9.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Optics:
The word optics is derived from Greek term optika which refers to matters of vision.
Optics is the branch of physics which deals with the study of light energy. Optics is divided into two branches,
they are 1. Ray optics (or) Geometrical optics, 2. Physical optics.
1. Ray optics (or) Geometrical optics:
It is the branch of optics which deals with the study of rectilinear propagation of light and image
formation based on ray concept. The phenomena such as reflection and refraction of light are explained on the
basis of ray concept of light. Ray optics (or) Geometrical optics, describes light propagation in terms of rays.
2. Physical optics (wave optics and Quantum optics):
It is the branch of the optics which deals with the study of nature of light. That is, it deals with the
production, propagation and reception of light.
Physical optics is divided into two branches, they are 1. Wave optics, 2. Quantum optics
Wave optics:
It is the branch of physical optics which deals with the study of wave nature of light. The phenomena
such as interference, diffraction and polarization are explained on the basis of wave concept of light.
Quantum optics:
It is the branch of physical optics which deals with the study of particle nature of light. The phenomena
such as photoelectric effect and black body radiation are explained on the basis of quantum nature of light.
Properties of light:
1. It travels in vacuum with the velocity of 3  10 8 m / s . The present accepted value of speed of light in
vacuum is, c  2.99792458  10 8 m / s . It is calculated by Michelson’s rotating mirror experiment. But
for calculation purposes, it is taken as c  3  10 8 m / s
2. It exhibits rectilinear propagation.
3. It undergoes reflection, refraction, dispersion and absorption.
4. It exhibits interference, diffraction and polarization.
5. It exhibits photoelectric effect.
Monochromatic light: it is the light of single wavelength or single frequency or single colour.
Composite light: It is the light of several wavelengths or several frequencies or several colours.
Source of light: all objects that are visible to us are the sources of light.
Self-luminous bodies: These are the bodies that emit the light of their own.
Ex: sun, stars, etc.
Non-luminous bodies: These are the bodies that do not emit the light of their own, but reflects the light that
falls on them. Ex: planets, satellites, stones, trees etc.
Optical medium:
It is the medium (comprised of matter or not) which allows the light to pass through it.
Ex: Glass, water, air, vacuum, etc.
Classification of optical media:
1. Homogeneous medium: It is an optical medium of uniform density Ex: Pure water, clean glass etc.
2. Heterogeneous medium: It is an optical medium of variable density
Ex: Atmosphere surrounding the earth.
3. Isotropic medium: It is an optical medium in which the speed of light is same in all directions.
Ex: Crystals quartz, calcite etc.
4. Transparent medium: It is an optical medium, which allows the major part of light to pass through it.
Ex: Pure water, clean glass etc.
5. Translucent medium: It is an optical medium, which allow the minor part of light to pass through it.
Ex: Oiled paper, ground glass etc.
6. Opaque medium: It is a medium, which do not allow the light to pass through it. Ex: wood, wall, etc.
Ray of light:
It is a straight line with an arrow, which represents the path of light. The arrow, indicates the direction
in which the light is propagating.

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Beam of light:
It is the bundle of large number of light rays. The beam of light may be
parallel, converged or diverged.
Pencil of rays: it is the parallel beam of light with very small cross section.
Parallel beam: a parallel beam is one in which the rays are parallel to each other.
Convergent beam: It is the beam of light in which the rays are converges to a
point.
Divergent beam: It is the beam of light in which the rays appear to diverge from a
point or diverge from a point.
Law of rectilinear propagation of light:
The light travels along the straight line in a homogeneous medium.
Evidence: formation of shadows, eclipse etc.
Image of an object:
It is the geometrical replica of the object. The images are produced by reflection or refraction of light
or both using lenses and mirrors.
Real image:
It is the image that can be seen and can be caught on the screen, It is formed by the light rays that
converge. Real images are always invented.
Virtual image:
It is the image that can be seen but cannot be caught on the screen.
It is formed by the light rays that appear to diverge. Virtual images are always erect.
Behavior of light at the interface of two media:
When light travelling in one medium falls on the surface of another medium, the following three effects
may occur. 1. Reflection, 2. Refraction and 3. Absorption of light.
Mirror: It is a smooth surface which reflects light.
Plane mirror: It is a mirror with a planar reflecting surface.
Reflection of light by plane mirror:
In the figure,
AB is the reflecting surface (plane mirror),
PQ is the incident ray, QR is the reflected ray
Q is the normal drawn at the point of incidence.
PQN =  is the angle of incidence.
RQN =  is the angle of reflection.
Laws of reflection:
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface drawn at the point of
incidence all lie on the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
The laws reflection are obeyed whether the reflecting surfaces are plane or curved.
Number of images produced by two plane mirrors:
When a point object is placed between two plane mirrors, inclined at some angle, more than one image
is formed due to the multiple reflections of light from the mirrors. This principle is used in a device called
Kaleidoscope.
Consider the arrangement two plane mirrors make an angle  with each other then
360 360
The number of images formed is given by n   1 if is even integer.
 
360 360
n if is odd integer.
 
360
If the object is at symmetric place n  1

Spherical mirror:
It is a part of hollow sphere. Whose one side is reflecting and other is opaque.

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 Spherical mirrors are two types
1. Concave mirror: it is the spherical mirror in which reflecting surface is towards the centre of the sphere
of which mirror is a part.
2. Convex mirror: it is the spherical mirror in which reflecting surface is away from the centre of the
sphere of which mirror is a part.
Terms related spherical mirrors:

Pole (P):It is the midpoint of the spherical mirror.

Centre of curvature (C):
It is the centre of the sphere of which mirror forms a part.
Radius of curvature (R):
It is the radius of the sphere of which mirror forms a part (R).
Normal to the spherical mirror:
It is the line joining the point of incidence and the centre of curvature
of spherical mirror. (It is the normal to the tangent to the surface of the
spherical mirror).
Principal axis:
It is the straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature
of the spherical mirror.
Aperture (or) linear aperture (d):
It is the diameter of the circular boundary of the spherical mirror.
Angular aperture (  ):
It is the angle subtended by the diameter of the spherical mirror at the
centre of curvature.
Principal focus (F):
When a narrow parallel beam of light parallel to principal axis falls on the
spherical mirror, after reflection all the rays actually converges to point (in the case of
concave mirror) or appear to diverge from a point (in the case of convex mirror) on
the principal axis. This point is called principal focus.
Concave mirror has real focus and convex mirror has virtual focus.
Focal length (f):
It is the distance between the principal focus and the pole of the mirror.
Focal plane:
It is the plane passing through the principal focus and perpendicular to the
principal axis.
Sign convention in the mirrors:
To derive formula related to reflection by the spherical
mirrors, we must first adopt a sign convention for
measuring distances like object distance, image distance,
radius of curvature, focal length etc. The Cartesian sign
convention as follows as,
1. All the distances are measured from the pole along the principal axis.
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken as positive.
3. The distances measured in the direction opposite to incident light are taken as negative.
4. The upward distances measured perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive.
5. The downward distances measured perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.

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Light:
It is the electromagnetic radiation of wavelength rage of 4000 A o to 7500 A o or Light is a form of
energy, which causes the sensation of sight.
Reflection of light:
When a light traveling in one medium falls on a surface of another medium, a part of light is turned
back into the same medium. This phenomena is called as reflection of light.
Rules for drawing images formed by spherical mirrors:

1. A ray proceeding parallel to the principal axis will pass through the principal focus after reflection (in
the case of a concave mirror) and appear to come from principal focus (in the case of a convex mirror).
2. A ray passing through the principal focus in the case of a concave mirror and directed towards the
principal focus in the case of a convex mirror, after reflection, travel parallel to the principal axis.
3. A ray passing through the centre of curvature in the case of a convex mirror, falls normally and is
reflected back along the same path.
4. The ray incident at any angle at the pole reflects back by obeying the laws of reflection. Take any two
rays emanating from a point on an object, trace their paths, and find their point of intersection after
reflection. This point of intersection is the position of the image.
Marginal rays:
These are the rays which are parallel and far to the principal axis
of spherical mirror.
Paraxial rays:
These are the rays which are parallel and close to the principal
axis of spherical mirror. The angle of incidence or angle of reflection is
very small for paraxial rays.
Assumptions to the ray optics:
1. The aperture of the spherical mirror is small.
2. The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the spherical mirror make small angles with the principal
axis. i.e. Only paraxial rays are considered.
Relation between focal length and the radius of curvature of mirror:
Consider concave mirror XY of radius of curvature R and centre
of curvature C, LM is the incident ray, CM is the normal to the surface
of the mirror, MD is the perpendicular drawn from M to the principal
axis,  is the angle of incidence, f is the focal length of the mirror.
MD
From triangle CDM,. tan  = --------- (1)
CD
MD
From triangle FDM,. tan 2 = --------- (2)
FD
For paraxial rays (Rays close to principal axis),  is small.
For small angles, tan  =  and tan 2 = 2
MD
Therefore, (1)   = --------- (3)
CD

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 MD
(2)  2 = --------- (4)
FD
(4) CD
2 = --------- (5)
(3) FD
For paraxial rays, M is very close to P and hence D is very close to P.
R
CD  CP = R (radius of curvature) and FD  FP = f (focal length of the mirror)  (5)  f =
2
Mirror equation in the case of concave mirror producing real image:
Consider concave mirror XY of radius of curvature R and centre of curvature C
AB is the object placed on the principal axis,
AB  is the real and inverted image,
AM,AP and AN are the incident rays,
MM  , PP  and NA are the corresponding reflected rays.
As AMP = APB  , the triangles, ABP and APB  are similar
triangles.
AB  PB 
Therefore, = ----------------- (1)
AB PB
For paraxial rays, M is very close to P and MP is considered to be a straight
line perpendicular to CP. The triangles FPM and FAB  are also similar
triangles.
AB  FB  AB  FB 
Therefore =  = ----------- (2) 
PM PF AB PF
PM = AB
FB  PB 
On comparing (l) and (2) we get, =
PF PB
PB   PF PB 
From figure, FB   PB   PF ,   ---------------- (3)
PF PB
Using Cartesian sign convention, we find,
PB  = -v (image distance), PF = -f (focal length), PB = -u ( object distance )
 v   f   v v f v
(3)       uv  uf  - vf
 f u  f u
On dividing by uvf on both sides, we get,
 uv  uf - vf  uv uf - vf 1 1 1
        
uvf uvf uvf uvf uvf f v u
1 1 1
On rearranging, we get,  
f u v
Mirror equation or mirror formula:
Mirror equation is the mathematical relation between focal length, object distance and the image
distance of a spherical mirror. It is given below.
1 1 1
  where f = focal length, u = object distance and v = image distance .
f u v
Linear magnification or magnification (m):
It is defined as the ratio of the size of the image formed by the spherical mirror and the size of the
object.
Size of the image h
m  m i
Size of the object ho
−ℎ𝑖 −𝑣 ℎ𝑖 𝑣
With sign convetion 𝑚 = = −𝑢 𝑚= = −𝑢
ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜

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 v
Magnification of concave mirror: m   Where v =image distance and u = object distance
u
Negative sign indicates that the image is inverted with respect to object
Note:
𝑓
1. Magnification in terms of u and f is 𝑚 = 𝑓−𝑢
f -v
2. Magnification in terms of v and f is m 
f
1 1 1
3. The mirror formula   is valid for both concave and convex mirrors whether the image is real
f u v
or virtual.
4. While solving numerical problems, the numerical values of the given quantities are substituted with
proper signs based on sign conventions. No sign is given to the unknown quantity. The sign will
automatically appear in the final result.
v
5. Formula m   is applicable for both concave and convex mirrors whether the image is real or
u
virtual.
6. Real image is formed in front of the mirror. It is inverted. Magnification in this case is negative.
7. Virtual image is formed behind the mirror. It is erect. Magnification in this case is positive.
8. In a concave mirror, the image formed may be real or virtual depending on the position of the object.
So magnification of a concave mirror may be positive or negative.
9. In a convex mirror, the image formed is virtual. So magnification is positive.
10. If magnification m  1, the image is magnified.
11. If magnification m  1, the image is diminished (i.e. small in size compared to object size)
12. If magnification m  1, the size of the image is equal to the size of the object.
13. Magnification is a number. It is not having units and dimensions.
NP.1: Suppose that the lower half of the concave mirror’s reflecting surface in Fig. 9.6 is covered with an
opaque (non-reflective) material. What effect will this have on the image of an object placed in front of the
mirror?
Solution: You may think that the image will now show only half of the object, but taking the laws of reflection
to be true for all points of the remaining part of the mirror, the image will be that of the whole object.
However, as the area of the reflecting surface has been reduced, the intensity of the image will be low (in this
case, half).
NP.2: A mobile phone lies along the principal axis of a concave
mirror, as shown in Fig. Show by suitable diagram, the
formation of its image. Explain why the magnification is not
uniform. Will the distortion of image depend on the location of
the phone with respect to the mirror?
Solution:
The ray diagram for the formation of the image of the phone is
shown in Fig. The image of the part which is on the plane
perpendicular to principal axis will be on the same plane. It will
be of the same size,
i.e., B1C = BC. You can yourself realise why the image is distorted.
NP.4: Suppose while sitting in a parked car, you notice a jogger approaching towards you in the side view
mirror of R = 2 m. If the jogger is running at a speed of 5 ms–1, how fast the image of the jogger appear to
move when the jogger is (a) 39 m, (b) 29 m, (c) 19 m, and (d) 9 m away.
𝑓𝑢
Solution: From the mirror equation, we get 𝑣 = 𝑢−𝑓 For convex mirror, since R = 2 m, f = 1 m. Then for u =
(−39)×1 39
–39 m, 𝑣= = 40 𝑚
−39−1

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 Since the jogger moves at a constant speed of 5 ms –1, after 1 s the position of the image v
(for u = –39 + 5 = –34) is (34/35 )m.
39 34 1365−1360 5 1
The shift in the position of image in 1s is 40 − 35 = 1400 = 1400 = 280 𝑚
Therefore, the average speed of the image when the jogger is between 39 m and 34 m from the mirror,
is (1/280) ms–1
Similarly, it can be seen that for u = –29 m, –19 m and –9 m, the speed with which the image appears to move
1 1 1
is 150 𝑚/𝑠, 60 𝑚/𝑠, 10 𝑚/𝑠 respectively
Although the jogger has been moving with a constant speed, the speed of his/her image appears to increase
substantially as he/she moves closer to the mirror. This phenomenon can be noticed by any person sitting in a
stationary car or a bus. In case of moving vehicles, a similar phenomenon could be observed if the vehicle in
the rear is moving closer with a constant speed.
TP.1: A small candle, 2.5 cm in size is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 36
cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain a sharp image? Describe the
nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer to the mirror, how would the screen have to be
moved?
TP.2: A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Give the location of
the image and the magnification. Describe what happens as the needle is moved farther from the mirror.
TP.15: Use the mirror equation to deduce that:
(a) an object placed between 𝑓 and 2𝑓 of a concave mirror produces a real image beyond 2𝑓.
(b) a convex mirror always produces a virtual image independent of the location of the object.
(c) the virtual image produced by a convex mirror is always diminished in size and is located between the
focus and the pole.
(d) an object placed between the pole and focus of a concave mirror produces a virtual and enlarged image.
[Note: This exercise helps you deduce algebraically properties of images that one obtains from explicit ray
diagrams.]
TP.30: Light incident normally on a plane mirror attached to a
galvanometer coil retraces backwards as shown in Fig. A current in the
coil produces a deflection of 3.5o of the mirror. What is the displacement
of the reflected spot of light on a screen placed 1.5 m away?
Refraction of light:
Consider a refracting surface AB, PQ is the incident ray, QR is the
refracted ray. NM is the normal to the refracting surface, i is the angle of
incidence, r is the angle of refraction,
Light travels in straight lines in an optically homogeneous medium.
But when light travels from one medium to another of different optical
density, it changes its path. This phenomenon is called as refraction of light.
Refraction of light:
It is the phenomenon of change in path of light when it passes obliquely from one medium to another
medium of different optical density.
Light travels with different speeds in different media. This is the cause for refraction of light.
Illustrations of refraction of light:
1) A coin placed at the bottom of a bucket containing water appears to be raised due to the refraction of
light.
2) A stick partially dipped in water appears to be bent due to the refraction of light.
Note: When light passes from one medium to another medium of different density, its wavelength and velocity
change but frequency does not change. Because, wavelength and velocity of the wave depend on medium, but
frequency the wave depends only on the source frequency.
Lateral shift (Ls):
When a ray of light passes through a parallel sided glass slab, the direction of emergent ray is same as
the incident ray. But the path of the emergent ray is shifted laterally by certain distance. This perpendicular
distance between the incident ray extended and the emergent ray is called the lateral shift.

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 It is the perpendicular distance between the incident ray extended and
the emergent ray in the case of parallel sided glass slab.
Note:
1. lateral shift produced by the parallel sided glass slab is given by,
t sin i  r 
LS  .
cos r
2. Lateral shift for any angle of incidence and in terms of refractive index of
 cos i 
material of the glass slab is given by LS  t sin i 1   where t is
 n 2
 sin 2
i 
the thickness of the medium of refractive index n, I is the angle of incidence. As the refractive index of the
medium increases, the lateral shift also increases.
3. Lateral shift is zero for normal incidence. i.e. for normal incidence, i = 0o and r = 0o then,
LS 
 
t sin 0 o  0 o
= 0 (Minimum)
cos 0 o
4. Lateral shift is maximum for grazing incidence. For grazing incidence, i = 90o then,

LS 
 
t sin 90 o  r
 LS 
t cos r
= t (Maximum)
cos r cos r
Normal shift (Ns):
Consider an object at the bottom of the tank filled with water.
When the object viewed along the normal from another medium,
there is an apparent shift in the position of the object. This apparent
shift is called as normal shift. This shift remains same for any oblique
viewing.
Normal shift is the apparent shift in the position of the object
placed in one medium when viewed along the normal from another
medium.
Real depth: It is the distance between the object and the refracting
surface.
Apparent depth: It is the distance between the image of an object
and the refracting surface.
Real depth
Refractive index in terms of real and apparent depths: n 
Apparent depth
Note: When you look down into a swimming pool, you are likely to underestimate depth due to normal
refraction.
TP.3: A tank is filled with water to a height of 12.5 cm. The apparent depth of a needle lying at the bottom of
the tank is measured by a microscope to be 9.4 cm. What is the refractive index of water? If water is replaced
by a liquid of refractive index 1.63 up to the same height, by what distance would the microscope have to be
moved to focus on the needle again?
TP.4: Figures (a) and (b) show refraction of a ray in air
incident at 60° with the normal to a glass-air and water-
air interface, respectively. Predict the angle of refraction
in glass when the angle of incidence in water is 45° with
the normal to a water-glass interface [Fig.(c)].
TP.5: A small bulb is placed at the bottom of a tank
containing water to a depth of 80cm. What is the area of the surface of water through which light from the
bulb can emerge out? Refractive index of water is 1.33. (Consider the bulb to be a point source.)
TP.16: A small pin fixed on a table top is viewed from above from a distance of 50cm. By what distance
would the pin appear to be raised if it is viewed from the same point through a 15cm thick glass slab held
parallel to the table? Refractive index of glass = 1.5. Does the answer depend on the location of the slab?

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Laws of refraction (or) Snell's laws of refraction:
First law:
The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal drawn to the refractive surface at the point of incidence
all lie in the same plane.
Second law:
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is equal to a constant
for a given pair of media and for light of given wavelength.
sin i
Explanation:  constant = refractive index.
sin r
Where i is the angle of incidence, r is the angle of refraction.
Limitation of Snell’s law (or) failure of Snell’s law:
Snell’s law is not applicable for normal incidence.
sin 0 o 0
For normal incidence, i = 0o and r = 0o then, n 21   (indeterminate)
sin 0 o 0
But refractive index of any medium is not indeterminate. It will have finite value.
Note:
sin i
1. In the expression  constant, the constant is called as refractive index of the medium. It is the
sin r
measure of optical density of the medium. It is different for different media. It depends on the nature
of the medium and surrounding medium. It is of two types. They are 1. Refractive index and 2. Absolute
refractive index.
2. As the material density of a medium increases, its optical density also increases. But kerosene is an
exceptional case. Material density of the kerosene is 800 kg/m3 and optical density is 1.37. Material
density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and optical density is 1.33.
Relative refractive index (𝒏𝟐𝟏 ):
When a ray of light travels from medium 1 (other than vacuum) to
medium 2, the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is the
relative refractive index. It is denoted by 𝑛21 . It is read as refractive index
of second medium with respect to the first medium.
Relative refractive index is the ratio of velocities of light in two media.
Velocity of light in first medium v
n 21   n 21  1
Velocity of light in second medium v2
Note: relative refractive index is equal to the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle
sin i
of refraction n 21 
sin r
Relative refractive is the ratio of wavelength of light in first to the wavelength of light in medium 2,
wavelength of light in first medium 
n 21   n 21  1
wavelength of light in second medium 2
Absolute refractive index (n):
When a ray of light travels from vacuum to any denser medium, the refractive index of any denser
medium with respect to vacuum is the absolute refractive index. It can be defined in following ways.
1. It is the ratio of velocity of light in vacuum and the velocity of light in any denser medium,
Velocity of light in vacuum c
n n
Velocity of light in denser medium v
2. It is the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence in vacuum to the sine
sin i
of the angle of refraction in denser medium, n 
sin r

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 3. It is the ratio of wavelength of light in vacuum and the wavelength of light in denser medium
wavelength of light in vacuum 
n  n  vacuum
wavelength of light in denser medium  medium
Important points on refractive index:
1. Relative refractive index can be greater than 1 or less than 1. Relative refractive index of denser
medium with respect to rarer medium is greater than 1. Refractive index of rarer medium with respect
to denser medium is less than 1.
2. Refractive index of air with respect to vacuum = 1.0003 =1(absolute refractive index)
3. Refractive index of vacuum with respect to air = 0.9997 =1(relative refractive index)
4. The refractive index of any denser medium with respect to air or vacuum is considered as absolute
refractive index since the refractive index of air with respect to vacuum is nearly equal to 1
Ex: Refractive index of glass is 1.5 means, absolute refractive index.
5. Refractive index is a scalar quantity. It has no units and dimensions. It is a number.
6. When a light travels from one medium to another medium, its frequency remains constant. Therefore,
RI cannot be define in terms of frequency.
Relation between relative refractive index and absolute refractive index:
Consider a ray of light travelling from medium 1 to the medium 2. Let 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 be the velocities of
light in medium 1 and medium 2 respectively. Let c be the velocity of light in vacuum or air.
By definition of absolute refractive index,
c
From figure 1, n1  ------- (1)
v1
c
From figure 2, n 2  ------- (2)
v2
(2) n v
 2  1 ------- (3)
(1) n1 v 2
By definition of relative refractive index, from figure 3,
v
n 21  1 ------- (4)
v2
n
On comparing (3) and (4), we get n 21  2
n1
Relative refractive index is also defined as the ratio of the refractive index of the medium with refracted ray
to the refractive index of the medium with incident ray.
Principle of reversibility:
If a ray of light after suffering any number of reflections and (or)
refractions has its path reversed at any stage, it retraces the same path in
opposite direction.
Generalized Snell’s law:
Refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1
sin i1 n n2 sin i1
n 21  ------- (1) But n 21  2 ------- (2) from Eq (1) and (2) 
sin i 2 n1 n1 sin i 2
 𝑛1 sin 𝑖1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑖2 = 𝑛3 sin 𝑖3 = Constant. This is generalized Snell’s law.
1. If n21 is the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 and n12 is the refractive index
1
of medium 1 with respect to medium 2, then it should be clear that, n 21  based on principle of
n12
reversibility.
2. If n32 is the refractive index of medium 3 with respect to medium 2, then n32 = n12  n31
Where n31 is the refractive index of medium 3 with respect to medium 1.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 10

Total internal reflection:
When a ray of light passes from denser to rarer medium,
the refracted ray bends away from the normal. Therefore, angle
of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence. As the angle
of incidence increases, angle of refraction also increases. For a
particular angle of incidence, the angle of refraction becomes 90o
and the refracted ray grazes the surface which separates the two
media. This angle of incidence is called the critical angle (C).
When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the incident ray is totally reflected into the same
medium. This phenomenon is called as total internal reflection.
Critical angle:
Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90o.
It is defined for a given pair of media and for given colour of light.
Conditions for total internal reflection:
1) The ray of light must tend to travel from denser to rarer medium.
2) The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
Total internal reflection:
It is the phenomenon in which the light ray traveling from denser to rarer medium reflects totally into
the denser medium when i > c.
Example: mirages are due the total internal reflection of sun light.
Relation between critical angle and RI:
Let AB be the surface which separates the two media of
refractive indices n1 (denser medium) and n2 (rarer medium). A ray
of light PQ is incident at critical angle C in denser medium.
From Snell’s law
n1 sin i  n 2 sin r  n1 sin C  n 2 sin 90 o
since i = C and r  90 o
n2 Refractive index of rarer medium
sin C 

n1 Refractive index of denser medium
1
If the rarer medium is vacuum, sin C 
n
Note:
1. Critical angle depends upon the nature of pair of medium with respect to rarer medium.
1
2. Critical angle of a medium depends upon the wavelength of light. i.e. n  sin C  

3. Critical angle of some media with respect to air.
medium Refractive index Critical angle
water 1.33 48.75o
Crown glass 1.52 41.14o
Flint glass 1.62 37.31o
diamond 2.42 24.41o

4. Total internal reflection is not possible when a ray of light travels from glass to diamond.
Natural consequences of total internal reflection:
Total internal reflection is used to explain natural consequences such as mirage, looming, rain bow, etc....
Note:
World as seen by fish:
Consider a fish in water at depth h. The rays grazing the air-water interface starting from objects near
the surface enter the water and reaches the eyes of fish making critical angle (C = 49o) for water-air media and

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 11

become visible to fish. To a fish outside region is
symmetrical. Therefore, to a fish in water, the whole
outside world appears within a cone of apex of angle
(2C = 98o). The radius of circular illuminated region on
surface of water as viewed by a fish is given by
h
r  h tan C  h tan C  .
n 1
2

The radius depends on the depth of fish from water surface and refractive index of the water.
Experimental demonstration of total internal reflection:
Take some soap water in a glass beaker.
Pass a laser beam through the soap water from the
bottom of beaker so that it reaches the free surface
of soap water. At the small angle of incidence, the
light is partially reflected and partially refracted.
This is concluded by the light spot observed on the
roof and also on the floor of the room.
Now the angle of incidence is increased
gradually till the light beam is totally reflected back
to water. This is concluded by the light spot
obtained only on the floor of the room. This is due to total internal reflection.
Pour this soap water into a long test tube and pass the laser light from the top of the test tube. Adjust
the direction of laser beam such that the beam is total internally reflected repeatedly from the walls of the test
tube. This is concluded by the light spot obtained on the floor of the room.
Applications of total internal reflection (TIR):
The principle of total internal reflection is used in
1) Total reflecting prisms,
2) Optical fibres.
Total reflecting prisms:
Total reflecting prisms are right angled isosceles prisms which bend the light by 90o or 180o. They
are based on the total internal reflection of light. Refractive index of glass is 1.5 and the critical angle is 42o.
In total reflecting prisms, angle of incidence is made 45o which is greater than critical angle (C). Hence the
light suffer total internal reflection shown as,

Use of total reflecting prisms:

They are used in prism binoculars and periscopes.
Optical fibres:
It is a device works on the principle of total internal reflection. It is used to transmit the light in desired
path. The optical fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection. A
bundle of optical fibres also called as light pipe (or) an optical pipe.
Construction and working of optical fibres:
Construction:
Optical fibres are fabricated with high quality flexible glass or quartz.
Each fibre consists of core and cladding. The refractive index of the material of

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the core is greater than that of cladding. For providing safety and strength, the core cladding is enclosed in a
plastic jacket.
Working:
A signal in the form of light made to fall at one end of the fibre at
suitable angle. The entered light will incident on the core-cladding
interface at an angle greater than the critical angle. Hence the ray
undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre
and finally comes out at the other end. There is no appreciable loss in the
intensity of light even the ray undergo repeated total internal reflections.
The optical fibres packed such that the free ends of the fibre on both sides
of the bundle are at the same relative positions
Applications of optical fibres:
1) Optical fibres are used in telecommunication.
2) They are used to transmit audio and video signals.
3) They are used in decorative table lamps.
4) They are used in endoscopes to view the interior parts human body.
TP.17: (a) Figure shows a cross-section of a ‘light pipe’ made of
a glass fibre of refractive index 1.68. The outer covering of the
pipe is made of a material of refractive index 1.44. What is the
range of the angles of the incident rays with the axis of the pipe
for which total reflections inside the pipe take place, as shown in
the figure.
(b) What is the answer if there is no outer covering of the pipe?
Cartesian sign conventions used in the spherical surfaces:
1. All the distances are measured from the pole along the principal axis.
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken as positive.
3. The distances measured in the direction opposite to incident light are taken as negative.
Assumptions made to derive equations of refraction:
1. The object is a point object and lies on the principal axis.
2. The aperture of the spherical surface is small.
3. The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the spherical surface make small angles with the principal
axis (only paraxial rays are considered). For paraxial rays, sin i  i and sin r  r
Relation connecting n, u, v and R for refraction at a spherical surface:
Consider a spherical surface XY which separates
the two media of refractive indices 𝑛1 & 𝑛2 . O is the
luminous point object placed on the principal axis, i and r
are the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction
respectively.
From generalized Snell's law, we have,
𝑛1 sin i = 𝑛2 sin r ------ (1)
For paraxial rays, i and r are small. For small angels,
sin 𝑖 ≈ 𝑖 and sin 𝑟 ≈ 𝑟
(1)  𝑛1 i = 𝑛2 r ------- (2)
Let  ,  and  are the angles at O, I & C respectively.
We have, for a triangle,
Exterior angle = sum of the internal opposite angles
For ∆𝑂𝐶𝑁, i =  +  -------- (3)
For ∆𝐶𝐼𝑁,  = r + 
 r =  -  --------- (4)
(3) & (4) in (2)  n1      n 2    
n1  n 2     n 2  n1  --------- (5)

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For paraxial rays, N is very close to P and NP is considered to be a straight line perpendicular to CP.
PN
From right-angled triangle NOP, tan  =  =  For small angles tan   
PO
PN PN
Similarly,  = and  
PI PC
Substitute for  ,  and  in (5)

(5)  n1
PN
 n2
PN PN
  n2  n1   n1  n2   n2  n1  ------- (6)
PO PI PC PO PI PC
On applying Cartesian sign conversion, we find,
PO = -u (object distance),
PI = + v (image distance) and
PC = + R (radius of curvature).
n n  n  n1  n n  n  n1 
(6)   1  2  2  2 1 2
u v R v u R
Equation (6) is the general formula. It can be applicable for any case with appropriate sign conventions,
RI of image space RI of object space Difference in the refractive indices
 
Image distance Object distance Radius of curvature
NP.5: Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (n = 1.5 and radius of curvature =
20 cm). The distance of the light source from the glass surface is 100 cm. At what position the image is formed?
Solution:
Here u = – 100 cm, v = ?, R = + 20 cm, n1 = 1, and n2 = 1.5.
1.5 1 0.5
We then have 𝑣 + 100 = 20 or v = +100 cm
The image is formed at a distance of 100 cm from the glass surface, in the direction of incident light.

Lens: It is the homogeneous optical medium bounded by two surfaces of which at least one is spherical.
Types of lenses:

Convex lens:
It is the lens which converges a parallel beam of light when passes through it.
Concave lens:
It is the lens which diverges a parallel beam of light when passes through it.
Principal focus (F):
When a narrow parallel beam of
light parallel to the principal axis falls on
a lens, the rays after refraction converges
to a point (for convex lens), diverge from
a point (for concave lens) on the
principal axis. This point is called
principal focus.
Focal length (f):
It is the distance between optical centre and principal focus of a lens.
The Cartesian sign convention used in the lenses:
1. All the distances are measured from the optical centre along the principal axis.
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken as positive.
3. The distances measured in the direction opposite to incident light are taken as negative.

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 4. The upward distanced measured perpendicular to the principal axis is taken as positive.
5. The downward distances measured perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.

Thin lens:
It is the lens whose thickness is negligibly small when compared to its radii of curvature.
1 1 1
Thin lens formula:   Where, u is the object distance, v is the image distance and f is the focal length.
f v u
Lens maker’s formula:
In the ray diagram,
O is the point object placed on the principal axis of
the lens,
n is the refractive index of the material of the thin convex
lens,
ABC and ADC are the two spherical surfaces of the
lens,
Let R1 & R2 are radii of curvatures of ABC and ADC
respectively,
For spherical surface, we have general formula,
RI of image space RI of object space Difference in the refractive indices
  ---------------- (1)
Image distance Object distance Radius of curvature
Refraction at the face ABC in the absence of ADC:
RI of object space = 𝑛1 =1
RI of image space = 𝑛2
O is the object and its image is formed at 𝐼1
 Object distance = -u (by sign convention)
Image distance = 𝑣1 , Radius of curvature = 𝑅1
n 1 n 1
Eq.(l)  2   2 ----------- (2)
v1 u R1
Refraction at the face ADC:
RI of object space = 𝑛2
RI of image space = 𝑛1 =1
For this surface I1 serves as the virtual object
 Object distance = -𝑣1 (by sign convention)
Image distance = v
Radius of curvature = −𝑅2 (by sign convention)
1 n n 1
Eq. (l)   2  2 ----------- (3)
v v1  R2
n 1 1 n n  1 n2  1
(2) + (3)  2    2  2 
v1 u v v1 R1  R2
 1 1   1 1  1 1 1
  n  1  n  1
1 1 1
        
v u  R1 R2  f  R1 R2  f v u
This is called Newton's lens makers formula.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 15

Factors on which the focal length of a lens depends:
The focal length of a lens depends on
1) The refractive index of material of the lens,
2) The refractive index of the medium surrounding the lens,
3) Radii of curvature of lens surfaces,
4) The wavelength of light used.
Medium surrounding the lens is other than air:
 1 1  n  1 1 
 n 21  1 
1 1
    2  1  
f  R1 R2  f  n1  R1 R2 
Where n2 is the refractive index of the lens material and n1 is the refractive index of the surrounding medium.
If the refractive index of the surrounding medium is greater than the refractive index of lens, the convex
lens acts as diverging lens and a concave lens acts as converging lens.
If the refractive lens of the surrounding medium equal to the refractive index of lens, the lens acts as a
glass slab and focal length becomes infinity. Hence the lens would be invisible in the medium.
The RI is least for red colour and hence the focal length is high. The RI is highest for violet colour and hence
the focal length is low.
Focal length in terms of velocities and wavelengths of light.
n v  1 v  1 1  1   1 1 
We have, 2  1  1 ,   1  1      1  1  
n1 v 2  2 f  v2  R1 R2  f  2  R1 R2 
Note: A lens when immersed in colorless liquid becomes invisible. This will happen when the refractive index
of lens is equal to that of colourless liquid.
NP.6: A magician during a show makes a glass lens with n = 1.47 disappear in a trough of liquid. What is the
refractive index of the liquid? Could the liquid be water?
Solution:
The refractive index of the liquid must be equal to 1.47 in order to make the lens disappear. This means n1 =
n2. This gives 1/f =0 or 𝑓 → ∞. The lens in the liquid will act like a plane sheet of glass. No, the liquid is not
water. It could be glycerine.
TP.18: The image of a small electric bulb fixed on the wall of a room is to be obtained on the opposite wall
3m away by means of a large convex lens. What is the maximum possible focal length of the lens required for
the purpose?
TP.19: A screen is placed 90cm from an object. The image of the object on the screen is formed by a convex
lens at two different locations separated by 20cm. Determine the focal length of the lens.
Power of a lens:
It is defined as the tangent of the angle by which a lens diverges or converges a beam of light falling
on it at unit distance from the optical centre. Unit of power of lens is dioptre (or) D
Power of a lens is equal to the reciprocal of its focal length:
Consider a convex lens of focal length f. AB is the ray of light
parallel to the principal falls on the lens at a height h from the optical centre.
BF is the refracted ray passes through the principal focus and bent by an
angle  .
By the definition of the power of a lens,
P = tan  --------- (1)
h
From triangle FOB, tan  = --------- (2)
f
On comparing (1) and (2), we get, P = h
f
1
If h = 1unit, then, P = 1 Consider P = , If f = 1m, then P = l dioptre.
f f
Power of a lens is said to be 1 dioptre, if its focal length is 1 metre.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 16

Sign conventions:
1) The power of convex lens is taken as positive and
2) The power of concave lens is taken as negative.
Linear magnification (or) Magnification of a lens:
It is the ratio of the height of the image produced by the lens to the height of the object.
Height of the image h
Magnification =  m i
Height of the object ho
Note:
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Magnification of lens in terms of object distance and image distance, 𝑚 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
f
1. Magnification of a lens in terms of object distance (u) and focal length (f), m 
f u
f v
2. Magnification of a lens in terms of image distance (v) and focal length (f), m 
f
3. The magnification is positive when the image is erect (virtual) and negative when the image is inverted
(real).
4. Magnification is a number. It is not having unit and dimensions.
5. m > 1, for magnified image and m<1, for diminished image.
Deciding a piece of glass is a lens:
Hold the given piece of glass over any printed or written matter.
(i) If the matter appears magnified, the given piece of glass is convex.
(ii) If the matter appears diminished, the given piece of glass is concave.
(iii) If the matter appears of the same size, the given piece of glass is plane one.
Two foci:
There are two foci of a biconvex lens or a biconcave lens
equidistant from the optical centre. They are
1. First principal focus (F1): The focus on the side of original
source of light.
2. Second principal focus (F2): The focus on the other side of
original source of light.
Rules for drawing images formed by lens:
The position of the image formed by any lens can be found by considering any two of the following rays
of light coming from a point on the object.

1. A ray of light proceeding parallel to the principal axis will, after refraction, pass through the second
principal focus (in the case of a convex lens) and appear to diverge from first principal focus in the
case of a concave lens.
2. A ray passing through the optical centre of the any lens emerges without any deviation after refraction.
3. A ray passing through the first principal focus (in the case of a convex lens) or appears to diverge from
the first principal focus (in the case of a concave lens) emerges parallel to the principal axis.
Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 17
NP.7: (i) If f = 0.5 m for a glass lens, what is the power of the lens? (ii) The radii of curvature of the faces of
a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm. Its focal length is 12 cm. What is the refractive index of glass? (iii)
A convex lens has 20 cm focal length in air. What is focal length in water? (Refractive index of air-water =
1.33, refractive index for air-glass = 1.5.)
Solution:
(i) Power = +2 dioptre.
(ii) Here, we have f = +12 cm, R1 = +10 cm, R2 = –15 cm. Refractive index of air is taken as unity.
We use the lens formula). The sign convention has to be applied for f, R1 and R2. Substituting the values, we
1 1 1
have 12 = (𝑛 − 1) (10 − −15 )
This gives n = 1.5.
1 1 1
(iii) For a glass lens in air, n2 = 1.5, n1 = 1, f = +20 cm. Hence, the lens formula gives 20 = 0.5 (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
1 2
1 1 1
For the same glass lens in water, n2 = 1.5, n1 = 1.33. Therefore, 𝑓 = (1.5 − 1.33) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
1 2
Combining these two equations, we find f = + 78.2 cm.
TP.7: Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with both faces of
the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature required if the focal length is to be 20cm?
TP.8: A beam of light converges at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam 12cm
from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (a) a convex lens of focal length 20cm, and (b) a
concave lens of focal length 16cm?
TP.9: An object of size 3.0 cm is placed 14 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 21cm. Describe the
image produced by the lens. What happens if the object is moved further away from the lens?
TP.10: What is the focal length of a convex lens of focal length 30cm in contact with a concave lens of focal
length 20cm? Is the system a converging or a diverging lens? Ignore thickness of the lenses.
TP.22: A card sheet divided into squares each of size 1 mm2 is being viewed at a distance of 9 cm through a
magnifying glass (a converging lens of focal length 9 cm) held close to the eye.
(a) What is the magnification produced by the lens? How much is the area of each square in the virtual image?
(b) What is the angular magnification (magnifying power) of the lens?
(c) Is the magnification in (a) equal to the magnifying power in (b)? Explain.
TP.23: (a) At what distance should the lens be held from the card sheet in Exercise 9.22 in order to view the
squares distinctly with the maximum possible magnifying power?
(b) What is the magnification in this case?
(c) Is the magnification equal to the magnifying power in this case? Explain.
TP.24: What should be the distance between the object in Exercise 9.23 and the magnifying glass if the virtual
image of each square in the figure is to have an area of 6.25 mm2. Would you be able to see the squares
distinctly with your eyes very close to the magnifier? [Note: Exercises 9.22 to 9.24 will help you clearly
understand the difference between magnification in absolute size and the angular magnification (or magnifying
power) of an instrument.]
Equivalent lens:
It is a lens which forms the image of an object at the same position as if formed by a combination of
lenses.
The focal length of the combination of lenses is called
equivalent focal length.
Equivalent focal length of two thin convex lenses in contact:
Consider a point object O placed on the principal axis of the
lens combination of two thin lenses L1 and L2 of focal lengths 𝑓1
and 𝑓2 respectively.
We have,
1 1 1
  ---------------- (1)
Focal length image distance object distance
Refraction at the lens L1 in the absence of L2:
O is the object and its image is formed at 𝐼1 .

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  Focal length = 𝑓1 , Image distance = 𝑣1
Object distance = -u (by sign convention)
1 1 1
 (1)    ------------------- (2)
f 1 v1 u
Refraction at the lens L2:
𝐼1 acts as virtual object and its image is formed at I
 Focal length = 𝑓2 , image distance = v
Object distance = -𝑣1 (by sign convention)
1 1 1
 (1)    ------------------- (3)
f 2 v v1
1 1 1 1
Equations (2) + (3)     ------------------- (4)
f1 f 2 v u
If the two lenses are replaced by a an equivalent lens of focal length f, then
1 1 1
  ------------------- (5)
f v u
1 1 1
On comparing the equations (4) & (5), we get,  
f f1 f 2
Power of the combination: 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 … … . 𝑃𝑛
1 1 1 1
Where P    
f1 f 2 f 3 fn
Need for combination of thin lenses:
In various optical instruments, two or more lenses are used either in contact or with a gap between them.
This is
1) to increase the magnification of the image,
2) to increase the sharpness of the final image by reducing
the defects of images formed by single lens,
3) to make the image erect
4) to increase the field of view.
NP.8: Find the position of the image formed by the lens
combination given in the Fig.
1 1 1
Solution: Image formed by the first lens 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑓
1 1 1
1 1 1
− −30 = 10 or 𝑣1 = 15 cm
𝑣1
The image formed by the first lens serves as the object for the second. This is at a distance of (15 – 5) cm =
10 cm to the right of the second lens. Though the image is real, it serves as a virtual object for the
second lens, which means that the rays appear to come from it for the second lens.
1 1 1
− = or 𝑣2 = ∞
𝑣2 10 −10
The virtual image is formed at an infinite distance to the left of the second lens. This acts as an object for the
third lens.
1 1 1 1 1 1
− 𝑢 = 𝑓 or 𝑣 = ∞ + 30 or 𝑣3 = 30 cm
𝑣3 3 3 3
The final image is formed 30 cm to the right of the third lens.
TP.20: (a) Determine the ‘effective focal length’ of the combination of the two lenses in Exercise 9.10, if they
are placed 8.0 cm apart with their principal axes coincident. Does the answer depend on which side of the
combination a beam of parallel light is incident? Is the notion of effective focal length of this system useful at
all?
(b) An object 1.5 cm in size is placed on the side of the convex lens in the arrangement (a) above. The distance
between the object and the convex lens is 40cm. Determine the magnification produced by the two-lens
system, and the size of the image.

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Prism:
It is the homogeneous optical medium bounded by three rectangular faces and
two triangular faces.
The prism is bounded by three rectangular faces and two triangular faces. Among the
three rectangular faces, two are well polished (ABEF & ACDF). These are called as
refracting faces. The unpolished face is called as the base (BCDE). The refracting faces
are intersecting along a line called as refracting edge of the prism (AF). The plane
perpendicular to refracting edge is called as principal section (ABC). The angle between
the refracting faces is called as angle of the prism ( BAC ). It is usually denoted by the letter A.
Principal section:
It is the cross sectional plane of the prism perpendicular to the refracting edge.
Angle of deviation:
It is the angle between the incident ray extended and the refracted ray.
Uses of prism:
1. It is used to obtain spectrum of light.
2. It is used in optical instruments such as binoculars, cameras, etc.
Refractive index (n) of material of a prism in terms of angle of minimum deviation (D) and angle of the
prism(A):
Consider XYZ is the principal section of a prism of refractive index n, A is the angle of the prism, PQ,
QR and RS are the incident ray, refracted ray and the emergent ray respectively.
𝑖1 and. 𝑟1 are the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction respectively at Q. 𝑟2 and 𝑖2 are the angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction respectively at R. 𝑑1 and
𝑑2 are the deviations of the light ray at Q and R respectively.
From Snell's law at the face XY
sin i1
n ----------- (1)
sin r1
Total deviation, 𝑑 = 𝑑1 +𝑑2
𝑑 = (𝑖1 − 𝑟1 ) + (𝑖2 − 𝑟2 )
 𝑑1 = (𝑖1 − 𝑟1 ) and 𝑑2 = (𝑖2 − 𝑟2 )
𝑑 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )------ (2)
From quadrilateral XQNR, A +  QNR = 180o-------- (3)
From triangle QNR, 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 +  QNR = 180o ------- (4)
Compare equations (3) and (4), we get 𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2------- (5)
Equation (5) in (2)  𝑑 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) − 𝐴 ------ (6)
At minimum deviation position:
Deviation, d = D (angle of minimum deviation), 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 , and 𝑟1 = 𝑟2
A
(5)  𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2  r1  ------ (7)
2
A D
(6)  𝐷 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) − 𝐴  i1  ------ (8)
2
 A D
sin  
 2 
Equations (7) & (8) in (1), we get, n  ----------------- (9)
 A
sin  
2
For thin prism:
The prism is said to be thin if its angle is small. (say about 10o).
For this prism, A is small and hence D is also small. For small angles, sin   

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  A D
sin  
 2  A D
Eq (9) becomes n   n  n A  A  D  D  An  1
 A A
sin  
2
In general, d  An  1
Note:
1. When a prism is set in minimum deviation position, pure spectrum is obtained.
2. When a prism made of a material of refractive index 𝑛2 is surrounded by a medium of refractive index
 A D
sin  
n2
𝑛1 , then n 21    2 
n1  A
sin  
2
3. The relation between angle of minimum deviation (D), refractive index of the material of the prism
and the wavelength   of light used. D  n  . D is minimum for red and
1

maximum for violet.
4. The refracted ray bends towards the base, if n g  RI of surrounding medium.
The refracted ray bends away from the base, if n g  RI of surrounding medium.
TP.6: A prism is made of glass of unknown refractive index. A parallel beam of light
is incident on a face of the prism. The angle of minimum deviation is measured to be 40°. What is the refractive
index of the material of the prism? The refracting angle of the prism is 60°. If the prism is placed in water
(refractive index 1.33), predict the new angle of minimum deviation of a parallel beam of light.
TP.21: At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of a prism of refracting angle 60° so that it
just suffers total internal reflection at the other face? The refractive index of the material of the prism is 1.524.
Optical instruments:
These are the devices which make use of lenses, mirrors and prisms. They are used to extend the range
of vision of human eye.
Essential features of an optical instrument:
1. High magnification: it is the ratio of size of the final image formed by the optical instrument to the
size of the object. An optical instrument with high magnification makes viewing the objects more clear
and comfortable.
2. Adequate resolution: it is the ability of the optical instrument to see the images of two closely spaced
objects separately. An optical instrument with high resolution gives the finer details of the objects.
Simple microscope:
It is an optical instrument used to see the magnified images
of small objects. Example: Reading lens.
Working principle:
When the object is placed in between the principal focus F
and the optical centre O, a virtual, erect and magnified image is
formed at the least distinct vision.
Linear magnification:
1 1 1
We have lens formula,  
v u f
v v v
On multiplying by v on both sides of the equation, we get,  
v u f
v v
 1 m  m  = linear magnification.
f u

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 v
 m 1 
f
But v = -D, negative sign is from sign convention and the image is formed at least distance of distinct vision.
D
 m 1 
f
Angular magnification:
The ratio of the angle (  i ) subtended by the image at the eye to the angle(  o ) subtended by the object
at the eye if the object is assumed to be placed at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.

That is, m  i
o
Where  i is the angle subtended by the image at the eye.
 o is the angle subtended by the object at the eye if the object is assumed to be placed at the least
distance of distinct vision from the eye.
When the final image formed at infinity:
When the object AB is placed at the principal
focus F, a real, inverted and greatly magnified
image is formed at infinity.
i
By the definition of magnifying power, m 
o
For small angles,  i = tan  i and  o = tan  o
tan  i
Therefore, m  --------------- (1)
tan  o
𝐴𝐵 h
From triangle OAB, tan  i = 𝑂𝐵  o --------------- (2)
f
A1 B 1 h
From triangle OA B , tan  o =
1 1
1
 o --------------- (3)
OB D
ho
f D
(2) and (3) in (1)  m   m
ho f
D
Uses of simple microscope (magnifying lens):
1. It is used by dentist.
2. It is used by watch makers.
3. It is used as reading lens.
Note: magnification of simple microscope is less than or equal to 9.
TP.25: Answer the following questions:
(a) The angle subtended at the eye by an object is equal to the angle subtended at the eye by the virtual image
produced by a magnifying glass. In what sense then does a magnifying glass provide angular magnification?
(b) In viewing through a magnifying glass, one usually positions one’s eyes very close to the lens. Does angular
magnification change if the eye is moved back?
(c) Magnifying power of a simple microscope is inversely proportional to the focal length of the lens. What
then stops us from using a convex lens of smaller and smaller focal length and achieving greater and greater
magnifying power?
(d) Why must both the objective and the eyepiece of a compound microscope have short focal lengths?
(e) When viewing through a compound microscope, our eyes should be positioned not on the eyepiece but a
short distance away from it for best viewing. Why? How much should be that short distance between the eye
and eyepiece?

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Compound microscope:
It is an optical instrument used to see magnified
image of tiny objects clearly and distinctly. It consists of
two lenses.
It consists of two convex lenses arranged coaxially
at the ends of two sliding metal tubes. The lens towards
the object is called objective. Its aperture and focal length
are comparatively small. Another lens towards the
observer is called eye piece. Its aperture and focal length
are comparatively large. The distance between the lenses
can be varied using rack and pinion arrangement. Here,
one lens compounds the effect of the other lens. Hence the
name compound microscope.
Working principle:
When small object AB is placed just outside the principal focus 𝐹𝑜 of the objective, a real inverted and
magnified image AlBl is formed on the other side of the lens beyond 2𝐹𝑜 . The image produced by the objective
acts as object for the eyepiece. The distance between the object AlBl and the eye piece is adjusted so that the
final image AllBll is formed at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.
Linear magnification:
It can be shown that, Magnifying power, m  mo  me -------- (1)
where, mo is the magnification of the objective,
me is the magnification of the eyepiece.
v
To find mo: For the objective, mo  o -------- (2)
uo
But v o  L = length of the microscope,
u o   f o = focal length of the objective (negative sign is from sign convention)
L
mo   -------- (3)
fo
D
To find me : Eye piece behaves like a simple microscope,  me  1  -------------- (4)
fe
 L  D
(3) and (4) in (1)  m     1  
 fo  fe 
Where negative sign indicates that the final image is inverted with respect to object.
Angular magnification of a compound microscope:
The ratio of the angle subtended by the final image at the eye
to the angle subtended by the object at the eye when both the final
image and the object are at the least distance of distinct vision from
the eye.
Final image is formed at the infinity:
When small object AB is placed just outside the principal
focus Fo of the objective, a real inverted and magnified image AlB1 is
formed on the other side of the lens beyond 2Fo. The image produced
by the objective acts as object for the eyepiece. The distance between
the object A1Bl and the eye piece is adjusted so that the final image is
formed at infinity.
It can be shown that, Magnifying power, m  mo  me
where, mo is the magnification of the objective, me is the magnification of the eyepiece.

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 L D L D
But, mo   and me   (1)  m  
fo fe fo fe
Where 𝑓𝑜 is the focal length of the objective. 𝑓𝑒 is the focal length of the eye piece. D is the least distance of
distinct vision (25cm).
Note:
1. Magnification of compound microscope is up to 1000.
2. Where negative sign indicates that the final image is inverted with respect to object.
3. We need more magnifying power and angular magnifying power in a microscope in order to use
it effectively. Keeping both objective focal length and eyepiece focal length small makes the
magnifying power greater and more effective.
TP.11: A compound microscope consists of an objective lens of focal length 2.0 cm and an eyepiece of focal
length 6.25 cm separated by a distance of 15cm. How far from the objective should an object be placed in
order to obtain the final image at (a) the least distance of distinct vision (25cm), and (b) at infinity? What is
the magnifying power of the microscope in each case?
TP.12: A person with a normal near point (25 cm) using a compound microscope with objective of focal length
8.0 mm and an eyepiece of focal length 2.5cm can bring an object placed at 9.0mm from the objective in sharp
focus. What is the separation between the two lenses? Calculate the magnifying power of the microscope,
TP.26: An angular magnification (magnifying power) of 30X is desired using an objective of focal length
1.25cm and an eyepiece of focal length 5cm. How will you set up the compound microscope?
Telescope:
It is an optical instrument used to see the distant objects clearly and distinctly.
Telescopes are two types.
1. Refracting telescopes: (a) Astronomical telescope (b) Terrestrial telescope.
2. Reflecting telescopes: (a) Cassegrain telescope (b)
Newtonian telescope.
Astronomical telescope:
It is the refracting type telescope used to see
heavenly bodies like the sun, stars, planets etc...
Construction: It consists of two convex lenses arranged
coaxially at the outer ends of two sliding metal tubes. The
lens towards the object is called as objective. Its aperture
and focal length are comparatively large. Another lens
towards the observer is called as eyepiece. Its aperture and
focal length are comparatively small. The distance
between the lenses can be varied using rack and pinion
arrangement.
Working:
The parallel beam of light coming from the distant object made to fall on the objective lens of the
telescope. It forms a real, inverted and diminished image A1B1 at its focal plane. The eye piece is adjusted so
that the A1B1 lies at its principal focus (Fe) of the eye piece. Then the final image is formed at infinity. This
image is greatly magnified and inverted with respect to object.
f
Magnifying power is given by, m   o where f o is the focal length of the objective and f e is the focal
fe
length of the eye piece.
Negative sign indicates that the final image is inverted with respect to object.
Length of the telescope L = f o + f e
Terrestrial telescope:
It is the refracting type telescope used to see objects on the earth (like trees, houses etc...)
In this case, the final image formed is virtual and erect.
Reflecting telescope:
It is a telescope with mirror objectives.

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Construction and working of a Cassegrain reflecting telescope:
Construction:
It consists of a large parabolic
concave mirror with a narrow hole at the
centre. This mirror is called the primary
mirror. There is a small convex mirror near
the focus of the primary mirror. This convex
mirror is called as the secondary mirror. A eye
piece is fitted to the hole of the primary mirror.
Working:
The parallel rays from the distant object fall on the primary mirror. After reflection theses rays tend to
converge at the focus of this mirror. But before converging at the focus, the rays are reflected by the secondary
convex mirror and are converge to a point just outside the hole. The final image is formed on the eye piece.
This image is inverted with respect to the object.
Advantages of reflecting telescope over a refracting telescope:
1. The final image is very bright. This is because, in reflecting telescopes, the absorption of light coming
from the object is less.
2. The resolving power is very high. It is due to the large aperture of the objective mirror.
3. It is free from chromatic aberrations.
4. It is free from spherical aberrations.
5. Its cost is less.
6. It is easy to mount the mirrors than the lenses.
TP.13: A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 144cm and an eyepiece of focal length 6.0cm.
What is the magnifying power of the telescope? What is the separation between the objective and the eyepiece?
TP.14: (a) A giant refracting telescope at an observatory has an objective lens of focal length 15m. If an
eyepiece of focal length 1.0cm is used, what is the angular magnification of the telescope?
(b) If this telescope is used to view the moon, what is the diameter of the image of the moon formed by the
objective lens? The diameter of the moon is 3.48 × 106m, and the radius of lunar orbit is 3.8 ×108m.
TP.27: A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 140cm and an eyepiece of focal length 5.0cm.
What is the magnifying power of the telescope for viewing distant objects when
(a) the telescope is in normal adjustment (i.e., when the final image is at infinity)?
(b) the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision (25cm)?
TP.28: (a) For the telescope described in Exercise 9.27 (a), what is the separation between the objective lens
and the eyepiece?
(b) If this telescope is used to view a 100 m tall tower 3 km away, what is the height of the image of the tower
formed by the objective lens?
(c) What is the height of the final image of the tower if it is formed at 25cm?
TP.29: A Cassegrain telescope uses two mirrors. Such a telescope is built with the mirrors 20mm apart. If the
radius of curvature of the large mirror is 220mm and the small mirror is 140mm, where will the final image of
an object at infinity be?
TP.31: Figure shows an equiconvex lens (of refractive index 1.50) in contact
with a liquid layer on top of a plane mirror. A small needle with its tip on the
principal axis is moved along the axis until its inverted image is found at the
position of the needle. The distance of the needle from the lens is measured to
be 45.0cm. The liquid is removed and the experiment is repeated. The new
distance is measured to be 30.0cm. What is the refractive index of the liquid?

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