculture:
1. Do not waste food; Take as much as you can eat.
2. Reduce the use of pesticides.
3. Fertilize your crop with organic fertilizers.
4. Use drip irrigation.
5. Eat local and seasonal vegetables.
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6. Control pest
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UNIT-II
ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY

2.1 ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a community of organisms that interact with each other and non living
components for sustainable development and adaptation to changing conditions. There are
different type of ecosystems around us which involves living organisms and non living organisms.
If we combine all the ecosystems present on earth, it is called Biosphere. The term ecosystem was
first proposed by A.G.Tansley (1935) who defined ecosystem as follows: “Ecosystem is defined
as a self-sustained community of plants and animals existing in its own environment.”Odum
(1971) defined ecosystem as any unit that includes all the organisms in a given area interacting
with the physical environment, so that a flow of energy give rise to a clearly defined tropic
structure, biotic diversity and material cycles within the system ”Michael Allaby (1983) defined
ecosystem as a community of interdependent organisms together with the environment
CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM:
In an ecosystem, the interaction of life with its environment takes place at many levels. A single
bacteria in the soil interacts with water, air around it within a small space while a fish in a river
interacts with water and other animals, rivals in a large space. .
Considering the operational point of view; the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are
so interlinked such that their separation from each other is practically difficult. So, in an ecosystem
both organisms (biotic communities) and abiotic environment (rainfall, temperature, humidity)
each influence the properties with other for maintenance of life.
STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
A structure of Ecosystem comprise of

• The Composition of biological community including, species number, biomass, life history, and
distribution in space.
• The quantity and distribution of non-living material, such as nutrient water, etc.
• The rage of condition of existence such as temperature, light.
FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM:
• The rate of biological energy flow i.e. production & respiration rates of the community.
• The rate of material or nutrient cycles
• Biological or ecological regulation including both regulation of organism by environment and
regulation of environment by the organisms.
2.1.1 COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
There are two components of an ecosystem; Living components and non living components.

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Non Living Components: (Abiotic) Non living components are the physical and chemical factors
that directly or indirectly affect the living components e.g. air, water, land, rock etc. Non living
components are also called Abiotic components.
Physical factors include sunlight, water, fire, soil, air, temperature etc.
Chemical factors include moisture, salinity of water, soil nutrients, oxygen dissolved in water etc.
Living Components: Living components in an ecosystem are either producers or consumers. They
are also called biotic components. Producers can produce organic components e.g. plants can
produce starch, carbohydrates, cellulose from a process called photosynthesis. Consumersare the
components that are dependent on producers for their food e.g. human beings and animals•
Biotic Components are further classified into 3 main groups
• Producers •Consumers •Decomposers or Reducers
1. Producer (Autotrophs): The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they
trap solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple
inorganic compound namely, water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as
photosynthesis. The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized partly by the
producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plants for
their future use. They are classified into two categories based on their source of food.
a)Photoautotrophs: An organism capable of synthesizing its own food from inorganic
substances using light as an energy source. Green plants and photosynthetic bacteria are
photoautotrophs.
b)Chemotrophs: Organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their
environments. These molecules can be organic (chemoorganotrophs) or inorganic
(chemolithotrophs).
2. Consumers (Heterotrophs): The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesis
their own food therefore they depend on the producers for their food. •They are known as
heterotrophs (i.e. heteros= others, trophs= feeder).The Consumers are of 4 types:
(a) Primary Consumer: ( Herbivores) i.e. Animal feeding on plants, e.g. Rabbit, deer,
goat etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers: The animal feeding on Herbivores are called as secondary
Consumer or primary carnivores. e.g. Cats, foxes, snakes.
(c) Tertiary Consumers: These are large carnivores which feed on secondary
consumers. e.g. Wolves
(d) Quaternary Consumers: They are also called omnivores these are largest carnivores
Which feed on tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by
any other animals. e.g. lion and Tiger.
3. Decomposers or Detrivores:Bacteria & fungi belong to this category. They break down
the dead organic matter of producers & consumers for their food and release to the
environment the simple inorganic and organic substance. These simple substances are
reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of material between biotic & abiotic
environment.
Eg: Bacteria, Earth worms, Beetles etc

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2.1.2 ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
• Biological activities require energy which ultimately comes from the sun. Solar energy is
transformed into chemical energy by a process of photosynthesis this energy is stored in plant
tissue and then transformed into heat energy during metabolic activities.
• Thus in biological world the energy flows from the sun to plants and then to all heterotrophic
organisms. The flow of energy is unidirectional and non-cyclic.
This one way flow of energy is governed by laws of thermodynamics which states that:
(a) Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but may be transformed from one form
to another
(b) During the energy transfer there is degradation of energy from a concentrated form
(mechanical, chemical, or electrical etc.) to a dispersed form (heat).
No energy transformation is 100 % efficient; it is always accompanied by some dispersion
or loss of energy in the form heat. Therefore, biological systems including ecosystems must be
supplied with energy on a continuous Basis.
MODELS OF ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM
1. Single Channel Energy Flow Model: The flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional
manner through a single channel of producers to herbivores and carnivores. The energy captured
by autotrophs does not revert back to solar input but passes to herbivores; and that which passes
to herbivores does not go back to autotrophs but passes to consumers. Due to one way flow of
energy, the entire system would collapse if primary source of energy were cut off. At each tropic
level there occurs progressive decrease in energy which is mainly due to loss of energy as heat in
metabolic reactions and also some of the energy is utilized at each tropic level

3
2. Y- shaped model: shows a common boundary, light and heat flow as well as import, export
and storage of organic matter . Decomposers are placed in separate box to partially separate the
grazing and detritus food chains. In terms of energy levels decomposers are in fact a mixed group.
•Y- shaped energy flow is more realistic and practical than the single channel energy flowmodel
because: •It conforms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystems •It separates the two chains i.e.
grazing & detritus food chain in both time and space. •Micro consumers (bacteria & fungi) and the
macro consumers (animals) differ greatly in size- metabolism relations in two models.
3. Universal energy flow model :As the flow of energy takes place, there is gradual loss of energy
at each level there by resulting in less energy available at the next tropic level as indicated by
narrower pipes (energy flow) and smaller boxes (stored energy in biomass). The loss of energy is
mainly the energy which is not utilized (U). This is the energy loss in locomotion, excretion etc.
or it the energy lost in respiration (CR) which is for maintenance. The remaining energy is used
for production (P).

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2.1.3 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological Succession is the phenomenon or process by which a community progressively

transforms itself until a stable community is formed. It is a fundamental concept in ecology, refers
to more or less predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological
community. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat (e.g., a
lava flow or a severe landslide) or by some form of disturbance (e.g. fire, severe wind throw ,
logging) of an existing community. Succession that begins in areas where no soil is initially present
is called primary succession, whereas succession that begins in areas where soil is already present
is called secondary succession.
Clement's theory of succession/Mechanisms of succession
F.E. Clement (1916) developed a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a general
ecological concept. His theory of succession had a powerful influence on ecological thought.
Clement's concept is usually termed classical ecological theory. According to Clement,
succession is a process involving several phases:
1. Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site, called Nudation
(disturbance).
2. Migration: It refers to arrival of propagules.
3. Ecesis: It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.
4. Competition: As vegetation became well established, grew, and spread, various species
began to compete for space, light and nutrients. This phase is called competition.
5. Reaction: During this phase autogenic changes affect the habitat resulting in
replacement of one plant community by another.
6. Stabilization: Reaction phase leads to development of a climax community.
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Seral communities:
A seral community is an intermediate stage found in an ecosystem advancing towards

its climax community. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax
conditions are attained. A prisere is a collection of seres making up the development of
an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. Depending on the
substratum and climate, a seral community can be one of the following:
Hydrosere : Community in freshwater

Lithosere : Community on rock
Psammosere : Community on sand
Xerosere : Community in dry area
Halosere : Community in saline body (e.g. a marsh)
Climax community
The final or stable community in a sere is the climax community or climatic vegetation. It is self-
perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat. There is no net annual accumulation of
organic matter in a climax community mostly. The annual production and use of energy is balanced
in such a community.
2.1.4 FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB & ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
FOOD CHAIN:
In food chain each organism eats the smaller organisms and is eaten by the larger one. All those
organisms which are interlinked with each other through food to gather constitute the ecosystem.
• The different levels in a food chain are called tropic levels, Each food chain has three main
tropic levels:- Producer level, Consumer level, and decomposer level. If any of the intermediate
stage of the food chain is removed, the succeeding links of the food chain will be affected.
Types of Food Chains:
a) Grazing Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from living green plants goes to
grazing herbivores and onto carnivores. Ecosystem with such type of food chain directly
depends upon the solar energy for their food requirements. Most of the ecosystem in
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nature follows this type of food chain.
b) Detritus food Chain: This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter onto
microorganisms and then to the organisms feeding on detritus and their predators. Such
ecosystems are less dependent on direct solar energy.
c) Parasitic Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from big hosts and ends with parasitic
organisms
FOOD WEB:
The interconnected, interlocking pattern of food chain is known as food web. •Under natural
condition of the linear arrangement of food chain hardly occurs and they remain interconnected
with each other through different types of organisms at different levels Such a interconnected
and interlocking pattern of food chain is known as food web..
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The different species in a food chain are called tropic levels. Each food chain has 3 main trophic
level, producer, consumer, and decomposers. •Thus Graphical representation of these trophic
levels is called as Ecological Pyramids. It was devised by an ecologist “Charles Elton” therefore
this pyramid are also called Ecological pyramid or Eltonian pyramids.
Types of Ecological Pyramids:
Ecological pyramids are of three types: I
I) Pyramid of Number II)Pyramid of biomass

III)Pyramid of Energy

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I) Pyramid of Number:
• They show the relationship between producers, herbivores, and carnivores at successive tropic
levels in terms of their number.
• In case of pond ecosystem the producers are mainly phytoplankton and are always maximum
in number this number then shows a decrease towards apex as primary consumers are zooplanktons
are lesser in number than phytoplankton, the secondary consumers are large fish are even lesser
in number than the phytoplankton. Thus the shape of pyramid is upright. But in case of forest
ecosystem the pyramids is always inverted because the producers are mainly large trees, are lesser
in numbers, the herbivores fruit eating birds are more in number than the producers, then there is
gradual decrease in number of secondary consumers thus making pyramid upright again. Thus the
pyramid of number does not give a true picture of the food chain and are not very functional.
II) Pyramid of Biomass:
• The pyramid of biomass represents the relationship between different tropic levels in terms of
biomass. •There is generally gradual decrease in biomass of organisms at successive levels from
the producers to the top carnivores. Thus pyramid of biomass is upright for grassland ecosystem.
• However in case of a pond as the producers are algae, are least in number and this value gradually
shows an increase towards the apex of pyramid thus making the pyramid inverted in shape.

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III) Pyramid of energy:
• Of the 3 types of ecological pyramid the energy pyramid gives the best picture of overall nature
of the ecosystem. In this type of pyramid the tropic level is decided depending upon the rate at
which food is being produced.
• In shape it is always upright as in most of the cases there is always gradual decrease in the energy
content at successive trophic level from producers to various consumers.
2.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS
Due to the abiotic factors, different ecosystems develop in different ways. These factors and their
interaction between each other and with biotic components have resulted in formation of different
types of ecosystems as explained below.
Ecosystem may be natural or artificial.
Artificial Ecosystem: These are maintained or created artificially by man. The man tries to control
biotic community as well as physico-chemical environment.
Eg: Artificial pond, urban area development.
Natural Ecosystem: It consists of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems which are maintained
naturally.

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Different types of ecosystem of biosphere artificially categorized as follows:
I) Natural Ecosystems: These ecosystems operate by themselves under natural conditions

without any major interference by man. Based upon the particular kind of habitat, these are further
divided as: •Terrestrial as forest, grassland, desert etc.
• Aquatic which may be further distinguished as
• Freshwater which may be lotic (running water as springs, stream, river) or lentic (standing water
as
lake, pond, pools, ditch, swamps, etc.)
• Marine Ecosystems: as an ocean or shallow ones like sea or estuary etc.
II) Artificial Ecosystems: These are maintained by man where, by addition of energy & planned
manipulations natural balance is disturbed regularly.
For eg : croplands like maize, wheat, rice-fields etc., where man tries to control the biotic
community as well as physico-chemical environment are artificial ecosystems
Pond Ecosystem: A Pond as a whole serves a good example of freshwater ecosystem

• Abiotic Components: The chief components are heat, light, pH of water, CO2, oxygen,
calcium, nitrogen, phosphates, etc.
• Biotic Components: The various organization that constitute the biotic component are as
follows,
• Producers: These are green plants, and some photosynthetic bacteria. The producer fix radiant
energy and convert it into organic substances as carbohydrates, protein etc
• Macrophytes: these are large rooted plants, which include partly or completely
submerged hydrophytes, eg Hydrilla, Trapha, Typha.
• Phytoplankton: These are minute floating or submerged lower plants eg algae.
• Consumers: They are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on the organic food
manufactured by producers. •Primary Consumers: – Benthos: These are animals

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associated with living plants ,detrivores and some other microorganisms –Zooplanktons:
These are chiefly rotifers, protozoans, they feed on phytoplankton •Secondary
Consumers: They are the Carnivores which feed on herbivores, these are chiefly insect
and fish, most insects & water beetles, they feed on zooplanktons. •TertiaryConsumers:
These are some large fish as game fish, turtles, which feed on small fish and thus become
tertiary consumers. •Decomposers: They are also known as micro- consumers. They
decompose dead organic matter of both producers and animal to simple form. Thus they
play an important role in the return of minerals again to the pond ecosystem, they are
chiefly bacteria, & fungi.
Ocean Ecosystem
are more stable than pond ecosystem, they occupy 70 % of the earth surface.
• Abiotic Components: Dissolved oxygen, light, temperature, minerals. •Biotic Components:
• Producers: These are autotrophs and are also known Primary producers. They are mainly, some
microscopic algae (phyto-planlanktons) besides them there are mainly, seaweeds, as brown and
red algae also contribute to primary production. •Consumers: They are all heterotrophic macro
consumers •Primary Consumer: The herbivores, that feed on producers are shrimps, Molluscs,
fish, etc. •Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores fish as Herring, Shad, Mackerel, feeding
on herbivores. •Tertiary Consumers: These includes, other carnivores fishes like, COD, Halibut,
Sea Turtle, Sharks etc.
• Decomposers: The microbes active in the decay of dead organic matter of producers, and animals
are chiefly, bacteria and some fungi.
Estuarine Ecosystem

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• An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the coast where fresh water from river
and streams meet and mix with salt water from oceans. These Ecosystems are considered as most
fertile ecosystem. •Abiotic Components: Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, temperature,
light, salinity, pH. •This ecosystem experience wide daily and seasonal fluctuations in temperature
and Salinity level because of variation in freshwater in flow. •Biotic Components: •Producers:
Phyplanktons- these micro-organisms manufacture food byphotosynthesis and absorb nutrients
such as phosphorous and nitrogen, besides them, mangroves,sea grass, weeds, and salt marshes.
•Consumers: Primary consumers, Zooplanktons that feed on Phytoplankton, besides them some
small microorganisms that feed on producers. •Secondary Consumer: Include worms, shellfish,
small fish, feeding on Zooplanktons •Tertiary Consumer: Fishes, turtles, crabs, starfishes
feeding on secondary consumers. •Decomposers: Fungi & Bacteria are the chief microbes active
in decay of dead organic matter.
River Ecosystem
• As Compared with lentic freshwater (Ponds & lakes), lotic waters such as streams, and river have
been less studied. However, the various components of an riverine and stream ecosystem can be
arranged as follows. •Producers: The chief producers that remain permanently attachedto a firm
substratum are green algae as Cladophora, and aquatic mosses. •Consumers: The consumers show
certain features as permanent attachment to firm substrata, presence of hooks & suckers, sticky
undersurface, streamline bodies, flattened bodies.. Thus a variety of animal are found, which are
fresh spongy and caddis-fly larvae, snails, flat worms etc. •Decomposers: Various bacteria and
fungi like actinomycetes are present which acts as decompose
2.2 BIODIVERSITY
The word biodiversity is a combination of two words: “biological and diversity” and refers to the
variety of life on the Earth. Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given
species, ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of
ecosystems.
The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond
F. Dasmann in the 1968.
The term's contracted form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985
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Biodiversity is usually considered at three different levels:
The following are different types of biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity: variety in the genetic makeup among individuals within a species
2. Species diversity: variety among the species or distinct types of living organisms found in
different habitats of the planet
3. Ecosystem or ecological diversity: variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes,
oceans, coral reefs, wetlands and other biological communities
4. Functional diversity: biological and chemical processes of functions such as energy flow an
matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological communities
1. Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity is the “raw material” that permits species to adjust to a
changing world whether these changes are due to natural factors or are caused by human factors.
It refers to the variation at the level of individual genes and provides a mechanism for populations
to adapt to their ever-changing environment.
Eg: Human beings
2. Species Diversity: Species diversity refers to the different types of living organisms on Earth.
This includes the many types of birds, insects, plants, bacteria, fungi, mammals, and more. Many
differing species often live together in communities depending on each other to provide their
needs.
A species can be defined as a group or population of similar organisms that reproduce by
interbreeding within the group. Members of a species do not normally reproduce with members
of any other species. Members of a specific species possess common characteristics that
distinguish them from other species and this remains constant regardless of geographic location.
3. Ecosystem Diversity: Ecological diversity or ecosystem diversity is the variety of biological

communities, such as forests, deserts, grasslands and streams that interact with one another and
with their physical and chemical (nonliving) environments. It relates to the different forms of life
which are present in any one particular area or site, in more precise terms, it concerns the different
species of a particular genus which are present in an ecological community.
2.2.1 VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
The value of biodiversity (in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social and
aesthetic values) is enormous. There are several ways that biodiversity and its various forms are
Valuable to humans. The biodiversity value may be classified as follows:
1. CONSUMPTIVE VALUE: Biodiversity is an essential requirement for the maintenance of

global food supply. The main sources of human food include animals, fish and plant produces.
A large number of plants are consumed by human beings as food. A few animal species are
consumed by people which come from cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, buffaloes, chickens, ducks, geese
and turkey species.
Fish: Many fresh water fish can be grown in ponds. Israel and China already get about half of their
fish from aqua culture.
Drugs & medicines: About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant extracts
for medicines. The drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus called
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Penicillium. Likewise, Tetracycline from bacteria which is used to cure malaria is obtained from
the bark of cinchona tree. .
Fuel: The fossil fuels like coal, petroleum products and natural gas are the products of biodiversity.
2. PRODUCTIVE VALUE: Some of the organisms are commercially usable where the product
is marketed and sold. The animal products like tusks of elephants; musk from deer; silk from
silkworm; wool from sheep or goats; fur of many animals etc all of which are traded in the market.
Eg: Calabar bean was tradionally used as a poison in West Africa.
Daisy plants were first used as a lice remedy in the Middle East and this led to the
Discovery of Pyrethrum. Mosquito coils made from Pyrethrum are sold in the market.
The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces toxic proteins that kill certain insects.
3. SOCIAL VALUE: These are the values associated with the social life, religion and spiritual
aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered to be sacred in our country like Tulasi,
Mango leaves, Banana leaves . The leaves, fruits, flowers of some of the plants are used in worship.
Many animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock also have significant place in spiritual and thus hold
special importance. Thus, biodiversity has distinct social value, attached with different societies.
4. ETHICAL VALUE: The ethical value means that human beings may or may not use a certain
species but knowing the very fact that this species exists in nature gives pleasure.
For eg: A peculiar species of Pigeon, grey / white bird with short legs is no more on this earth.
Similarly, Dodo species is also no more. Human beings are not deriving anything direct from
Kangaroo, giraffe but strongly feel that these species should exist in nature.
5. AESTHETIC VALUE: Every one of us would like to visit vast stretches of lands to enjoy the
visible life. People from farther areas, spend a lot of time and money to visit wild life areas where
they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is known as eco tourism.
Eco-tourism is estimated to generate 12 billion dollars of revenue annually that roughly gives the
aesthetic value of biodiversity.
A study of the impact of environment on the psyche was undertaken by Kaplan and Kaplan (1989)
in which they found that being near nature relieved working stresses while people who worked in
closed environment or human made structures experienced much more job stresses and illnesses.
2.2.2 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVEL
The enormous diversity of life forms in the biosphere has evolved essentially through the process
of trial and error during course of organic evolution. The changes in character of living organism
which confer some advantage to the species are retained.
The changes in climatic conditions are reflected in the distribution of living organism and the
pattern of biodiversity on our planet. The number of species present per unit area decreases as we
move from mild tropics to the tundra's.
The Indian region (8° to 30° N and 60° to 97.5°) with total area of 329 million hectares is very rich
in biodiversity. It is estimated that about 4500 species of plants occur in this country. The position
of Indian sub-continent at the confluence of there biogeography reels is also an important
contributing factor and explain the preserve of African, European, Sind, Japanese and Indo-
Malayan elements in the flora and fauna in India. It is the sum total of such remarkable
diversity that has made India a "gene bank" for a number of food crops, forest trees, medical and
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aromatic plants and domesticated animal.
Forests are important bioreserves; most of the 1700 million hectares of tropical forests arelocated
in poor countries. The forests surrounding Reo de Aneroid are part of vegetation which isrich in
species of plants and animals that are endemic. There are about 53.5% of trees species found only
in these forests and studies of birds, reptiles, primates and butter flies have revealed equally high
or higher endemics.
2.2.3 INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION
India contains a great wealth of biodiversity in the forests, wet lands and marine areas. Hence
biodiversity can be observed at all levels ie locally, nationally and globally . India, as a
subcontinent representing a major part of South Asia is rich in flora and fauna and hence it is one
of the world’s “MEGADIVERSITY NATIONS” .
It is estimated that over 75000 species of animals and over 45000 species of plants are found in
India.
Biogeographic regions of India: According to wild life Institute of India, the country has 10
distinct biogeographic zones or regions. They are:
1. Trans – Himalayan Zone
2. Himalayan Zone
3. Desert Zone
4. Semi – arid Zone
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Zone
7. Gangetic plain Zone
8. NE Indian Zone
9. Coastal Zone
10. Islands around the country
2.2.4HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed as hot spots
of biodiversity. Species which are restricted only to particular areas are known as endemic. India
shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizardsare
endemic to India. Western Ghats are the site of maximum endemism. The term “Hot spots” was
introduced by Myers (1988). There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global levelout of
which two are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. These hotspots
covering less than 2% of the world’s land area are found to have about 50% of the terrestrial
biodiversity. According to Myers an area is designated as a hotspot when it contains at least 0.5%
of the plant species as endemics.
a) Eastern Himalayas: They display an ultra-varies topography that fosters species diversity and
endemism. Recent studies have shown that North East India along with its contiguous regions of
Burma and Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Schezwan is an active center of organic evolution
and is considered to be the cradle of flowering plants. Out of the world’s recorded flora 30% are
endemic to India of which 35000 are in the Himalayas.

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b) Western Ghats: It extends along a 17000 km² strip of forests in Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamilnadu and Kerala and has 40% of the total endemic plant species. The major centers of
diversity are Agastyamalai Hills and Silent valley- the new Amambalam Reserve Basin .It is
reported that only 6.8% of the original forests are existing today while the rest has been deforested
or degraded, which raises a serious cause of alarm, because it means we have already lost a huge
proportion of the biodiversity.
2.2.5 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution. In the geologic period the
earth has experienced mass extinctions. During evolution, species have died out and have been
replaced by others. However, the rate of loss of species in geologic past has been a slow process,
keeping in view the vast span of time going back to 444 million years. The process of extinction
has become particularly fast in the recent years of civilization. Edward O. Wilson prefers the
acronym HIPPO, standing for habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, human
overpopulation, and over-harvesting
Following are the major causes and issues related to threats to biodiversity:
1. Habitat destruction: Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related
to tropical forest destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss are: overpopulation, deforestation,
pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming orclimate change.
Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and
those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.
Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation)
effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some
countries lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to
biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community)
2. Poaching: Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i.e.
poaching is another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from
endangered species, smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and
herbal products worth millions of dollars per year continues, the developing nations in Asia, Latin
America and Africa are the richest source of biodiversity and have enormous wealth of wildlife.
The rich countries in Europe and North America and some affluent countries in Asia like Japan,
Taiwan and Hong Kong are the major importers of the wildlife products or wildlife itself. The
trading of such wild life products is highly profit making for the poachers who just hunt these
prohibited wild lives and smuggle it to other countries mediated through mafia. The worst part is
that for every live animal that actually gets into the market about 50 additional animals are caught
and killed
If you are fond of rare plants, fish or birds, please make sure that you are not going to the
endangered species or wild-caught species. Doing so will help in checking further decline of these
species. Also do not purchase fur coat, purse or bag, or items made of crocodile skin or python
skin. You will certainly help in preserving biodiversity by doing so.
3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts: We have discussed about the need to preserve and protect wildlife.
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However, sometimes we come across conflicting situations when wildlife starts causing immense
damage and danger to man and under such conditions it becomes very difficult for the forest
department to pacify the affected villages and gain local support for wildlife conservation.
Instances of man animal conflicts keep on coming to lime light from several states in ourcountry.
In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the last 5years by elephants. In retaliation the
villagers killed 95 elephants in the border region of Kote-Chamarajanagar belt in Mysore have
been reported recently. The man-elephant conflict in this region has arisen because of massive
damage done by the elephants to the farmer’s cotton and sugarcane crops. The agonized villagers
electrocute the elephants and sometimes hide explosives in the sugarcane fields, which explode
as the elephants intrude into their fields. In fact, more killings are done by locals than by poachers.
Causes of Man-animal conflicts:

Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking forests cover are
compelled to move outside the forests and attack the field or sometimes even humans. Human
encroachment into the forest areas has rendered all forest living animals to trespass the borders
of human civilizations. This is because the conflicts between man and the wildlife have increased
since it is an issue of survival of both
3.1 Invasive Non-Native Species: Species that are non-native to a particular area can sometimes
spread very quickly, for example the zebra mussel and Japanese knotweed have spread rapidly in
Ireland in the past two decades. As a result, these species can destabilize an ecosystem by altering
habitats affecting food webs.
3.2 Pollution/Litter: As you will remember from the Litter and Waste theme, pollution is always
caused by humans. Pollution can have a huge impact, altering the balance within ecosystems, and
is the cause of death for millions of animals and plants around the world every year.
3.3 Land Use Change/Increased Infrastructure Development: This is the alteration of natural
areas by humans, for example, the clearing of huge areas of rainforest in South America for
farming. In Ireland, upland open habitats, such as rough grassland, scrub and heath, have been
changed by agriculture and afforestation.
3.4 Intensive Farming Practices: Extensive use and concentrations of chemical and/or
biological pesticides and the removal of hedgerows are typical practices in modern-day intensive
farming. Often large areas of land are planted with a single crop (monocultures) which greatly
reduces the level of biodiversity in that area.
3.5 Climate Change: It is now widely accepted that the current global rate of change in climate is
as a result of human activity. As global air or sea temperature changes, even by just 1 or 2 degrees,
the habitats in which species live will also change and may even become uninhabitable to some
species.
2.2.6 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES
Endangered species A species whose numbers are reduced to the point. That means endangered
species are in immediate danger of extinction.
The International Union Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) classified the species of plants and
animals as:
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(a) Endangered species
(b) Threatened species: Species ( including animals, plants, fungi, etc.) which are vulnerable to
endangerment in the near future)
(c) Rare species : Among the important endangered animal species, Indian wild ass; the Kashmir
stag, the Golden Langur etc .. are considered highly endangered. There are also
endangered bird species like Siberian crane; the great Indian Bustard; the florican etc..
The IUCN published the data on endangered species of both plants and animals of India. The data
symbolizes the working signal for those species which are endangered and if not protected are
likely to become extinct in near future
A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch e.g. Dodo,
Passenger Pigeon.
A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level or whose
habitat, have been drastically reduced and if such species is not protected and conserved, it is in
immediate danger of extinction.
Endangered species of India
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN) publishes the
Red Data Book which include the list of endangered species of plants and animals. The red data
symbolizes the warning signal for those species which are endangered and if not protected are
likely to become extinct in near future
The animals that are listed under the critically endangered category are as under:
1)MalabarLargeSpottedCivet
2) NamdaphaFlyingSquirrel
3)SalimAli'sFruitBat
4)SumatranRhinoceros
EndangeredSpeciesareasunder:
1)AsiaticLion
2)AsiaticBlackBear
3) DesertCat
4)GreatIndianRhinoceros
5)IndianElephant(or)AsianElephant
ThreatenedSpeciesareasunder:
1)IndianWildAss
2)Leopard
Endemic species of India
India has two biodiversity hot-spots and thus possesses a large number of endemic species.
The endemic species are those taxa whose distribution is confined to a restricted area due to
their specific ecological niches and edaphic gradients. Therefore, the habitats of endemic species
are far more vulnerable than other species. Endemic species once lost, it is a loss of biodiversity
of these species forever.
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In India there are about 5725 endemic taxa of angiosperms (33.5% of Indian flora) which are
located in 25 hot spots. The major hotspots in India which contain largest number of endemic plant
species are the Southern Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas with 1286 and 1808 endemic
species respectively. There are about 1272 species of endemic angiosperms out of 3800 species
occurring in Kerala (33.5% of Kerala flora) which represent 22.6% of Indian endemics. Seventy
percent of the 1272 species of endemics have the major areas of distribution in Kerala with spill
over in adjacent regions. On the basis of the study of the distributional range, about 102 endemic
species occur exclusively in Kerala.
A large number out of a total of 81,000 of animals in our country is endemic. The Western Ghats
are particularly rich in amphibians (frogs, toads etc) and reptiles (lizards, crocodiles etc) about
62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats
.2.2.7 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
In order to maintain and conserve biodiversity, the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
government of India has already taken several steps to manage wildlife, the objectives of which
are:
1. Maintenance of a number of species in protected areas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries..
2. To improve the biosphere reserves
3. Implement strict restrictions of export of rare plants and animals
4. Educate the public on these through the government agencies and NGO’s.

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A) In-situ conservation: The preservation of species in its natural ecosystem is called in-situ
conservation. As a consequence, protected areas are being identified and maintained for natural
conservation of species by individual countries. For the conservation and management of
endangered species several projects have been established.
These are:
Tiger Projects: Corbett National Park which is 300 km from New Delhi is the oldest National
Park of India having 1318.54 sq km. It was one of the nine Tiger Reserves created at the launch of
the Project Tiger in 1973.
Gir Lion Projects: The Gir Forest of Gujarat where lions are found. This has an area of 1412 sq
kms and declared as a National Park.
Elephant Projects: The objective was to ensure long-term survival of population of elephants
( not come into operations). Project Elephant (PE), a centrally sponsored scheme, was launched
in February 1992 to provide financial and technical support to major elephant bearing States in
the country for protection of elephants and their habitats. The Project is being implemented in 13
States/UTs, viz..Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
There are about 7000 protected areas in the world which include a variety of National parks,
Sanctuaries etc which vary in size (between 100 to 500 sq km), purpose (protection of one or more
species and their habitats).. In India, there are 39 National Parks and 492 wildlife sanctuaries.
National Parks: These are protected areas exclusively for wild life. Human activities like hunting,
Firewood collection, timber harvesting etc… are restricted in these areas to that wild plants and
animals could grow in a protected environment
The following measures should be adopted for the conservation of biodiversity:

1. Over grazing in the forest and areas of vegetation should be controlled because it may
Destroy the useful rare plants.
2. The habitat of plants and animals should be conserved.
3. The natural condition of ecosystem should be studied and researched in time and again, then
Specific programs for conservation should be conducted.
4. Human activities should be done without destroying natural environment.
5. Illegal hunting and smuggling of animals and plants should be strictly avoided.
6. Effective laws and rules should be adopted for the conservation of rare animals and plants.
7. Industries are established from the raw materials. During the process of collecting raw
materials, care should be taken not to destroy useful plants and habitats of animals.
8. Public awareness should be created about the importance of rare animals and plants, causes
of rareness and measures for their preservation.
B) Ex-situ conservation: The conservation of elements of biodiversity out of the context of their
natural habitats is referred to as ex-situ conservation. Zoos, botanical gardens and seed banks are
all example of ex-situ conservation. In India we have the following important gene and seed
bank facilities.

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i) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) is located in
New Delhi. Hereagricultural and horticultural crops are stored by
cryopreservation of seeds, pollens etc. by using liquid nitrogen at a
low temperature as low as -1960C.
ii) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) located at
karnal, Haryana. It preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

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UNIT-III
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, GLOBAL

ENVIRONMENTAL ISUES AND CONTROL MEASURES
3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION:
According to ODUM (1971), Pollution is “an undesirable change in the characteristics of air,
water and land that harmfully affect the life and also create health hazards for all living
organisms on the globe”.
TYPES OF POLLUTION:
Basically the Pollution is of two types viz.,
(1) Natural Pollution: This type of pollution is limited in its occurrence generally from natural
hazards like volcanic eruptions, emissions of natural gas, soil erosion, ultraviolet rays, cosmic
rays etc and
(2) Manmade Pollution: Most of the pollution is man made only. However, Pollution is usually
categorized as Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Thermal Pollution; Noise Pollution; Land & soil
Pollution; Radio Active Pollution and Marine Pollution
3.1.1 AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution may be described as “the imbalance in quality of air so as to cause adverse effects
on the living organisms existing on earth”. Pollution is due to the presence of undesirable
substance of sufficient quantity which exists in environment.
The substance or energy which causes pollution is called pollutant.
Types of air pollutants:

Pollutants may be classified according to origin and state of matter.
a) According to Origin: Air pollutants are divided into two categories as primary & secondary.
1) Primary air pollutants are those which are emitted directly into the atmosphere.
Eg: C; CO; CO2; SOx ; N; S; H; NOx; CFC’s etc .
2) Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction
Among the primary air pollutants or by reaction with atmospheric constituents.
Eg: Ozone (O3); Smog; Para Acetyl Nitrate (PAN); Acid Rain; Aerosols.
b) According to State of Matter: Air pollutants include fine solids; liquids and gases. Dust,
Smoke, Fumes etc are examples for solid particles whereas fog is an example for liquid particles.
PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
1. Carbon Monoxide: It is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that is produced by the incomplete
burning of carbon based fuels (coal, petrol, diesel and wood) which comes from the automobile
industries, exhaust devices, About 70% of CO emissions are from the transport sector.
When the air is polluted with CO, human blood is likely to be deprived of oxygen and leads to
coma and death. In mild dosages, it leads to headache.
2. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 is a gas produced from burning of coal, mainly in thermal power
plants. Some industries such as paper mills produce SO2. It is injurious not only to men and plants,
but it also attacks rapidly a few rocks such as limestone, marbles, electric contacts etc. It can even
dissolve nylon.
Paper absorbs SO2 causing the paper to become brittle and fragile. SO2 polluted air leads to
corrosion of metals such as Fe, Zn, Cu, steel etc… SO2 is a major contributor to Smog and acid
rain.
Sulphur trioxideis more irritant than SO2 because it combines immediately with water to form
sulphuric acid.
3. Oxides of Nitrogen: Combustion of coal, oil, natural gas and gasoline which produces upto 50
ppm of Nitrogen. NOx are also produced when fossil fuels are burned especially in power plants
and motor vehicles. NO2poisoning results SILOFILTER disease. High levels of NO2 exposure
causes cough and make the human beings feel short of breath. People who are exposed to NO2
for a long time have a higher chance of getting respiratory infections.
NOx compounds contribute for the formation of Ozone. Similarly, when nitrogen oxide when
combine with SOx to form acid rain.
4. Chloro Fluoro Carbons: CFC’s (also known as Freon) are non- toxic. They contain Carbon,
Fluorine and Chlorine atoms.The five main CFCs are the following:
CFC – 11 ( Trichloro Fluoro Methane CFCl3 )
CFC – 12 ( Dichloro Fluoro Methane CF2Cl2 )
The major uses of CFCs are as coolants in refrigerators and in air conditioners; as solvents in
cleaners particularly for electronic circuit boards etc.. CFCs are the main cause of ozone depletion.
CFCs have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100 years, and as a result one free chlorine
atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of damage.
SECONDARY POLLUTANTS:
1) Ozone (O3) / Ozone layer Depletion: Ozone consists of oxygen molecules which contain three
oxygen atoms. It is not emitted directly into the air but produced in the atmosphere when oxygen
combines with oxygen radical (O.) in the presence of sunlight. Ozone protects us from ultra violet
radiation and other harmful rays.
It is observed that over the last few years, many manmade processes release gases into atmosphere
causing drastic depletion of ozone layer. The chlorine atoms cause depletion of ozone slowly and
holes are formed in the ozone layer.
Ozone reacts with tissues and cause for breathing and decrease the working ability of the lungs,
chest pains and coughing. It lowers the human body resistance power and leads to cold; pneumonia
also.
Antarctic Ozone depletion: According to NIMBUS-7 satellite picture which was taken on 5th
October, 1987 the protective ozone layer showed a hole over 50% of the area of the Antarctica
continent covering 7 million sq km.
On Jan 1st 1989, the country Montreal (Canada) proposed redesigning refrigeration, air
conditioning technology replacing the use of CFCs by ozone friendly substitutes.
2) Smog:Smog is a combination of smoke and fog or various gases when react in the presence of
sunlight. The effects of smog on human health cause for respiratory, irritation to the eyes, diseases
related to nose, throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, headache, nerves, liver, and kidneys.
The first smog related deaths were recorded in London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1892,
December, London had worst experiences causing 1000 deaths. In 1940’s severe smog began
covering the cities of Los Angeles in USA.
3) Acid rain:Acid rain has become one of the most important global environmental problems and
poses significant adverse impact on soils, rivers, lakes, forests and monuments. The phenomenon
occurs when SOx and NOx from the burning of fossil fuels such as Petrol, Diesel, Coat etc combine
with water vapour in atmosphere and fall as rain or snow or fog.
Natural sources like volcanoes, forest fires, etc also contribute SOx and NOx. Increased urban
and industrial activities cause air pollution resulting in the rise of concentration of SO 2 and NOx.
Sulphur dioxide and NO2 combines with water vapour in the atmosphere produce sulphuricacid
and Nitric acid respectively and results acid rain. Some of the examples are:
Europe and parts of W Asia have experienced rain with water pH range of 4.5 to 5.0 (acidic) in
1958.
Effects of Air pollution: The effects of pollution may be direct and affect certain organisms. The
effects of pollution may possess a hazard or nuisance. Long continued pollution even affects the
evolution of a species and eliminates organisms that cannot tolerate certain pollutants and favor
others who can eat.
Air pollution causes deaths, Impair health, reduce visibility and brings vast economic losses. It can
also cause intangible losses to historic monuments such as Taj Mahal.
Finally, Air pollution can affect the environment on a global scale.
Prevention and control of Air Pollution:

 Inputs that do not contain the pollutants.
 Operating process to minimize generation of the pollutants.
 Replacing the process with one does not generate the pollutant.
 Removing the pollutants from the process.
 Substitution of raw materials.
Eg: The substitution of high sulphur coal with low sulphur coal in power plants.
Eg: Changing a fossil fuel with nuclear energy can eliminate sulphur emission.
 By involving the Process Modification:
Eg: Chemical and petroleum industries have changed by implementing
Automated operations, computerized process control by reducing the
Oxidation ofSO2 to SO3 by reducing excess air.
 By involving the control technologies: Control equipment viz., Wet Collector
(scrubber), Gravity Settling chamber; Cyclone Collectors, Dry Scrubbers, filters,
electrostatic precipitators etc. are to be used to minimize the air pollution.
3.1.2 WATER POLLUTION
Hydrosphere in the universe contains water in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, tanks and many
other water sources.
Water sources in the world are of two types.
They are (1) Marine water bodies and (2) Fresh Water bodies.
Water is a good solvent for many substances. Because of this property water cannot exist in its
pure form at many parts of the world. Water pollution is mainly because of sewage, industrial
disposals i.e., effluents.
PARAMETERS OF WATER POLLUTION:

Chemical examination of water (tests): pH; Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved
Oxygen (DO), etc are some of the chemical tests to find the stage of pollution of water.
1. pH: The value of pH gives the degree of acidity or alkalinity of polluted water. Determination
of pH is important in calculating the coagulant (thick or thin) dose.
2. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is defined as the quantity of oxygen utilized by micro
organisms at a temperature of 20oC, generally measured for 5 days. When water is polluted by
unwanted materials, naturally the O2 content gets reduced and that water become not fit for
consumption either by human beings or animals or plants.
Living organisms require water with some quantity of sustainable oxygen in it. That oxygen is
necessary for living organisms is generally called BOD. If there is reduction in oxygen content of
water, it becomes unfit for biological consumption because there is change in BOD.
COMMON TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS:

A) Based on sources B) Based on natures
A) Based on sources:
a) Disease causing agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoan that enter water from domestic sewage
and animal wastes.
b) Water soluble inorganic chemicals: Acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such as Lead,
Mercury can make water unfit to drink, harm fishes and other aquatic life. Also Nitrate, Phosphate
compounds dissolve in water that can cause excessive growth of algae, which then dieand decay,
depleting dissolved O2 in water and killing fish.
c) Water Soluble Organic chemicals: Oil, gasoline (a type of oil is obtained from petroleum),
pesticides, detergents and many other water soluble chemicals that threaten human health and harm
fish.
d) Heat: Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in the cooling towers of thermal power
plants. When this hot water is discharged into the nearby water bodies, it causes an increase in its
temperature.
e) Sewage: sewage is waste water from municipal area where there is human habitation. Sewage
which comes from homes is called domestic sewage
B) Based on natures:
In nature water pollution is classified into three types by Kimball (1975). They are:
1. Domestic water pollution: Sewage is a part of domestic water pollution. Domestic sewage not
only contains unwanted waste materials, but it is also infested with harmful bacteria, virusetc.
These are responsible for causing diseases in animals and human beings, if they drink this polluted
water and even plants may die if polluted water is provided. Domestic water pollution leads to
Diarrhea, Cholera and Typhoid in human beings.
2. Agricultural Water Pollution: Water require for plants for its growth. Major irrigation, minor
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, lift irrigation carry waste substances and causing
water pollution in addition to the utilization of fertilizer and pesticides. Agricultural water
pollution leads to Eutrophication & Water Bloom.
Ecological effects: The important troubling ecological impacts are:

1. Excessive nutrients in water bodies promote plant growth which leads to a drop in
water quality;
2. Disruption of the natural ecosystem E.g. lack of oxygen for shelf marine life (causing
a drop in their population).
3. Decrease in the recreational and aesthetic value of water bodies
4. Health problems when it occurs in drinking water reserves
5. Coral reef decline
6. Decreased biodiversity,
7. Changes in species composition and dominance, and
8. Toxicity effects.
9. Toxic phytoplankton species
10. Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
11. Color, smell, and water treatment problems
12. Dissolved oxygen depletion
13. Increased incidences of fish kills
14. Loss of desirable fish species
3. Industrial water pollution: Many industries discharge waste materials containing harmful
chemicals. Such Industrial wastes are called effluents. The river Godavari is polluted because of
effluents released by the paper industry. It affects the entire water ecosystem causing enormous
damage to fishes, prawns and fresh water animals.
Eg: Minamata disease & Fluorosis.
Minamata disease is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. Symptoms
include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field
of vision and damage to hearing and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and
death follow within weeks of the onset of symptoms.
Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Japan in 1956. It was caused by the
release of methyl mercury from, the Chisso Corporation's chemical factory, which continued
from 1932 to 1968. This highly toxic chemical bio- accumulated in shellfish and fish in
Minamata
Bay which when eaten by the local people resulted in mercury poisoning. While cat, dog, pig,
and human deaths continued over more than 30 years, the government and company did little to
prevent the pollution.
Fluorosis: People suffer from a disease called fluorosis after consuming water containing
fluorine for sufficiently a long time. Quantity of fluoride in water is only 1 ppm. Diseases caused
by fluorosis are:
Back pain and cannot easily bend.
Joints get stiffened as so movement of joints is impaired.
Teeth are the worst effected and a brown coating appears on the enamel
of teeth giving bad appearance.
Persons with fluorosis cannot erect freely.
CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION:

1. Drinking water should be boiled, cooled and then used.
2. Disinfection of drinking water should be done by using chemicals like bleaching powder.
3. Pesticides and insecticides should be prevented from nearby use of water lakes,ponds and
pools.
4. Drainage water should not be allowed to mix with drinking water.
5. Drainage system should be maintained properly.
6. Chlorination process is to be adopted for drinking water. For 1 litre of water 30 - 40 mg of
chlorine is to be added to get perfect disinfection. It kills bacteria, fungi, fungal spores
and other microbes also.
3.1.3 SOIL POLLUTION
Definition:
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts,
Radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and
animal health. Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth's
rocky surface. The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and
animals, is concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic portion made up of rock
fragments, was formed over thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of bedrock.
Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food.
There are many different ways that soil can become polluted, such as:
• Seepage from a landfill
• Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
• Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
• Rupture of underground storage tanks
• Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
• Solid waste seepage
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:
• Petroleum hydrocarbons
• Heavy metals
• Pesticides
• Solvents
Types of Soil Pollution

• Agricultural Soil Pollution and pollution due to urban activities
i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Pollution of underground soil
• Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes
i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Disturbances in soil profile
CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION:

Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural
soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground
storage links, application of pesticides, and percolation of contaminated surface water to
subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of
industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons,
solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated
with the degree of industrialization and intensities of chemical usage.
A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral content of the Soil
or which disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the soil. Pollution in soil has adverse
effect on plant growth.
Pollution in soil is associated with

• Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
• Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
• Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
• Deforestation and soil erosion
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

1. Agricultural
• Reduced soil fertility
• Reduced nitrogen fixation
• Increased erosion
• Larger loss of soil and nutrients
• Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
• Reduced crop yield
• Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
2. Industrial
• Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
• Ecological imbalance
• Release of pollutant gases
• Release of radioactive rays causing health problems
• Increased salinity
• Reduced vegetation
3. Urban
Clogging of drains
• Inundation of areas
• Public health problems
• Pollution of drinking water sources
• Foul smell and release of gases
• Waste management problems
CONTROL MEASURES OF SOIL POLLUTION

The following steps have been suggested to control soil pollution. To help prevent soil erosion,
we can limit construction in sensitive area. In general we would need less fertilizer and fewer
pesticides if we could all adopt the three R's: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. This would give us
less solid waste.
1. Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use Applying bio-fertilizers and manures can
reduce chemical fertilizer and pesticide use. Biological methods of pest control can also reduce the
use of pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.
2. Reusing of materials
Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. can be reused at domestic levels
rather than being disposed, reducing solid waste pollution.
3. Recycling and recovery of materials
This is a reasonable solution for reducing soil pollution. Materials such as paper, some kinds of
plastics and glass can and are being recycled. This decreases the volume of refuse and helps inthe
conservation of natural resources. For example, recovery of one tonne of paper can save 17 trees.
4. Reforesting
Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted through restoring forest and grass cover
to check wastelands, soil erosion and floods. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can improve the
fertility of the land.
5. Solid waste treatment
Proper methods should be adopted for management of solid waste disposal. Industrial wastes
can be treated physically, chemically and biologically until they are less hazardous. Acidic and
alkaline wastes should be first neutralized; the insoluble material if biodegradable should be
allowed to degrade under controlled conditions before being disposed.
3.1.4 MARINE POLLUTION
Pollution of oceans is damaging the marine environment and is becoming a major problem. Marine
environment is interesting for various reasons such as Sea food; Navigation; Adventure; Tourism
etc,, Marine Pollution is harmful and its danger can be identified in a variety of ways.
Sources & causes of marine pollution:

Marine pollution originates from one of two sources --- the land or the sea which are explained
below:
Marine Oil Pollution: Oil is basically an important pollutant which destroys marine environment.
The various sources of oil pollution are:
Run-off oil from streets; disposal of lubricants from machines; Off shore oil and gas exploitation
from off-shore drilling; blowouts at off-shore drilling rigs; oil escaping under high pressure from
a bore hole in the ocean floor. Waste chemicals, mud and accumulation of toxic substances in
the ocean in theform of mercury, dioxin, PCBs, PAHs (Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons)
Radioactivity. benzene; xylene ( colorless, flammable liquids ) and heavy metals such as lead;
copper; nickel, mercury also cause for marine pollution during the off shore drilling
activities. Both dumping and exploitation of ocean resources cause ocean pollution also.
PAHs: It is a chemical compound and organic pollutant. These occur in oil, coal and tar deposits
and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning.
PAHs are lipophilic meaning they mix more easily in oil than water.
Eg for PAHs are: Acenaphthene; Anthracene; Benzopyrene; Chrysene; Coronene; Fluorene;
Pyrene.
Other sources from land: The major sources of marine pollution originating from the land vary
from country to country. Effluents are discharged either directly into the sea or enters the coastal
waters through rivers. Thousands of barrels of oil burn when oil wells were set on fire. Tanker
accidents on land carry oil to the nearby streams / canals and cause for marine Pollution. Due to
burning of oil, smoke, SO2, NO2, CO is added towards atmospheric contamination.
The effects of oil pollution depend mainly on the following factors:

Type of oil and its viscosity, amount / quantity released, distance covered, time, average water
temp etc..
Effects of Marine Pollution:
S No Source Effect
1 Sewage & runoff from forestry; Depletes oxygen in water causes killing of fishes.
2 Sediments from mining Sediments clog in the gills of fishes
3 Sewage from municipalities, Contaminate sea food
towns; cities etc…
4 Industrial discharge; pesticides Cause disease in coastal marine life
from farms
5 Oil from off shore drilling; Low level contamination kill larvae whereas high
industries/ automobiles level contamination causes death for sea fishes
6 Litter (rubbish), waste, plastics Marine life disturbs
7 Hot water from power plants Kills corals.
Marine Pollution Abatement / Prevention & control measures of Marine pollution:
The following are the some of the control measures for marine pollution:
1. Improving existing sewage disposal facilities
2. Ensuring individual houses have sewage disposal systems (such as septic tanks).
3. Large resorts should use and manage their own packaged treatment plants.
4. Marine planning and management should be considered as processes such as land – sea
interaction; inter disciplinary co-operation; participation of public & private sector
organizations; balance between protection and development public participation
5. Oil tankers are double hulled ( two layered bottom ) to reduce the chance of oil leakage
6. Recycling facilities for used oil.
3.1.5 NOISE POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION:
Everyone knows that sound is a form of energy that is capable of causing disturbances in human
beings. Ears are the hearing organs in human beings.
A thin membrane is called Tympanum (or) ear drum receives the vibrations produced
by sound to a limited extent. Human ear is capable of perceiving about 85 decibels of sound.
Beyond the limit, the ear drum cannot bear sound.
In nature, we hear different types of sounds. Sound is a kind of vibration which travel through
air, water, and are sensed by the ear. This is from music, speech, etc from radio / television /
computers etc., one thing in this matter is that we can increase the volume of sound or decrease
as per our taste whereas, a noise is a sound which cannot be heard clearly and only mixed sounds
will be heard.
For eg: in an office one is talking on mobile, phone ringing another side, ring tones in some person's
hands, loud conversations with one and another etc., this is called noise. One cannot increase or
decrease the volume of noise. In general, a sound is a vibration from a particular machine, place
or material which can be heard clearly whereas a noise a mixed vibrations that will come to us
from all directions. A sound can be clear and can be able to hear, whereas a noisewill not be clear
and cannot be heard.
SOURCES OF NOISE:
Noise is an unwanted sound and noise pollution occurs through different sources:
1. Vehicles produce noise that leads to noise pollution.
2. Automobile industry is another source of noise pollution.
3. Noise pollution is very common in industrial areas where machines are working for factories
making more noise.
The sources of noise are more in urban and industrial areas, than in rural areas. The sources of
noise may be stationary or mobile. The stationary sources include industries, loud speakers, mining
operations, use of machineries, TV, Radio and Grinders etc. The mobile sources include Road
Traffic, Highway Noise, Railway Traffic and Air Traffic.
(1) Stationary sources:
a) Industrial noise: The main categories of industrial activity that are particularly
relevant to the study of noise are the following:
Product fabrication, Product assembly, Power generation by means of generators, Combusting
process in furnaces (burning of gases)
b) Noise from construction works: Construction noise, a major source of noise pollution
is emitted by construction equipment. The sources of noise are dozers excavators, front end
loaders, soil compactors, cranes, air compressors, concrete vibrators, riveting steel structure during
the casting, dismantling of construction materials etc...
c) Noise from other sources: These include sources such as sirens, barking dogs,
ambulances, Police vehicles, Fire engines etc.
(2) Mobile sources:

Road traffic: Of all sources of noise pollution, road traffic is the most prevalent and
perhaps the most source of noise pollution. More people are exposed to noise from motor
vehicles and the noise depends on various factors such as Road location, Road design, Vehicle
standards, Driver behaviors, Horns, Traffic density. ,
Noise of common road vehicles
Vehicle type Noise (db)
Medium road traffic (Main roads) 70- 80

Heavy road traffic (High ways) 80- 90
Buses & Trucks upto 3.5 tons 85- 95
Trucks upto 3.5-12 tons 90-100
Motor cycles 90-105
EFFECTS OF NOISE:
At 120 decibels the ear registers pain but hearing damage begins about 85 decibels. Apart from
hearing loss, noise can cause lack of sleep, irritation, indigestion, ulcers, High B.P., Heart diseases
, Stress etc.,.
1. Annoyance (Feeling slightly angry): One of the most important effects of noise on human is
annoyance. Due to this breathing rate affects.
2.Noise- induced hearing loss: Exposure to noise for a long enough duration results in damage
to the inner ear and thus decreases one’s ability to hear. The
louder the noise the less time it takes to cause hearing loss.
3.Effects on sleep: Noise disturbs sleep. It has been found that the cases related to various
levels of noise are associated with sleep disturbances. Sleep disturbance
by noise depends on the characteristics of the noise such as frequency,
loudness and whether the noise is continuous or intermittent.
Other effects: There are many other effects of noises such involve aggression (ready to attack).
People may turn mad and nerves may not function normally, People may be deformed in many
ways including increased stress and strain, nonfunctioning of hands, legs etc due to noisepollution
if exposed continuously.
CONTROL MEASURES:
Noise pollution could be controlled by either reducing the noise at the source or by preventing its
transmission.
The first step in the prevention of noise pollution is to control the noise at source itself.
For eg: Lubrication of machines reduces the noise produced, Tightening the loose nuts, Reducing
the vibrations produced by machines etc…
Failing to control the noise at its source, the second step is to prevent its transmission for eg:
keeping the noise machine covered in an enclosure so that the sound does not escape and reach the
receivers, construction of noise barriers on road sides, sound proof the buildings by using heavy
curtains on the windows, acoustical tiles on the ceiling and walls, by sealing the cracks in the walls
to reduce the noise coming from outside.
If the noise levels are not able to bring down to the desired levels in some cases, the only alternative
is to follow:
• Avoiding horns except in emergency situations.
• Sound proof or eco-generators and Turning down the volume of stereos.
• Conducting the awareness programs
3.2 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Control measures
An integrated waste management strategy includes three main components
1. Source reduction
2. Recycling
3. Disposal
Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. This can be done by
using less material when making a product, reuse of products on site, designing products or
packaging to reduce their quantity. On an individual level we can reduce the use of unnecessary
items while shopping, buy items with minimal packaging, avoid buying disposable items and also
avoid asking for plastic carry bags.
Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that may have some economic value.
Recycling has readily visible benefits such as conservation of resources reduction in energy used
during manufacture and reducing pollution levels. Some materials such as aluminum and steel can
be recycled many times. Metal, paper, glass and plastics are recyclable. Mining of new aluminum
is expensive and hence recycled aluminum has a strong market and plays a significant role in the
aluminum industry. Paper recycling can also help preserve forests as it takes about 17 trees to
make one ton of paper. Crushed glass (cullet) reduces the energy required to manufacturenew glass
by 50 percent. Cullet lowers the temperature requirement of the glassmaking process thus
conserving energy and reducing air pollution.
The processes of pulping, deinking and screening wastepaper are generally more expensive
than making paper from virgin wood or cellulose fibers. Very often thus recycled paper is more
expensive than virgin paper. However as technology improves the cost will come down.
Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly through a sanitary landfill or through
incineration. A modern sanitary landfill is a depression in an impermeable soil layer that is lined
with an impermeable membrane. The three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that
distinguish it from an open dump are:
• Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a carefully prescribed
manner.
• The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy machinery.
• The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil. The problems with older landfills
are associated with groundwater pollution. Pollutants seeping out from the bottom of a sanitary
landfill (leachates) very often percolate down to the groundwater aquifer no matter how thick the
underlying soil layer. Today it is essential to have suitable bottom liners and leachate collection
systems along with the installation of monitoring systems to detect groundwaterpollution.
The organic material in the buried solid waste will decompose due to the action of
microorganisms. At first the waste decomposes aerobically until the oxygen that was present in
the freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms. The anerobes take over producing
methane which is poisonous and highly explosive when mixed with air in concentrations between
5 and 15 percent. The movement of gas can be controlled by providing impermeable barriers in
the landfill. A venting system to collect the blocked gas and vent it to the surface where it can be
safely diluted and dispersed into the atmosphere is thus a necessary component of the design of
sanitary landfills.
Even though land filling is an economic alternative for solid waste disposal, it has become
increasingly difficult to find suitable land filling sites that are within economic hauling distance
and very often citizens do not want landfills in their vicinity. Another reason is that no matter how
well engineered the design and operation may be, there is always the danger of some environmental
damage in the form of leakage of leachates. Incineration is the process of burning municipal solid
waste in a properly designed furnace under suitable temperature and operating conditions.
Incineration is a chemical process in which the combustible portion of the waste is combined with
oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water, which are released into the atmosphere.
This chemical reaction called oxidation results in the release of heat. For complete
oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate volumes of air at a temperature of about 815o
C for about one hour.
Incineration can reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90 percent in volume and 75
percent in weight. The risks of incineration however involve airquality problems and toxicity and
disposal of the fly and bottom ash produced during the incineration process. Fly ash consists of
finely divided particulate matter, including cinders, mineral dust and soot. Most of the incinerator
ash is bottom ash while the remainder is fly ash. The possible presence of heavy metals in
incinerator ash can be harmful. Thus toxic products and materials containing heavy metals (for
example batteries and plastics) should be segregated.
Thus extensive air pollution control equipment and high-level technical supervision and
skilled employees for proper operation and maintenance is required. Thus while sanitary landfills
and incinerators have their own advantages and disadvantages, the most effective method of solid
waste management is source reduction and recycling.
Vermi – Composting
Nature has perfect solutions for managing the waste it creates, if left undisturbed. The
biogeochemical cycles are designed to clear the waste material produced by animals and plants.
We can mimic the same methods that are present in nature. All dead and dry leaves and twigs
decompose and are broken down by organisms such as worms and insects, and is finally broken
down by bacteria and fungi, to form a dark rich soil-like material called compost.
These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which provides them with
nutrients for their growth and activities. These nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again
by trees and other plants. This process recycles nutrients in nature. This soil can be used as a
manure for farms and gardens.
3.2.1 ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION
The role of an individual in maintaining a pollution free, pure and congenial environment and in
preserving its resources is actually the need of the hour. Individuals can, however, play an
important role in abatement of air, water, soil or noise pollution in the following simple
manners:
1) Use low-phosphate, phosphate-free or biodegradable dishwashing liquid, laundry detergent,

and shampoo.
2) Don't use water fresheners in toilets.
3) Use manure or compost instead of commercial inorganic fertilizers to fertilize gardens and
yard plant.
4) Use biological methods or integrated pest management to control garden, yard, and
household pests.
5) Don't pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oils, or other products containing harmful chemicals
down drain or on the ground. Contact the authorities responsible for their disposal.
6) If you get water from a private well or suspect that municipal water is contaminated, have
tested by an certified laboratory for lead, nitrates, , organic compounds and pesticides.
7) Run water from taps for several minutes every morning before using the water for drinking
or cooking. Save it and use it to water plants.
If you have a septic tank, monitor it yearly and have it cleaned out every three to five years
by a reputable contractor so that it won’t contribute to groundwater pollution. Do not use
Septic tank cleaner, which contain toxic chemicals that can kill bacteria important to sewage
Decomposition and that can contaminate groundwater if systems malfunction.
8) Support ecological land-use planning in your community.
MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES
It is estimated that 75% of electronic items are stored due to uncertainty of how to manage it. These
electronic junks lie unattended in houses, offices, warehouses etc. and normally mixed with
household wastes, which are finally disposed off at landfills. This necessitates implementable
management measures.
In industries management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation. This can be done by
waste minimization techniques and by sustainable product design. Waste minimization in
industries involves adopting:
 inventory management,
 production-process modification,
 volume reduction,
 Recovery and reuse.
Production-process modification
Changes can be made in the production process, which will reduce waste generation. This
reduction can be accomplished by changing the materials used to make the product or by the more
efficient use of input materials in the production process or both. Potential waste minimization
techniques can be broken down into three categories:
i) Improved operating and maintenance procedures,
ii) Material change and
iii) Process-equipment modification.
Volume reduction
Volume reduction includes those techniques that remove the hazardous portion of a waste from a
non-hazardous portion. These techniques are usually to reduce the volume, and thus the cost of
disposing of a waste material. The techniques that can be used to reduce waste-stream volume
can be divided into 2 general categories: source segregation and waste concentration. Segregation
of wastes is in many cases a simple and economical technique for waste reduction. Wastes
containing different types of metals can be treated separately so that the metal value inthe sludge
can be recovered. Concentration of a waste stream may increase the likelihood that thematerial can
be recycled or reused. Methods include gravity and vacuum filtration, ultra filtration, reverse
osmosis, freeze vaporization etc.
For example, an electronic component manufacturer can use compaction equipments to reduce
volume of waste cathode ray-tube.
Recovery and reuse
This technique could eliminate waste disposal costs, reduce raw material costs and provide income
from a salable waste. Waste can be recovered on-site, or at an off-site recovery facility,or through
inter industry exchange. A number of physical and chemical techniques are available to reclaim a
waste material such as reverse osmosis, electrolysis, condensation, electrolytic recovery, filtration,
centrifugation etc. For example, a printed-circuit board manufacturer can useelectrolytic recovery
to reclaim metals from copper and tin-lead plating bath.
However recycling of hazardous products has little environmental benefit if it simply moves the
hazards into secondary products that eventually have to be disposed of. Unless the goal is to
redesign the product to use nonhazardous materials, such recycling is a false solution.
Sustainable product design
Minimization of hazardous wastes should be at product design stage itself keeping in mind the
following factors*
 Rethink the product design: Efforts should be made to design a product with fewer
amounts of hazardous materials. For example, the efforts to reduce material use are
reflected in some new computer designs that are flatter, lighter and more integrated. Other
companies propose centralized networks similar to the telephone system.
 Use of renewable materials and energy: Bio-based plastics are plastics made with plant-
based chemicals or plant-produced polymers rather than from petrochemicals. Bio- based
toners, glues and inks are used more frequently. Solar computers also exist but theyare
currently very expensive.
 Use of non-renewable materials that are safer: Because many of the materials used are
non-renewable, designers could ensure the product is built for re-use, repair and/or
upgradeability. Some computer manufacturers such as Dell and Gateway lease out their
products thereby ensuring they get them back to further upgrade and lease out again.
3.2.2 PLASTICS WASTE MANAGEMENT
Environmental Issues and Challenges
The quantum of solid waste is ever increasing due to increase in population, developmental
activities, changes in life style, and socio-economic conditions, Plastics waste is a significant
portion of the total municipal solid waste (MSW).
It is estimated that approximately 10 thousand tons per day (TPD) of plastics waste is generated
i.e. 9% of 1.20 lacs TPD of MSW in the country.
The plastics waste constitutes two major categories of plastics;

(i) Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics, constitutes 80% and thermoset constitutes
approximately 20% of total post-consumer plastics waste generated in India. The
Thermoplastics are recyclable plastics.
Eg: Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE), Poly
Vinyal Chloride (PVC), High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene (PP),
Polystyrene (PS) etc.
(ii) Thermoset plastics: Thermoset plastics contains alkyd, epoxy, ester, melamine
formaldehyde, phenolic formaldehyde, silicon, urea formaldehyde, polyurethane,
metalised and multilayer plastics etc.
The environmental hazards due to mismanagement of plastics waste include the following
aspects:
❯Littered plastics spoil beauty of the city and choke drains and make important public
Places filthy;
❯ Garbage containing plastics, when burnt may cause air pollution by emitting polluting
Gases;
❯ Garbage mixed with plastics interferes in waste processing facility and may also cause
Problems in landfill operations;
❯ Recycling industries operating in non-conforming areas are posing unhygienic
Problems to the environment.
Main Features of the Plastics Manufacture and Usage(Amendment) Rules, 2003
Regulation of plastics waste, particularly manufacture and use of recycled plastics carry bags and
containers is being regulated in the country as per “Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage
Rules, 1999 and as amended in 2003. According to these Rules:
1. No person shall manufacture, stock, distribute or sell carry bags made of virgin or recycled
plastic bags which are less than 8 x 12 inches in size and having thickness less than 20 microns.
2. No vendor shall use carry bags/containers made of recycled plastics for storing, carrying,
dispensing or packaging of food stuffs
3. Carry bags and containers made of recycled plastic and used for purposes other than storing
and packaging food stuffs shall be manufactured using pigments and colorants as per IS
9833:1981 entitled “List of pigments and colorants for use in plastics in contact with food
stuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water”
4. Recycling of plastics shall be undertaken strictly in accordance with the Bureau of Indian
Standard specification: IS 14534:1998 entitled “The Guidelines for Recycling of Plastics”
5. Manufacturers of recycled plastic carry bags having printing facilities shall code/mark carry
Bags and containers as per Bureau of Indian Standard specification: IS 14534:1998 (The
Guidelines for Recycling of Plastics).
6. No person shall manufacture carry bags or containers irrespective of its size or weight unless
the occupier of the unit has registered the unit with respective SPCB/PCC prior to the
commencement of production.
7. The prescribed authority for enforcement of the provisions of these rules related to
manufacturing and recycling is SPCB in respect of States and the PCC in Union Territories and
for relating to use, collection, segregation, transportation and disposal shall be the District
Collector/ Deputy Commissioner of the concerned district
Options for Plastic Waste Management
Recycling of plastics through environmentally sound manner:
Recycling of plastics should be carried in such a manner to minimize the pollution during the
process and as a result to enhance the efficiency of the process and conserve the energy. Plastics
recycling technologies have been historically divided into four general types -primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary.
 Primary recycling involves processing of a waste/scrap into a product with
characteristics similar to those of original product.
 Secondary recycling involves processing of waste/scrap plastics into materials that have
characteristics different from those of original plastics product.
 Tertiary recycling involves the production of basic chemicals and fuels from plastics
waste/scrap as part of the municipal waste stream or as a segregated waste.
 Quaternary recycling retrieves the energy content of waste/scrap plastics by burning /
incineration. This process is not in use in India.
Steps Involved in the Recycling Process
1. Selection: The recyclers / reprocessors have to select the waste / scrap which are suitable for
recycling /reprocessing.
2. Segregation: The plastics waste shall be segregated as per the Codes 1-7 mentioned
3.Processing: After selection and segregation of the pre-consumer waste (factory waste) shall be
directly recycled. The post consumer waste (used plastic waste) shall be washed, shredded,
agglomerated, extruded and granulated
Polymer Coated Bitumen Road

The CPCB has undertaken a project in collaboration with Thiagarajar College of Engineering
Madurai to evaluate the performance of polymer coated built roads laid during 2002-2006 in
different cities.
The observations are as below:
 The coating of plastics over aggregate improves Impact, Los Angels Abrasion and
Crushing Value with the increase in the percentage of plastics.
 The extracted bitumen showed almost near value for Marshall stability.
 The entire road was having good skid resistance and texture values.
 All the stretches in the roads have been found reasonably strong.
 The unevenness index values of these roads are nearly 3000 mm/km, which indicate a
good surface evenness.
 The plastic tar roads have not developed any potholes, rutting, raveling or edge flaw,
even though these roads are more than four years of age.
 Polymer coated aggregate bitumen mix performs well compared to polymer modified
bitumen mix.
 Higher percentage of polymer coating improves the binding strength of the mix.
 Foam plastics have better binding values.
3.3WATER CONSERVATION
Water being one of the most precious and indispensable resources needs to be conserved. The
following strategies can be adopted for conservation of water.
1. Decreasing run-off losses: Huge water-loss occurs due to run-off on most of the soils, which
can be reduced by allowing most of the water to infiltrate into the soil.
This can be achieved by using contour cultivation, terrace framing, water spreading, chemical
treatment or improved water-storage system.
a) Contour cultivation: on small furrows and ridges across the slopes trap rainwater and
allow more time for infiltration. Terracing constructed on deep soils have large water-
storage capacity. On gentle slopes trapped run off is spread over a large area for
better infiltration
b) Conservation-bench terracing: It involves construction of a series of benches for
catching the runoff water.
c) Water spreading is done by channeling or lagoon-leveling, In channeling, the water
flow is controlled by a series of diversions with vertical intervals. In lagoon leveling,
small depressions are dug in the area so that there is temporary storage water
d) Chemical wetting agents (Surfactants): These seem to increase the water intake rates
when added to normal irrigated soil.
e) Surface crop residues, tillage, mulch, animal residues etc. help in reducing run-off by
allowing more time for water to penetrate into the land.
f) Chemical conditioners like gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) when applied to sodic soils
improve soil permeability and reduce run off. Another useful conditioner is
HPAN(hydrolyzed polyacrylonitrile)
g) Water-storage structures like farm ponds, dug-outs etc. build by individual farmers
can be useful measures for conserving water through reduction of runoff.
2. Reducing evaporation losses: This is more relevant in humid regions. Horizontal barriers of
asphalt placed below the soil surface increase water availability and increase crop yield by 35-
40%. This is more effective on sandy soil but less effective on loamy sand soils. A co-polymer of
starch and acrylonitrile called ‘super slumper’ has been reported to absorb water up to 1400 times
its weight. The chemical has been found to be useful for sandy soils.
3. Storing water in soil: Storage of water takes place in the soil root zone in humed regions when
the soil is wetted to field capacity. By leaving the soil fallow for one season water can be made
available for the crop grown in next season.
4. Reducing irrigation losses:
a) Use of lined or covered canals to reduce seepage
b) Irrigation in early morning or late evening to reduce evaporation losses
c) Sprinkling irrigation and drip irrigation to conserve water by 30-50%
d) Growing hybrid crop varieties with less water requirements and tolerance to saline
Water help conserve water.
5. Reuse of water:
a) Treated wastewater can be used for ferti-irrigation
b) Using grey water from washings, bath-tubs etc. for watering gardens, washing cars
or paths help in saving fresh water.
6. Preventing wastage of water: This can be done in households, commercial buildings and
public places.
a) Closing taps when not in use
b) Repairing any leakage from pipes
c) Using small capacity flush in toilets.
7. Increasing block pricing: The consumer has to pay a proportionately higher bill with higher
use of water. This helps in economic use of water by the consumer
3.3.1 RAIN WATER HARVESTING
Introduction:
The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days, however, the concept of water
harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had been evolved and developed
centuries ago.
Ground water resource gets naturally recharged through percolation. But due to indiscriminate
development and rapid urbanization, exposed surface for soil has been reduced drastically with
resultant reduction in percolation of rainwater, thereby depleting ground water resource. Rainwater
harvesting is the process of augmenting the natural filtration of rainwater in to the underground
formation by some artificial methods. "Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to
demands of water, for drinking, domestic purpose & irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting.
Why to harvest rain water?

 To arrest ground water decline and augment ground water table
 To beneficiate water quality in aquifers
 To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon
 To reduce soil erosion
 To inculcate a culture of water conservation
Rainwater harvesting can be harvested from the following surfaces:

Rooftops: If buildings with impervious roofs are already in place, the catchment area is
effectively available free of charge and they provide a supply at the point of consumption.
Paved and unpaved areas i.e., landscapes, open fields, parks, storm water drains, roads
and pavements and other open areas can be effectively used to harvest the runoff. The main
advantage in using ground as collecting surface is that water can be collected from alarger
area. This is particularly advantageous in areas of low rainfall.
Water bodies: The potential of lakes, tanks and ponds to store rainwater is immense. The
harvested rainwater can not only be used to meet water requirements of the city, it also
recharges groundwater aquifers.
Storm water drains: Most of the residential colonies have proper network of storm water
drains. If maintained neatly, these offer a simple and cost effective means for harvesting
rainwater.
Types of Harvesting System

Broadly rainwater can be harvested for two purposes
A. Roof top rain water harvesting (RTRWH)
B. Charged into the soil for withdrawal later (groundwater recharging)
A. Roof top rain water harvesting (RTRWH)
It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the
catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be
stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very
effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the area.
Components of Roof top Rainwater harvesting system:
The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:

 Catchment, Coarse mesh, Gutters, Conduits or Conveyance
 Transportation
 First flush
 Filter
 Storage
 Supply unit
The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:

 Catchment, Coarse mesh, Gutters, Conduits or Conveyance
 Transportation
 First flush
 Filter
 Storage
 Supply unit
.
1. Catchments: The catchment of a water harvesting system is the surface whichdirectly
receives the rainfall and provides water to the system. It can be a paved area like a terrace
or courtyard of a building, or an unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. A roof made of
reinforced cement concrete (RCC), galvanized iron or corrugated sheets can also be used
for water harvesting.
2. Coarse mesh: Present at the corners of the
roof to prevent the passage of debris
3.Gutters:
Channels all around the edge of a sloping roof
to collect and transport rainwater to the storage
tank. Gutters can be semi-circular or Source: A water harvesting manual for
rectangular and could be made using: urban areas
 Locally available material such as plain galvanized iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge),
folded to required shapes.
 Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be readily prepared by cutting those
pipes into two equal semi-circular channels.
 Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.
The size of the gutter should be according to the flow during the highest intensity rain. It
is advisable to make them 10 to 15 per cent oversize.
Gutters need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off when loaded with water. The
way in which gutters are fixed depends on the construction of the house; it is possible to
fix iron or timber brackets into the walls, but for houses having wider eaves, some
method of attachment to the rafters is necessary.
4 Conduits or Conveyance:
Conduits are pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop area
to the harvesting system. Conduits can be of any material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
or galvanized iron (GI), materials that are commonly available.
.
5. First-flushing
A first flush device is a valve that ensures that runoff from the first spell of rain is
flushed out and does not enter the system. This needs to be done since the first spell of
rain carries a relatively larger amount of pollutants from the air and catchment surface.
6. Filtration or Purification:
The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants from rainwater collected over roof. A
filter unit is a chamber filled with filtering media such as fiber, coarse sand and gravel
layers to remove debris and dirt from water before it enters the storage tank or recharges
structure. Charcoal can be added for additional filtration.
(i) Charcoal water filter: A simple charcoal filter can be made in a drum or an earthen
pot. The filter is made of gravel, sand and charcoal, all of which are easily available.
(ii) Sand filters

Sand filters have commonly available sand as filter media. Sand filters are easy and
inexpensive to construct. These filters can be employed for treatment of water to
effectively remove turbidity (suspended particles like silt and clay), colour and
microorganisms.
In a simple sand filter that can be constructed domestically, the top layer comprises coarse
sand followed by a 5-10 mm layer of gravel followed by another 5-25 cm layer ofgravel
and boulders.
7. Storage or Sump: A storage provision to collect filtered water from the tank through
the filter channel for storage and collection.
There are various options available for the construction of these tanks with respect to the
shape, size and the material of construction.
Shape: Cylindrical, rectangular and square.
Material of construction: Reinforced cement concrete, (RCC), ferrocement, masonry,
plastic (polyethylene) or metal (galvanized iron) sheets are commonly used.
Position of tank: Depending on space availability these tanks could be constructed
above ground, partly underground or fully underground. Some maintenance measures
like cleaning and disinfection are required to ensure the quality of water stored in the
container.
B. Charged into the soil for withdrawal later (groundwater recharging)
Ground water aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures to ensure

percolation of rainwater in the ground instead of draining away from the surface.
Commonly used recharging methods are:
a) Recharging of bore wells

b) Recharging of dug wells.
c) Recharge pits
d) Recharge Trenches
e) Soak ways or Recharge Shafts
f) Percolation Tanks
a) Recharging of bore wells
Rainwater collected from rooftop of the building is diverted through drainpipes to

settlement or filtration tank. After settlement filtered water is diverted to bore wells to
recharge deep aquifers. Abandoned bore wells can also be used for recharge.
Optimum capacity of settlement tank/filtration tank can be designed on the basis of area
of catchments, intensity of rainfall and recharge rate as discussed in design parameters.
While recharging, entry of floating matter and silt should be restricted because it may clog
the recharge structure. "first one or two shower should be flushed out through rain
separator to avoid contamination. This is very important, and all care should be taken to
ensure that this has been done."
b) Recharge pits
Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square or circular, contracted with
brick or stone masonry wall with weep hole at regular intervals, top of the pit can be
covered with perforated covers. Bottom of pit should be filled with filter media
The capacity of the pit can be designed on the basis of catchment area, rainfall intensity
and recharge rate of soil. Usually the dimensions of the pit may be of 1 to 2 m width and
2 to 3 m deep depending on the depth of pervious strata. These pits are suitable for
recharging of shallow aquifers, and small houses.
c) soak away or recharge shaft
Soak away or recharge shafts are provided where upper layer of soil is alluvial or less
pervious. These are bored hole of 30 cm dia. up to 10 to 15 m deep, depending on depth
of pervious layer. Bore should be lined with slotted/perforated PVC/MS pipe to prevent
collapse of the vertical sides. At the top of soak away required size sump is constructed
to retain runoff before the filters through soak away. Sump should be filled with filter
media.
d) Recharging of dug well
Dug well can be used as recharge structure. Rainwater from the rooftop is diverted to
dug wells after passing it through filtration bed. Cleaning and desalting of dug well should
be done regularly to enhance the recharge rate. The filtration method suggested for bore
well recharging could be used
e) Recharge trenches
Recharge trench in provided where upper impervious layer of soil is shallow. It is a trench
excavated on the ground and refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulder or brickbats.
It is usually made for harvesting the surface runoff. Bore wells can also be provided inside
the trench as recharge shafts to enhance percolation. The length of the trench is decided as
per the amount of runoff expected. This method is suitable for small houses, playgrounds,
parks and roadside drains. The recharge trench can be of size 0.50
to1.0mwideand1.0to1.5mdeep.
f) Percolation tanks
Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area with
adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to recharge the ground water.
These can be built in big campuses where land is available and topography is suitable.
Surface run-off and roof top water can be diverted to this tank. Water
accumulating in the tank percolates in the solid to augment the ground water. The stored
water can be used directly for gardening and raw use. Percolation tanks should be built in
gardens, open spaces and roadside green belts of urban area.
3.3.2 GLOBAL WARMING

Introduction:
Before the Industrial Revolution, human activities released very few gases into the atmosphere and
all climate changes happened naturally. After the Industrial Revolution, through fossil fuel
combustion, changing agricultural practices and deforestation, the natural composition of gases in
the atmosphere is getting affected and climate and environment began to alter significantly.
Over the last 100 years, it was found out that the earth is getting warmer and warmer, unlike
previous 8000 years when temperatures have been relatively constant. The present temperature is
o
0.3 - 0.6 C warmer than it was 100 years ago.
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring process that aids in heating the Earth's surface
and atmosphere. It results from the fact that certain atmospheric gases, such as carbon dioxide,
water vapor, and methane, are able to change the energy balance of the planet by absorbing long
wave radiation emitted from the Earth's surface. Without the greenhouse effect life on this planet
would probably not exist as the average temperature of the Earth would be a chilly -18° Celsius,
rather than the present 15° Celsius.
Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human
activities. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and ozone (refer Figure 9.4). Certain human activities, however, add to the levels of
most of these naturally occurring gases.
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and
coal), and wood and wood products are burned.
Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane
emissions also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills,
and the raising of livestock. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities,
as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.
Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydro fluorocarbons
(HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a variety
of industrial processes.
Often, estimates of greenhouse gas emissions are presented in units of millions of metric tons of
carbon equivalents (MMTCE), which weights each gas by its Global Warming Potential or GWP
value.
As energy from the Sun passes through the atmosphere a number of things take place. A portion
of the energy (26% globally) is reflected or scattered back to space by clouds and other
atmospheric particles. About 19% of the energy available is absorbed by clouds, gases (like ozone),
and particles in the atmosphere. Of the remaining 55% of the solar energy passing through the
Earth's atmosphere, 4% is reflected from the surface back to space. On average, about 51% of the
Sun's radiation reaches the surface. This energy is then used in a number of processes, including
the heating of the ground surface; the melting of ice and snow and the evaporation of water; and
plant photosynthesis.
The heating of the ground by sunlight causes the Earth's surface to become a radiator of energy
in the long wave band (sometimes called infrared radiation). This emission of energy is
generally directed to space . However, only a small portion of this energy actually makes it back
to space. The majority of the outgoing infrared radiation is absorbed by the greenhouse gases
Absorption of long wave radiation by the atmosphere causes additional heat energy to be added
to the Earth's atmospheric system. The now warmer atmospheric greenhouse gas molecules begin
radiating long wave energy in all directions. Over 90% of this emission of long wave energy is
directed back to the Earth's surface where it once again is absorbed by the surface. The heating of
the ground by the long wave radiation causes the ground surface to once again radiate, repeating
the cycle described above, again and again, until no more long wave is available for absorption.
A number of gases are involved in the human caused enhancement of the greenhouse effect
.These gases include: carbon dioxide (CO2); methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O);
chlorofluorocarbons (CFxClx); and tropospheric ozone (O3). Of these gases, the single most
important gas is carbon dioxide which accounts for about 55% of the change in the intensity of
the Earth's greenhouse effect. The contributions of the other gases are 25% for
chlorofluorocarbons, 15% for methane, and 5% for nitrous oxide. Ozone's contribution to the
enhancement of green house effect is still yet to be quantified.Average concentrations of
atmospheric carbon dioxide in the year 2005 were about 380 parts per million .Prior to 1700,
levels of carbon dioxide were about 280 parts per million. This increase in carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is primarily due to the activities of humans. Beginning in 1700, societal changes
brought about by the Industrial Revolution increased the amount of carbon dioxide entering the
atmosphere. The major sources of this gas include fossil fuel combustion for industry,
transportation, space heating, electricity generation and cooking; and vegetation changes innatural
prairie, woodland, and forested ecosystems. Emissions from fossil fuel combustion account for
about 65% of the extra carbon dioxide now found in our atmosphere. The remaining 35% is derived
from deforestation and the conversion of prairie, woodland, and forested ecosystems primarily into
agricultural systems.
Natural ecosystems can hold 20 to 100 times more carbon dioxide per unit area than agricultural
systems. Artificially created chlorofluorocarbons are the strongest greenhouse gas per molecule.
However, low concentrations in the atmosphere reduce their overall importance in the
enhancement of the greenhouse effect.
Current measurements in the atmosphere indicate that the concentration of these chemicals may
soon begin declining because of reduced emissions. Reports of the development of ozone holes
over the North and South Poles and a general decline in global stratospheric ozone levels overthe
last two decades has caused many nations to cut back on their production and use of these
chemicals.
Since 1750, methane concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by more than 150%. The
primary sources for the additional methane added to the atmosphere (in order of importance) are
rice cultivation, domestic grazing animals, termites, landfills, coal mining, and oil and gas
extraction. Anaerobic conditions associated with rice paddy flooding results in the formation of
methane gas. However, an accurate estimate of how much methane is being produced from rice
paddies has been difficult to obtain. More than 60% of all rice paddies are found in India and
China where scientific data concerning emission rates are unavailable. Nevertheless, scientists
believe that the contribution of rice paddies is large because this form of crop production has more
than doubled since 1950. Grazing animals release methane to the environment as a result of
herbaceous digestion. Some researchers believe the addition of methane from this source has more
than quadrupled over the last century. Termites also release methane through similar processes.
Land-use change in the tropics, due to deforestation, ranching, and farming, may be causing termite
numbers to expand. If this assumption is correct, the contribution from these insects may be
important. Methane is also released from landfills, coal mines, and gas and oil drilling. Landfills
produce methane as organic wastes decompose over time. Coal, oil, and natural gas deposits
release methane to the atmosphere when these deposits are excavated or drilled.
The average concentration of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere is now increasing at a rate of 0.2
to 0.3% per year. Sources for this increase include land-use conversion; fossil fuel combustion;
biomass burning; and soil fertilization. Most of the nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere each
year comes from deforestation and the conversion of forest, savanna and grassland ecosystems into
agricultural fields and rangeland. Both of these processes reduce the amount of nitrogen stored in
living vegetation and soil through the decomposition of organic matter. Nitrous oxide is also
released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels and biomass are burned. However, the combined
contribution of these sources to the increase of this gas in the atmosphere is thought to be minor.
The use of nitrate and ammonium fertilizers to enhance plant growth is another source of nitrous
oxide. Accurate measurements of how much nitrous oxide is being released from fertilization have
been difficult to obtain. Estimates suggest that the contribution from this source may represent
from 50% to 0.2% of nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere annually.
Ozone's role in the enhancement of the greenhouse effect has been difficult to determine
scientifically. Accurate measurements of past long-term (more than 25 years in the past) levels of
this gas in the atmosphere are currently unavailable. Concentrations of ozone gas are found in
two different regions of the Earth's atmosphere. The majority of the ozone (about 97%) found in
the atmosphere is localized in the stratosphere at an altitude of 15 to 55 kilometers above the
Earth's surface. In recent years, the concentration of the stratospheric ozone has been decreasing
because of the buildup of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. Since the late 1970s, scientists
have discovered that total column ozone amounts over Antarctica in thespringtime have decreased
by as much as 70%. Satellite measurements have indicated that the zone from 65° North to 65°
South latitude has had a 3% decrease in stratospheric ozone since 1978. Ozone is also highly
concentrated at the Earth's surface. Most of this ozone is created as an artificial by product of
photochemical smog.
Global Warming (Climate Change) Implications

Rise in global temperature
Observations show that global temperatures have risen by about 0.6 °C over the 20th century.
There is strong evidence now that most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is caused
by human activities. Climate models predict that the global temperature will rise by about 6 °Cby
the year 2100.
Rise in sea level
In general, the faster the climate change, the greater will be the risk of damage. The mean sea level
is expected to rise 9 - 88 cm by the year 2100, causing flooding of low lying areas andother
damages.
Food shortages and hunger

Water resources will be affected as precipitation and evaporation patterns change around the
world. This will affect agricultural output. Food security is likely to be threatened and some regions
are likely to experience food shortages and hunger.
3.3.3ACID RAIN
Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and fossil fuel combustion are
the major sources of acid forming gases. Acid forming gases are oxidized over several days by
which time they travel several thousand kilometers. In the atmosphere these gases are ultimately
converted into sulfuric and nitric acids. Hydrogen chloride emission forms hydrochloric acid.
These acids cause acidic rain. Acid rain is only one component of acidic deposition. Acidic
decomposition is the total wet acidic deposition (acid rain) and dry deposition.Rain water is turned
acidic when its pH falls below 5.6. In fact clean or natural rain water has a pH of 5.6 at 20˚ c
because of formation of carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO2 in water. In absence of rain, dry
deposition of acid may occur. Acid forming gases like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and acid
aerosols get deposited on the surface of water bodies, vegetation, soil and othermaterials. On moist
surfaces or in liquids these acid forming gases can dissolve an form acids similar to that formed in
acid rain.
Effects of acid rain:
Acid rain causes a number of harmful effects below pH 5.1. The effects are visible in the aquatic
even at pH less than 5.5.
1. It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble e.g. monuments like Taj Mahal.
Crystals of calcium and magnesium sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion caused by acid
rain.
2. It damages stone statues. Priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy have been partially
dissolved by acid rain.
3. It damages metals and car finishes.
4. Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake acidification
5. Aquatic animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium, mercury, manganese, zinc
and lead which leak from the surrounding rocks due to acid rain.
6. It results in reproductive failure, and killing of fish.
7. Many lakes of Sweden, Norway, and Canada have become fishless due to acid rain.
8. It damages foliage and weakens trees
9. It makes trees more susceptible to stresses like cold temperature, drought, etc . Many insects
and fungi are more tolerant to acidic conditions and hence they can attack the susceptible trees and
cause diseases.
Control measures:
1. Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be
reduced by using pollution control equipments.
2. Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid
rain.
3. A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water pipes
for drinking water
3.3.4 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
As early as 1896, the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius had predicted that human activities would
interfere with the way the sun interacts with the earth, resulting in global warming and climate
change. His prediction has become true and climate change is now disrupting global environmental
stability. The last few decades have seen many treaties, conventions, and protocols for the cause
of global environmental protection.
Few examples of environmental issues of global significance are:
• Ozone layer depletion
• Global warming
One of the most important characteristics of this environmental degradation is that it affects all
mankind on a global scale without regard to any particular country, region, or race. The whole
world is a stakeholder and this raises issues on who should do what to combat environmental
degradation.
Earth’s atmosphere is divided into three regions, namely troposphere, stratosphere and
mesosphere. The stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 kms from the Earth’s surface. This region is
concentrated with slightly pungent smelling, light bluish ozone gas. The ozone gas is made up of
molecules each containing three atoms of oxygen; its chemical formula is O .
3
The ozone layer, in the stratosphere acts as an efficient filter for harmful solar Ultraviolet B (UV-
B) rays Ozone is produced and destroyed naturally in the atmosphere and until recently, this
resulted in a well-balanced equilibrium .
Ozone is formed when oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths less than
240 nanometres and is destroyed when it absorbs ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths greater
than 290 nanometres. In recent years, scientists have measured a seasonal thinning of the ozone
layer primarily at the South Pole. This phenomenon is being called the ozone hole.
Ozone Depletion Process
Ozone is highly reactive and easily broken down by man-made chlorine and bromine compounds.
These compounds are found to be most responsible for most of ozone layer depletion.
The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs (used in refrigerator and air conditioners) and
other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are emitted into the atmosphere. Winds efficiently mix
and evenly distribute the ODS in the troposphere. These ODS compounds do not dissolve in rain,
are extremely stable, and have a long life span. After several years, they reach the stratosphere
by diffusion.
Strong UV light breaks apart the ODS molecules. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl
chloroform release chlorine atoms, and halons and methyl bromide release bromine atoms. It is
the chlorine and bromine atom that actually destroys ozone, not the intact ODS molecule. It is
estimated that one chlorine atom can destroy from 10,000 to 100,000 ozone molecules before it
is finally removed from the stratosphere.
Chemistry of Ozone Depletion
When ultraviolet light waves (UV) strike CFC* (CFCl ) molecules in the upper atmosphere, a
3
carbon-chlorine bond breaks, producing a chlorine (Cl) atom. The chlorine atom then reacts with
an ozone (O ) molecule breaking it apart and so destroying the ozone. This forms an ordinary
3
oxygen molecule (O ) and a chlorine monoxide (ClO) molecule. Then a free oxygen** atom
2
breaks up the chlorine monoxide. The chlorine is free to repeat the process of destroying more
ozone molecules. A single CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules.
* CFC - chlorofluorocarbon: it contains chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms. ** UV radiation
breaks oxygen molecules (O ) into single oxygen atoms.
2
Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion
1) Effects on Human and Animal Health: Increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation is likely
to have high impact on human health with potential risks of eye diseases, skin cancer and infectious
diseases.
2) Effects on Terrestrial Plants: In forests and grasslands, increased radiation is likely to change
species composition thus altering the bio-diversity in different ecosystems. It could also may affect
the plant community.
3) Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems: High levels of radiation exposure in tropics and subtropics
may affect the distribution of Phytoplankton’s, which form the foundation of aquatic food webs.
It can also cause damage to early development stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and other
animals, the most severe effects being decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval
development.
4) Effects on Bio-geo-chemical Cycles: Increased solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial and
aquatic bio-geo-chemical cycles thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and
important trace gases, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO ), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulfide
2
(COS), etc. These changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks responsible for
the atmosphere build-up of these greenhouse gases.
5) Effects on Air Quality: Reduction of stratospheric ozone and increased penetration of UV-B
radiation result in higher photo dissociation rates of key trace gases that control the chemical
reactivity of the troposphere. This can increase both production and destruction of ozone and
related oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide, which are known to have adverse effects on human
health, terrestrial plants and outdoor materials.
The ozone layer, therefore, is highly beneficial to plant and animal life on earth filtering out the
dangerous part of sun’s radiation and allowing only the beneficial part to reach earth. Any
disturbance or depletion of this layer would result in an increase of harmful radiation reaching
the earth’s surface leading to dangerous consequences.
3.3.5NUCLEAR HOLOCOST AND NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS
The threat of a nuclear holocaust plays an important role in the popular perception of nuclear
weapons. It features in the security concept of mutually assured destruction (MAD) and is a
common scenario in survivalism. Nuclear holocaust is a common feature in literature, especially
in speculative genres such as science fiction, dystopian and post-apocalyptic fiction.
The English word "holocaust", derived from the Greek term "holokaustos" meaning "completely
burnt", is commonly defined as "a great destruction resulting in the extensive loss of life, especially
by fire."
Case study: Chernobyl reactor
A mishandled reactor safety test led to an uncontrolled power excursion, causing a severe steam
explosion, meltdown and release of radioactive material at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant
located approximately 100 kilometers north-northwest of Kiev. Approximately fifty fatalities
resulted from the accident and the immediate aftermath most of these being cleanup personnel. An
additional nine fatal cases of thyroid cancer in children in the Chernobyl area have been attributed
to the accident. The explosion and combustion of the graphite reactor core spread
radioactive material over much of Europe. 100,000 people were evacuated from the areas
immediately surrounding Chernobyl in addition to 300,000 from the areas of heavy fallout in
Ukraine, Belarus and Russia. An "Exclusion Zone" was created surrounding the site encompassing
approximately 1,000 mi² (3,000 km²) and deemed off-limits for human habitation for an indefinite
period. Several studies by governments, UN agencies and environmental groups have estimated
the consequences and eventual number of casualties. Their findings are subject tocontroversy.
Unit IV
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions, seasonal variations and
extremes of weather in region. Such conditions which average over a long period at least 30 years is called
climate.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992published best available
evidence about past climate change, the greenhouse effect and recent changes in global temperature. It is
observed that earth’s temperature has changed considerably during the geological times. It has experienced
several glacial and interglacial periods.
According to an ongoing temperature analysis led by scientists at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space
Studies (GISS), the average global temperature on Earth has increased by at least 1.1° Celsius (1.9°
Fahrenheit) since 1880. We have relatively stable climate for thousands of years due to which we have
practiced agriculture and increased population.
Even small changes in climatic conditions may disturb agriculture that would lead to migration of
animals including humans.
Anthropogenic activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has been established between various
components of the environment.
Green house gases are increasing in atmosphere resulting in increase in the average global temperature.
This may upset the hydrological cycle; result in floods and droughts in different regions of the world,
cause sea level rise, changes in agricultural productivity, famines and death of humans as well as livestock
Impact of Climate change

4.1:GLOBAL WARMING
Introduction:
Before the Industrial Revolution, human activities released very few gases into the atmosphere and all
climate changes happened naturally. After the Industrial Revolution, through fossil fuel combustion,
changing agricultural practices and deforestation, the natural composition of gases in the atmosphere is
getting affected and climate and environment began to alter significantly.
Over the last 100 years, it was found out that the earth is getting warmer and warmer, unlike previous 8000
years when temperatures have been relatively constant. The present temperature is
o
0.3 - 0.6 C warmer than it was 100 years ago.
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring process that aids in heating the Earth's surfaceand
atmosphere. It results from the fact that certain atmospheric gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor,
and methane, are able to change the energy balance of the planet by absorbing long wave radiation
emitted from the Earth's surface. Without the greenhouse effect life on this planet would probably not exist
as the average temperature of the Earth would be a chilly -18° Celsius, rather than the present 15° Celsius.
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and
wood and wood products are burned.
Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions
also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills, and the raising of
livestock. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during
combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.
Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per
fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a variety of industrial
processes.
Often, estimates of greenhouse gas emissions are presented in units of millions of metric tons of carbon
equivalents (MMTCE), which weights each gas by its Global Warming Potential or GWP value.
The heating of the ground by sunlight causes the Earth's surface to become a radiator of energy in the
long wave band (sometimes called infrared radiation). This emission of energy is generally directed to
space . However, only a small portion of this energy actually makes it backto space. The majority of the
outgoing infrared radiation is absorbed by the greenhouse gases
Absorption of long wave radiation by the atmosphere causes additional heat energy to be addedto the
Earth's atmospheric system. The now warmer atmospheric greenhouse gas molecules begin radiating long
wave energy in all directions. Over 90% of this emission of long wave energy is directed back to the
Earth's surface where it once again is absorbed by the surface. The heating of the ground by the long wave
radiation causes the ground surface to once again radiate,repeating the cycle described above, again and
again, until no more long wave is available for absorption.
A number of gases are involved in the human caused enhancement of the greenhouse effect
.These gases include: carbon dioxide (CO2); methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O); chlorofluorocarbons
(CFxClx); and tropospheric ozone (O3). Of these gases, the single most important gas is carbon dioxide
which accounts for about 55% of the change in the intensity of the Earth's greenhouse effect. The
contributions of the other gases are 25% for chlorofluorocarbons, 15% for methane, and 5% for nitrous
oxide
Methane concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by more than 150%. The primary sources for
the additional methane added to the atmosphere (in order of importance) are rice cultivation, domestic
grazing animals, termites, landfills, coal mining, and oil and gas extraction. Anaerobic conditions
associated with rice paddy flooding results in the formation of methane gas. However, an accurate estimate
of how much methane is being produced from rice paddies has been difficult to obtain. More than 60%
of all rice paddies are found in India and
Scientists believe that the contribution of rice paddies is large because this form of crop production has
more than doubled since 1950. Grazing animals release methane to the environment as a result of
herbaceous digestion. Some researchers believe the addition of methane from this source has more than
quadrupled over the last century.
Ozone's role in the enhancement of the greenhouse effect has been difficult to determinescientifically.
Accurate measurements of past long-term (more than 25 years in the past) levels of this gas in the
atmosphere are currently unavailable. Concentrations of ozone gas are found intwo different regions of
the Earth's atmosphere. The majority of the ozone (about 97%) found in the atmosphere is localized in the
stratosphere at an altitude of 15 to 55 kilometers above the Earth's surface. In recent years, the
concentration of the stratospheric ozone has been decreasing because of the buildup of
chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. Since the late 1970s, scientists have discovered that total column
ozone amounts over Antarctica in the springtime have decreased by as much as 70%. Satellite
measurements have indicated that the zone from 65° North to 65° South latitude has had a 3% decrease in
stratospheric ozone since 1978. Ozone is also highly concentrated at the Earth's surface. Most of this ozone
is created as anartificial by product of photochemical smog.
4,2:Global Warming (Climate Change) Implications

Rise in global temperature
Observations show that global temperatures have risen by about 0.6 °C over the 20th century.
There is strong evidence now that most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is caused by human
activities. Climate models predict that the global temperature will rise by about 6 °Cby the year 2100.
Rise in sea level
In general, the faster the climate change, the greater will be the risk of damage. The mean sea level is
expected to rise 9 - 88 cm by the year 2100, causing flooding of low lying areas andother damages.
Food shortages and hunger

Water resources will be affected as precipitation and evaporation patterns change around the world. This
will affect agricultural output. Food security is likely to be threatened and some regions are likely to
experience food shortages and hunger.
4.3 : CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM
History and Objectives of the Mechanism:

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an economic instrument for inducing initiatives to
meet the challenges faced by the impending threat of climate change. It is a mechanism for promoting
technology transfer and investment from developed countries to the developing countries for projects to
reduce the emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs). The mechanism allows the governments or private
parties of developed countries to make investment for emission reduction projects in developing countries
and, in turn, get the benefit in terms of “Certified Emission Reduction (CER)” which could be credited
against their national emission reduction targets.
The concept of CDM owes its origin to the Kyoto Protocol (1997) under the UN Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) mooted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (Earth Summit) in 1992. Kyoto Protocol: It is an international agreement that aims to
manage and reduce carbon dioxide emissions and greenhouse gases. Kyoto Protocol is an agreement under
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, adopted in December 1997 .The
Convention on Climate Change andthe follow-up initiatives were prompted by the increasing evidence of
global warming triggered by anthropogenic emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) which include
Carbon Dioxide, Nitrous Oxide, Methane, Halogenated Hydrocarbon and Tropospheric Ozone. According
to an assessment, doubling of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere or an equivalent increase
of a mixture of greenhouse gases can cause 1.5 to 4.5oC rise in global temperature with associated impacts
such as sea level rise,Floods and droughts.
Purpose
The purpose of the CDM is to promote clean development in developing countries, i.e., the "non-Annex
I" countries (countries that aren't listed in Annex I of the Framework Convention). The CDM is one of the
Protocol's "project-based" mechanisms in that the CDM is designed to promote projects that reduce
emissions. The CDM is based on the idea of emission reduction "production". These reductions are
"produced" and then subtracted against a hypothetical "baseline" of emissions. The emissions baseline are
the emissions that are predicted to occur in the absence of a particular CDM project. CDM projects are
"credited" against this baseline, inthe sense that developing countries gain credit for producing these
emission cuts. The CDM is one of the "flexibility mechanisms" that is defined in the Kyoto Protocol. The
flexibility mechanisms are designed to allow Annex B countries to meet their emission reduction
commitments with reduced impact on their economies (IPCC, 2007).The flexibility mechanisms were
introduced to the Kyoto Protocol by the US government.
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Project Cycle
The Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol defines a series of steps necessary todevelop
certified emissions reductions (CERs):
1. Project Design
2. Project Validation
3. Host Country Approval
4. Registration with the CDM Executive Board
5. Implementation and Monitoring
6. Verification/Certification and Issuance of CERs
7. Sale of CERs
4.2 CARBON FOOTPRINT
INTRODUCTION:
‘Carbon footprint’ measures the total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by a
person, organization, event or product.
The footprint considers all six of the Kyoto Protocol greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane
(CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6).
A carbon footprint is measured in tones of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e). The carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2e) allows the different greenhouse gases to be compared on a like-for- like basis relative
to one unit of CO2. CO2e is calculated by multiplying the emissions of each of the six greenhouse gases
by its 100 year global warming potential (GWP).
The main types of carbon footprint for organizations are:
A) ORGANISATIONAL CARBON FOOTPRINT
Emissions from all the activities across the organization, including buildings’ energy use,
industrial processes and company vehicles.
An organizational or business carbon footprint measures the direct and indirect greenhouse
gas emissions arising from all of an organization’s activities.
The Greenhouse Gas Protocol* standard is commonly used to categorize an organization’s emissions into
3 groups or ‘scopes’:
 Scope 1 - Direct emissions

Direct emissions resulting from activities within the organization’s control. Includes on-site fuel
combustion, manufacturing and process emissions, refrigerant losses and company vehicles.
 Scope 2 - Indirect emissions: electricity and heat
Indirect emissions from electricity, heat or steam purchased and used by the organization.
 Scope 3 - Indirect emissions: other
Any other indirect emissions from sources not directly controlled by the organization. Examples
include: employee business travel, outsourced transportation, waste disposal,water usage and
employee commuting.
The 2 main reasons for calculating an organizational carbon footprint are that it will help you to:
 Manage and reduce emissions

Reducing your business carbon footprint often results in cost savings. Analyzing your organization’s
carbon footprint will help you to identify and prioritize areas for potentialreduction.
 Reporting
More and more organizations want to be able to demonstrate their carbon footprint forreasons of:
o Mandatory reporting requirements
Climate change legislation such as the Carbon Reduction Commitment EnergyEfficiency Scheme
(CRC) or EU Emissions Trading Scheme require such reporting, for example.
o Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
Showing that you are behaving in a responsible and ethical way is becoming evermore important
o Responding to requests
Partners, customers and investors are increasingly interested in carbon emissionsdata. There are also
carbon reporting initiatives such as the Carbon Disclosure Project.
Steps:
The basic 6 steps required to calculate a carbon footprint for an organization are as follows:
1. Establishment of the assessment boundaries:

• Organizational
• Operational
• Greenhouse gases
2. Collection of data.
3. Calculation of emissions using appropriate emissions factors
4.Convert usage into CO2 equivalent
5.Verifying the results (optional)
6.Reporting the carbon footprint
1. Method definition
You need to have a consistent method to get accurate results – especially if you are going to relyon lots
of different people to collect and interpret data.
Good sources of standards include:
 Greenhouse Gas Protocol

Free set of commonly used standards
 International Organization for Standardization, ISO 14064
Builds on many of the concepts introduced by the GHG Protocol
2. Establishment of the assessment boundaries:

You will need to define:
 Organizational boundaries
What parts of the organization are included? This can be complex for large organizationswith many
subsidiaries, joint ventures or leased assets.
 Operational boundaries
All scope 1 and scope 2 emissions should be included, but the organization can choosewhich scope 3
emissions to include.
When choosing a boundary try to take account of how your organization works, other reportingperiods,
legislative requirements, and the practicalities of data collection.
3. Collate data
It is important to collect data as thoroughly and accurately as possible. The main sources of data are
usually:
 Gas and electricity – meter readings or bills (kWh)

 Other fuels – usage in liters, kWh, MJ, liters
 Transport – usage by fuel type (if this is not possible estimate it based on the mileage of
the vehicles and fuel economy assumptions)
4.ConvertusageintoCO2equivalent
The carbon footprint is measured in tonnes CO2 equivalent (tCO2e). This is calculated by converting the
data you have collected. You should always use conversions from crediblesources, see our conversion
factor tables. It is important that you identify any data gaps and list the assumptions you have made in
calculating the footprint.
( A carbon dioxide equivalent or CO2 equivalent, abbreviated as CO2-eq is a metric measure used to
compare the emissions from various greenhouse gases on the basis of their global-warming potential
(GWP) by converting amounts of other gases to the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide with the same
global warming potential.
Carbon dioxide equivalents are commonly expressed as million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide
equivalents, abbreviated as MMTCDE.
The carbon dioxide equivalent for a gas is derived by multiplying the tonnes of the gas by the associated
GWP:
MMTCDE = (million metric tonnes of a gas) * (GWP of the gas).
For example, the GWP for methane is 25 and for nitrous oxide 298. This means that emissions of 1
million metric tonnes of methane and nitrous oxide respectively is equivalent to emissions of 25 and 298
million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide. )
Refer for more details: https://www.epa.gov/energy/greenhouse-gas-equivalencies-calculator
5.Verifyingtheresults(optional)
To add credibility, it makes sense for a third party to verify your carbon footprint. The Carbon Trust
Standard is one such company that can do this – as well as helping you to measure, reduce, and
communicate your carbon footprint.
6.Reportingthecarbonfootprint
Make sure you carbon footprint is presented clearly and honestly. This means providing complete
information about each of the steps above, including methods, footprint boundaries, data quality and
assumptions. Also - try to keep a consistent approach over different years, explaining any changes in
reporting or business structure that might impact the footprint.
B) PRODUCT CARBON FOOTPRINT
Emissions over the whole life of a product or service, from the extraction of raw materials and
manufacturing right through to its use and final reuse, recycling or disposal.
A product carbon footprint measures the greenhouse gas emissions at each stage of the product’slife.
A product carbon footprint measures the greenhouse gas emissions at each stage of the product’slife. This
includes:
 Extraction, production and transportation of raw materials

 Manufacture or service provision
 Distribution
 End-use
 Disposal/recycling
At each stage greenhouse gas emissions can result from such sources as: energy use, transportation fuel
refrigerant losses from air conditioning units and waste. In the case of a “service product” the life-cycle
stages are defined across the duration of the service.
Measuring a product’s carbon footprint offers a number of benefits, including:
 Attracting customers
Customers are becoming increasingly aware of the environmental impact of the goodsand services
they use. Working with the Carbon Trust Foot printing Companyor demonstrating a lower footprint
than competitor products can deliver competitive advantage.
 Brand identity
Reporting product carbon footprints shows that an organization takes its socialresponsibility
seriously.
 Leadership
Reporting your products’ carbon footprints will support your corporate responsibilityprogramme and
enhance your reputation.
 Cost savings
Identifying areas where greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced often results in costsavings - in
terms of transport energy, waste and packaging for example.
 Emissions savings
Looking at the whole supply chain could help you identify savings.
The basic steps required to calculate a carbon footprint for a product are as follows:
1. Analyze the materials and supply chain processes.
2. Build a supply chain map for the product.
3. Define the assessment boundaries (including the selection of greenhouse gases
and the emissions sources which will be included).
4. Data collection
5. Calculation of emissions using appropriate emissions factors.
1. The primary footprint is a measure of our direct emissions of CO2 from the burning of fossil
fuels including domestic energy consumption and transportation (e.g. car and plane). We have
direct control of these.
2. The secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect CO2 emissions from the whole lifecycle of
products we use - those associated with their manufacture and eventual breakdown. To put it
very simply – the more we buy the more emissions will be caused on our behalf.
Product Carbon Footprints are commonly expressed either as ‘cradle to gate’ footprints, or‘cradle to
grave’ depending on the life-cycle stages included.
4.3 CARBON CREDIT
INTRODUCTION
Carbon credits are a tradable permit scheme. It is a simple, non-compulsory way to counteractthe
greenhouse gasses that contribute to climate change and global warming. Carbon credits create a market
for reducing greenhouse emissions by giving a monetary value to the cost of polluting the air. The Carbon
Credit is this new currency and each carbon credit represents one tonne of carbon dioxide either removed
from the atmosphere or saved from being emitted. Carbon credits are also called emission permit. Carbon
credit is in the Environment and Pollution Control subject. Carbon credits are certificates awarded to
countries that are successful in reducing emissions of greenhouse gases.
GENERATIONOFCARBONCREDITS
Carbon credits are generated as the result of an additional carbon project. Carbon credits can becreated
in many ways but there are two broad types:
1. Sequestration (capturing or retaining carbon dioxide from the atmosphere) such as
afforestation and reforestation activities.
2. Carbon Dioxide Saving Projects such as use of renewable energies
These credits need to be authentic, scientifically based and Verification is essential.Carbon credit
trading is an innovative method of controlling emissions using the free market.
TYPES OF CARBON CREDIT
There are two main markets for carbon credits:

A) Compliance Market credits
B) Verified Market credits (VERs)
VALUE OF CARBON CREDITS
Carbon credits create a market for reducing greenhouse gases emissions by giving a monetary value to
the cost of polluting the air such as carbon emitted by burning of fossil fuels. This means that carbon
becomes a cost of business and is seen like other inputs such as raw materialsor labor.
Carbon credits are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide.1 credit

= 1 tonne of CO2.
Each carbon credit represents one metric ton of C02 either removed from the atmosphere or saved
from being emitted. The carbon credit market creates a monetary value for carbon credits and allows
the credits to be traded.
For each tonne of carbon dioxide that is saved or sequestered carbon credit producers may sellone
carbon credit.
4.4 CARBON SEQUESTRATION or CARBON CAPTURE AND STROAGE or

SCRUBBING OF CO2
Carbon sequestration is the capture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and may refer specifically to:
 "The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir."
When carried out deliberately, this may also be referred to as carbon dioxide removal,
which is a form of geoengineering.
 The process of carbon capture and storage, where carbon dioxide is removed from flue
gases, such as on power stations, before being stored in underground reservoirs.
 Natural biogeochemical cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and reservoirs, such
as by chemical weathering of rocks.
Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either
mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change. It has been proposed as a way to
slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil
fuels.
Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or physical
processes. Some anthropogenic sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes,while some use
entirely artificial processes.
Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining or from
flue gases from power generation.CO2 sequestration includes the storage part of carbon capture and
storage, which refers to large-scale, permanent artificial capture and sequestration of
industrially produced CO2 using subsurface salineaquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oilfields, or
other carbon sinks.
STEPS :
A) Capturing or Scrubbing
B) Transporation
C) Sequestration or Storage
A) CAPTURING or SCRUBBING OF CO2:
TECHNOLOGIES:
Broadly, three different types of technologies for scrubbing of CO2 exist:
2. post-combustion,
3. pre-combustion, and
4. oxyfuel combustion
5. Chemical looping
1. Post-Combustion: In post combustion capture, the CO2 is removed after combustion of the
fossil fuel — this is the scheme that would be applied to fossil-fuel burning power plants. Here,
carbon dioxide is captured from flue gases at power stations or other large point sources. The
technology is well understood and is currently used in other industrial applications, although not
at the same scale as might be required in a commercial scale power station.
2. Pre-Combustion : The technology for pre-combustion is widely applied in fertilizer, chemical,

gaseous fuel (H2, CH4), and power production. In these cases, the fossil fuel is partiallyoxidized,
for instance in a gasifier. The resulting syngas (CO and H2O) is shifted into CO2 and more H2.
The resulting CO2 can be captured from a relatively pure exhaust stream. The H2 can now be
used as fuel; the carbon dioxide is removed before combustion takes place. There are several
advantages and disadvantages when compared to conventional post combustion carbon dioxide
capture. The CO2 is removed after combustion of fossil fuels, but before the flue gas is expanded
to atmospheric pressure. This scheme is applied to new fossil fuel burning power plants, or to
existing plants where re-powering is an option. The capture before expansion, i.e. from
pressurized gas, is standard in almost all industrial CO2 capture processes, at the same scale as
will be required for utility power plants.
3. Oxy-Fuel Combustion: In oxy-fuel combustion the fuel is burned in oxygen instead of air. To
limit the resulting flame temperatures to levels common during conventional combustion, cooled
flue gas is re-circulated and injected into the combustion chamber. The flue gas consists of
mainly carbon dioxide and water vapor, the latter of which is condensed through cooling. The
result is an almost pure carbon dioxide stream that can be transported to the sequestration site
and stored. Power plant processes based on oxy fuel combustion are sometimes referred to as
"zero emission" cycles, because the CO2 stored is not a fraction removed from the flue gas
stream (as in the cases of pre- and post-combustion capture) but the flue gas stream itself. A
certain fraction of the CO2 generated during combustion will inevitably end up in the condensed
water. To warrant the label "zero emission" the water would thus have to be treated or disposed
of appropriately. The technique is promising, but the initial air separation step demands a lot of
energy.
4. Chemical looping combustion (ClC): Chemical looping uses a metal oxide as a solid oxygen
carrier. Metal oxide particles react with a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel in a fluidized bed
combustor, producing solid metal particles and a mixture of carbon dioxide and water vapor. The
water vapor is condensed, leaving pure carbon dioxide which can then be sequestered. The solid
metal particles are circulated to another fluidized bed where they react with air, producing heat
and regenerating metal oxide particles that are re circulated to the fluidized bed combustor.
5. Calcium looping: A variant of chemical looping is calcium looping, which uses the alternating
carbonation and then calcinations of a calcium oxide based carrier as a means of capturing CO2.
B) TRANSPORT:
After capture, the CO2 would have to be transported to suitable storage sites. This is done by pipeline,
which is generally the cheapest form of transport. In 2008, there were approximately 5,800 km of CO2
pipelines in the United States, used to transport CO2 to oil production fields where it is then injected into
older fields to extract oil. The injection of CO2 to produce oil is generally called Enhanced Oil Recovery
or EOR.
In addition, there are several pilot programs in various stages to test the long-term storage ofCO2 in
non-oil producing geologic formations.
A COA conveyor belt system or ship could also be utilized for transport. These methods are currently used
for transporting CO2 for other applications.
C) SEQUESTRATION or STORAGE:
Various forms have been conceived for permanent storage of CO2. These forms include gaseous storage
in various deep geological formations (including saline formations and exhausted gas fields), liquid
storage in the ocean, and solid storage by reaction of CO2 with metal oxides to produce stable carbonates.
i) GEOLOGICAL STORAGE: Also known as geo-sequestration, this method involves injecting
carbon dioxide, generally in supercritical form, directly into underground geological formations.
Oil fields, gas fields, saline formations, unmineable coal seams, and saline-filled basalt
formations have been suggested as storage sites. Various physical (e.g., highly impermeable cap
rock) and geochemical trapping mechanisms would prevent the CO2 from escaping to the
surface.
Enhanced oil recovery:CO2 is sometimes injected into declining oil fields to increase oilrecovery. This
option is attractive because the geology of hydrocarbon reservoirs is generally well understood and storage
costs may be partly offset by the sale of additional oil that is recovered. Disadvantages of old oil fields are
their geographic distribution and their limited capacity, as well as the fact that subsequent burning of the
additional oil so recovered will offset much or all of the reduction in CO2 emissions.
Unmineable coal seams can be used to store CO2 because the CO2 molecules attach to the surface of coal.
The technical feasibility, however, depends on the permeability of the coal bed. In the process of
absorption the coal releases previously absorbed methane, and the methane can be recovered (enhanced
coal bed methane recovery). The sale of the methane can be used to offset a portion of the cost of the CO2
storage. Burning the resultant methane, however, would produce CO2, which would negate some of the
benefit of sequestering the original CO2.
II) OCEAN STORAGE:

Another proposed form of carbon storage is in the oceans. Several concepts have been proposed:
 'Dissolution' injects CO2 by ship or pipeline into the ocean water column at depths of 1000
– 3000 m, forming an upward-plume, and the CO2 subsequently dissolves inseawater.
 Through 'lake' deposits, by injecting CO2 directly into the sea at depths greater than 3000
m, where high-pressure liquefies CO2, making it denser than water, and forms a downward-
plume that may accumulate on the sea floor as a 'lake', and is expected todelay
dissolution of CO2 into the ocean and atmosphere, possibly for millennia.
 Use a chemical reaction to combine CO2 with a carbonate mineral (such as limestone) to
form bicarbonate(s), for example: CO2 + CaCO3 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2(aq). However, the
aqueous bicarbonate solution must not be allowed to dry out, or else the reaction will
reverse.
 Store the CO2 in solid clathrate hydrates already existing on the ocean floor,[23][24] or
growing more solid clathrate.
The environmental effects of oceanic storage are generally negative, and poorly understood. Large
concentrations of CO2 could kill ocean organisms, but another problem is that dissolved CO2 would
eventually equilibrate with the atmosphere, so the storage would not be permanent.In addition, as part of
the CO2 reacts with the water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3, the acidity of the ocean water increases.
The bicarbonate approach would reduce the pH effects and enhance the retention of CO2 in the ocean, but
this would also increase the costs and other environmental effects.
III) MINERAL STORAGE:

In this process, CO2 is exothermically reacted with available metal oxides, which in turn produces stable
carbonates. This process occurs naturally over many years and is responsible for a great amount of
surface limestone. The reaction rate can be made faster, for example by
reacting at higher temperatures and/or pressures, or by pre-treatment of the minerals, although
this method can require additional energy.
Carbon sequestration by reacting naturally occurring Mg and Ca containing minerals with
CO2 toform carbonates has many unique advantages. Most notable is the fact that carbonates
have a lower energy state than CO2, which is why mineral carbonation is thermodynamically
favorable and occurs naturally (e.g., the weathering of rock over geologic time periods).
Secondly, the raw materials such as magnesium based minerals are abundant. Finally, the
produced carbonates are unarguably stable and thus re-release of CO2 into the atmosphere is
not an issue. However, conventional carbonation pathways are slow under ambient
temperatures and pressures. The significant challenge being addressed by this effort is to
identify an industrially and environmentally viable carbonation route that will allow mineral
sequestration to be implemented with acceptable economics
4,5 :POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE
The polluter pays principle (PPP) is a basic economic idea that firms or consumers should
payfor the cost of the negative externality they create. The polluter pays principle usually
refers to environmental costs, but it could be extended to any external cost.
In a purely free market, you would only face your private costs. However, for goods with
negative externalities, there are additional external costs, e.g. damage to the environment.
This means the social cost of some goods are greater than the private cost.
The polluter pays principle is simply the idea that we should pay the total social cost including
the environmental costs. This requires some authority or government agency to calculate our
external costs and make sure that we pay the full social cost. A simple example, is a tax on
petrol. When consuming petrol, we create pollution. The tax means the price we pay more
closely reflects the social cost.
The polluter pays principle is a way of ‘internalizing the externality’. It makes the firm /
consumer pay the total social cost, rather than just the private cost. (Social cost = private
cost+ external cost)
The polluter pays principle is an important basis of international law. In 1972, the OECD
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)wrote Guiding Principles
concerning International Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies, stating:
“ The polluter should bear the expenses of carrying out the above-mentioned measures
decidedby public authorities to ensure that the environment is in an acceptable state.”
The polluter pays principle was incorporated into the 1992 Rio summit the declaration stated:
“National authorities should endeavor to promote the internalization of environmental costs

and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter
should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and
without distorting international trade and investment.”
Unit V
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
The objective of environmental law is to preserve and protect the nature's gifts from pollution.
Further, the objective of environmental law is to protect the man's fundamental rights of freedom,
equality and adequate conditions of life in an environment of quality that permits a life of dignity
and wellbeing.
Article 48A
It reads as: The State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the
forests and wildlife of the country
Article 51A (g) places a duty on the citizens of India to protect and improve the natural
environment and have compassion for all living creatures
Following is a list of major Environmental Acts and Rules applicable in India.

• The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1974 (as amended upto 1998).
• The Water (Prevention &control of Pollution) cess Act, 1977 (as amended by Amendment Act
1991).
• The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1981 as amended by Amendment Act 1986
• Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
• Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules 1989.
• The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991.
• Environment Protection Amendment Rule 1983.
• Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals (Amendment) Rules 1984.
• The Factories Act 1984.
• The Forest Conservation Act 1980.
• The Notification on Environment Impact Assessment 1994.
5.1.1 THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT (EPA)
An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected
there with:
Whereas the decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
held at Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the
protection and improvement of human environment
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 not only has important constitutionals implications but
also an international background.
This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It extends to the whole of India.
Powers and Functions of the Boards
(i) Co-ordination of actions by the State Governments, officers and other authorities--
(a) Under this Act, or the rules made there under, or
(b) Under any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the objects of this
Act;
(ii) Planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
(iii) Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
(iv) Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various
sources whatsoever:
Provided that different standards for emission or discharge may be laid down under this clause
from different sources having regard to the quality or composition of the emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants from such sources;
(v) Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain
safeguards;
(vi) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents;
(vii) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(viii) Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are likely to
cause environmental pollution;
(ix) Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of
environmental pollution;
(x) Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes,
materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions to such authorities, officers
or persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
(xi) Establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to carry out the
functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes under this Act;
(xii) collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental
pollution;
(xiii) Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and abatement
of environmental pollution;
(xiv) Such other matters as the Central Government deems necessary or expedient for the
purpose of securing the effective implementation of the provisions of this Act.
Appointment of officers and their Powers and Functions

Without prejudice to the provisions , the Central Government may appoint officers with such
designation as it thinks fit for the purposes of this Act and may entrust to them such of the powers
and functions under this Act as it may deem fit.
Power to give directions

Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law but subject to the provisions of this Act, the
Central Government may, in the exercise of its powers and performance of its functions under this
Act, issue directions in writing to any person, officer or any authority and such person, officer or
authority shall be bound to comply with such directions.3
Explanation--For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions
under this section includes the power to direct--
(a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process; or
(b) stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service.
RULES TO REGULATE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules in respect of
all or any of the matters referred
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:--
(a) the standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes;
(b) the maximum allowable limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants
(including noise) for different areas;
(c) the procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(d) the prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different
areas;
(e) the prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on
process and operations in different areas;
(f) the procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and for providing for remedial measures for such accidents.
Prevention, Control and Abatement of Environmental Pollution

Persons carrying on industry operation, etc., not to allow emission or discharge of environmental
pollutants in excess of the standards
Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguards
Furnishing of information to authorities and agencies in certain cases.
Environmental Laboratories
(1) The Central Government15 may, by notification in the Official Gazette,--

(a) establish one or more environmental laboratories;
(b) recognize one or more laboratories or institutes as environmental laboratories to carry
out the functions entrusted to an environmental laboratory under this Act.
(2) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules specifying--
(a) the functions of the environmental laboratory;
(b) the procedure for the submission to the said laboratory of samples of air, water, soil
or other substance for analysis or tests, the form of the laboratory report thereon
and the fees payable for such report;
(c) such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that laboratory to
carry out its functions.
Penalty for Contravention of the Provisions of the Act and the Rules, orders and directions
(1) Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes any of the provisions of this Act, or the rules
made or orders or directions issued there under, shall, in respect of each such failure or
contravention, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years with
fine which may extend to one lakh rupees, or with both, and in case the failure or contravention
continues, with additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during
which such failure or contravention continues after the conviction for the first such failure or
contravention.
(2) If the failure or contravention continues beyond a period of one year after the date of
conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to
seven years
5.1.2 THE AIR (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT
It is also a comprehensive legislation with more than fifty sections. It makes provisions, inter alia,
for Central and State Boards, power to declare pollution control areas, restrictions on certain
industrial units, authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry,
inspection, taking samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and Government and
cognizance of offences etc.
The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and to prescribe
the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas. According to this Act, no person can operate
certain types of industries including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries
without consent of the State Board. The Board can predicate its consent upon the fulfillment of
certain conditions. The Air Act apparently adopts an industry wide “best available technology”
requirement. As in the Water Act, courts may hear complaints under the Act only at the instigation
of, or with the sanction of, the State Board.
The Government passed this Act in 1981 to clean up our air by controlling pollution. It states that
sources of air pollution such as industry, vehicles, power plants, etc., are not permitted to release
particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond a prescribed level. To ensure this, Pollution
Control Boards (PCBs) have been set up by Government to measure pollution levels in the
atmosphere and at certain sources by testing the air. This is measured in parts per million orin
milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter. The particulate matter and gases that are released by
industry and by cars, buses and two wheelers is measured by using air-sampling equipment.
However, the most important aspect is for people themselves to appreciate the dangers of air
pollution and reduce their own potential as polluters by seeing that their own vehicles or the
industry they work in reduces levels of emissions. This Act is created to take appropriate steps
for the preservation of the natural resources of the Earth which among other things includes the
preservation of high quality air and ensures controlling the level of air pollution.
The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the
Act.
(C) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to the
Boards functions relating to pollution
Air pollution is more acute in heavily industrialized and urbanized areas, which are also densely
populated. The presence of pollution beyond certain Limits due to various pollutants discharged
through industrial emission is monitored by the PCBs set up in every state.
Powers and Functions of the Boards

Central Pollution Board: The main function of the Central Board is to implement legislation
created to improve the quality of air and to prevent and control air pollution in the country. The
Board advises the Central Government on matters concerning the improvement of air quality and
also coordinates activities, provides technical assistance and guidance to State Boards and lays
down standards for the quality of air. It collects and disseminates information in respect of matters
relating to air pollution and performs functions as prescribed in the Act.
State Pollution Control Boards: The State Boards have the power to advise the State Government
on any matter concerning the prevention and control of air pollution. They have the right to inspect
at all reasonable times any control equipment, industrial plant, or manufacturing process and give
orders to take the necessary steps to control pollution.
They are expected to inspect air pollution control areas at intervals or whenever necessary. They
are empowered to provide standards for emissions to be laid down for different industrial plants
with regard to quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere. A State
Board may establish or recognize a laboratory to perform this function. The State Governments
have been given powers to declare air pollution control areas after consulting with the State Board
and also give instructions to ensure standards of emission from automobiles and restriction on use
of certain industrial plants.
Penalties: The persons managing industry are to be penalized if they produce emissions of air
pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board. The Board also makes
applications to the court for restraining persons causing air pollution. Whoever contravenes any of
the provision of the Act or any order or direction issued is punishable with imprisonment for aterm
which may extend to three months or with a fine of Rs 10,000 or with both, and in case of
continuing offence with an additional fine which may extend to Rs 5,000 for every day during
which such contravention continues after conviction for the first contravention.
5.1.3 THE WATER (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT
The government formulated this act in 1974 to prevent the pollution of water by industrial,
agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our water sources.
Wastewaters with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands, rivers, lakes, wells as well as the
sea are serious health hazards. Controlling the point sources by monitoring the levels of different
pollutants is one way to prevent pollution, by punishing the polluter. Individuals can also do several
things to reduce water pollution such as using biodegradable chemicals for household use,
reducing the use of pesticides in gardens, and identifying polluting sources at work places and in
industrial units where oil are or other petroleum products and heavy metals are used. Excessive
organic matter, sediments and infecting organism from hospital wastes can also pollute our water.
Citizen needs to develop a watchdog force to inform authorities to appropriate actions against
different types of water pollution. However, preventing pollution is better than trying to cure the
problems it has created, or punishing offenders.
The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and abatement of water
pollution and the maintenance or restoration n of the wholesomeness of water. It is designed to
assess pollution levels and punish polluters. The Central Government and State Government have
set up PCBs to monitor water pollution.
The Water Act 1974 with certain amendments in 1978 is an extensive legislation with more than
sixty sections for the prevention and control of water pollution. Among other things, the Act
provides for constitution of central and State Boards for preventing water pollution, power to take
water samples and their analysis, discharge of sewage or trade effluents, appeals, revision,
minimum and maximum penalties, publication of names of offenders, offences by companies and
Government departments, cognizance of offences, water laboratories, analysis etc. Prevention and
control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or ‘consent administration’ procedure.
Discharge of effluents is permitted by obtaining the consent of the State Water Board, subject to
any condition they specify. Any person who fails to comply with a directive of the State cannot,
however, entertain in suit under this Act unless the suit is brought by, or with the sanction of the
State Board.
WATER POLLUTION CESS ACT 1977
According to this Act, anyone consuming water has to pay certain amount of cess depending on
1. Whether the industry is using water for industrial cooling, spraying in mine pits or boilers feed,
2. For domestic purposes,
3. in processing, whereby water gets polluted and pollutants are easily biodegradable, and
4. in processing whereby water gets polluted and the pollutants are not easily bio-degradable and
are toxic. Those industries that had installed a suitable treatment plant for the treatment of
industrial effluents can get a rebate of 70 per cent on the cess payable.
5.1.4 WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT
The Act is adopted by all states in India except J&K, which has its own Act
The act is aimed to protect and preserve wild life. Wild life refers to all animals and plants that are
not domesticated. India has rich wild life heritage; it has 350 species of mammals, 1200 species of
birds and about 20,000 known species of insects. Some of them are listed as ‘endangered species’
in the Wild life (Protection) Act. The Act envisages national parks and wildlife sanctuaries as
protected areas to conserve wild life. Wild life populations are regularly monitored and
management strategies formulated to protect them.
The Act covers the rights and non-rights of forest dwellers too,- it provides restricted grazing in
sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks. It also prohibits the collection of non-timber forest
produce which might not harm the system. The rights of forest dwellers recognized by the Forest
policy of 1988 are taken away by the Amended Wild life Act of 1991.
The act, a landmark in the history of wildlife legislation in our country by which wildlife was
transferred from State list to concurrent list in 1976, thus giving power to the Central Government
to enact the legislation. In India, nearly 134 animal species have been regarded as threatened. A
National Wildlife action plan has been prepared whose objective is to establish a network of
scientifically managed areas such as national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves, to cover
representative and viable samples of all significant bio-geographicsubdivisions within the country.
The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as follows:
1. It defines the wildlife related terminology.
2. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory board, wildlife warden, their powers,
duties etc
3. Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was done for the first
time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned
4. Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue Vanda, Ladies Sliper Orchid,
Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act.
5. The act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wild life Sanctuaries etc.
6. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
7. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale,
possession, transfer etc.
8. The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
9. It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment of offenders.
10. It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. Several conservation
projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972), tiger (1973), crocodile (1974),
and brown antlered deer (1981) were started under this Act.
5.1.5 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT
The Indian Forest Act of 1927 consolidated all the previous laws regarding forests that were passed
before the 1920s. The Act gave the Government and Forest Department the power to create
Reserved Forests, and the right to use Reserved Forests for Government use alone.
It also created Protected Forests, in which the use of resources by local people was controlled.
Some forests were to be controlled by the village community, and these were called village Forests.
The Act remained in force till the 1980s when it was realized that protecting forests for timber
production alone was not acceptable. The other values of protecting the services that forests
provide and its valuable assets such as biodiversity began to overshadow the importance of their
revenue earnings from timber.
This led to the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 and its amendment 1988. India’s first Forest Policy
was enunciated in 1952. Between 1952 and 1988, the extent of deforestation was so great that it
became essential to formulate a new policy on forests and their utilization. The earlier forest
policies had focused only on revenue generation. In the 1980’s it became clear that forests must
be protected for their other functions such as the maintenance of soil and water regimes centered
around ecological concerns. It also provided for the use of goods and services of the forest for its
local inhabitants.
The new policy framework made conversion of forests into other uses much less possible.
Conservation of the forests as a natural heritage finds a place in the new policy, which includes
the preservation of its biological diversity and genetic resources. It also values meeting the needs
of local people for food, fuel wood, fodder and Non Timber Forest Produce or NTFPs. It gives
priority to maintaining environmental stability and ecological balances. It expressly states that
the network of Protected Areas should be strengthened and extended.
The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was enacted to control deforestation, It ensured that
forestlands could not be de-reserved without prior approval of the Central Government, This was
created as some states had begun to dereserve the Reserved Forests for non-forest use. These states
had regularized encroachments and resettled ‘project Affected people’ from development projects
such as dams in these de-reserved areas. The need for a new legislation became urgent. The Act
made it possible to retain a greater control over the frightening level of deforestation in the country
and specified penalties for offenders.
Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests:
• No person is allowed to make clearing or ser fire to a reserved forest. Cattle are not permitted to
trespass into the reserved forest, cutting, collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarrying or
collecting any forest products is punishable with imprisonment for a term of six months or with a
fine which may extended to Rs 500 or both.
Penalties for offences in protected Forests:
• A person who commits any of the following offences like cutting of trees, stripping the bark or
leaves of trees, set fire to such forests or permits cattle to damage any tree, shall be punishable
with imprisonment for a term which may extended to six months or with a fine which any extended
to Rs 500 or both.
• Any forest officer even without an order from the magistrate or a warrant can arrest any person
against whom a reasonable suspicion exists.
5.1.6 ISSUES INVOLVED IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL

LEGISLATION-PUBLIC AWARENESS
It is necessary to create awareness about the norms and projected environmental restrictions under
which organization may have environmental regulations and legislations rests with anumber of
different agencies. Central government is responsible for enforcement of various environmental
legislation for less polluting small scale industries. There is an urgent need to use a range of
measures to complement regulations.
It should be a must for all potential polluters to apply permission to operate, discharge or emit any
pollutants. In addition there should be a greater monitoring. The technique of environmental
assessment is applied to ensure that the significance of potential environmental impacts of
proposed projects are critically examined during the planning process. Another way of increasing
awareness on environmental protection is the introduction of voluntary scheme under which
companies which would meet certain standard of environmental property of their products.
The various expectations in different types of pollution are as follows:
1. Water Pollution:
Under the water resource act of the country it should be criminal offence to cause or knowingly
permit the entry in to controlled water of any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter or any other
solid matter, trade or sewage effluent without the consent. Accidental spillage or discharge of
such materials should be treated as an offence.
2. Air Pollution:
The legal responsibility about air pollution may be found in terms of the environmental
protection act, covering two complementary systems of air pollution (1) the most potentially
polluting activities. The major sources of air pollution are (a) Emission from industrial sources
(b) Emission from motors vehicles, (c) Emission from other sources.
Thus, to prevent air pollution, rules and regulations are required to be framed.
3. Wastes Disposal:
They may be regulatory bodies for waste disposal, waste collection. These should also be
directives relating to waste on the disposal of waste oil, the disposal of polychlorinated biphenyl,
and polychlorinated phenyls.
After the united Nation's Conference on Human Environment in 1972 the Environmental
legislation got a fresh impieties Indian first systematic approach in dealing with the environmental
issues started from water Act of 1974. This Act was amended in 1988 and a new section 33 A was
introduced which empowers state boards to issue directives to any person to close any industry
and to stop or regulate supply of water and electricity. Because of thecontinuing environmental
degradation and the Bhopal gas tragedy in 1974 the central government enacted fresh legislation
for adopting more strict environmental policies.
Environmental Protection Act 1986 is one of the most significant legislation to protect the
environment. Under Article 48A, the addition was made to the directive principles of state policy
as the state shall endeavors to protect and improve the environment and safeguard the forests and
wildlife of the country. Article 51A (g| imposes high responsibility on every citizen to protect the
environment and improve natural resources, including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife.
Every citizen has a choice of few records to mitigate pollution. These are (1) a common law and
action (2) a writ petition for completing the agency to enforce the law and (3) a citizen suit.
An upcoming industry must submit No Objection Certificate in respect of pollution before it starts
the implementation process. In case of a large project, it should submit Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to the Govt. of India for final
clearance of the project.
Recently Supreme Court of India emphasized on the need to strengthen some institutional
machinery to enforce antipollution law across the state. Supreme Court has further suggested that
Government should set up special courts exclusively to deal with cases relating to violation of
environmental laws. Supreme Court has also suggested that chemical industries should be treated
separately. In 1996, Supreme Court has ordered Union Government and local authorities to keep
clean the historical places on a regular basis.
Summary of Various laws and rules inacted in India for protection of environment.

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UNIT-I

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE INTRODUCTION AND

Environment has been classified into four major components:

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

1.1.1 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and

Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering.

1.1.2 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Because of environmental studies has been seen to be multidisciplinary in nature so it is considered

Ecosystem Structure and Function

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

Environmental Pollution Control

The scope of environmental studies in industry

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

Research and development

1.1.3 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE

Environment science has become significant for the following reasons:

1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance

2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

4. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction

5. Need for Wise Planning of Development

1.1.4 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

Some of these challenges are as under:

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

4. Need to Ground water

5. Development and Forests

1.2 NATURAL RESOURCES

a) Renewable resource or inexhaustible resources

b) Non-renewable resources or exhaustible resources

Natural Resources and Associated Problems

Human population is growing day-by-day. Continuous increase in population caused an increasing

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

There are many problems associated with natural resources:

Forest resources and associated problems

1.3 FOREST RESOURCES

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

Major causes of Deforestation:

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

Major activities and threats to Forestsresources:

DAMS AND OTHER EFFECTS ON FOREST AND TRIBAL PEOPLE

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

Chipko movement related to mining or quarrying opposed by SundarlalBahuguna in North India.

1.4 WATER RESOURCES

Distribution of water on earth:

Fresh water occurs mainly in two forms

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

OVER UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER AND SURFACE WATER

Over use of groundwater has following effects.

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

CONFLICTS OVER WATER

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

DAMS-BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

• Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers.

Department of Environmental Science, Mount Carmel College, Autonomous, Bengaluru

A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and identifiable