WAVE OPTICS

Wavefront of light:
It is the locus of points of constant phase or It is the surface of constant phase
Types of wavefront:
1) Spherical wavefront 2) Cylindrical wavefront and 3) Plane wavefront.
Spherical wavefront:
It is the wave front of point source at finite distance. In the spherical wavefront,
all the points are equidistant from the point. This spherical wavefront is depicted by a
circle in the plane of paper
Cylindrical wavefront:
It is the wavefront of linear source at finite distance.
In the cylindrical wavefront all the points are equidistant from linear source.
Plane wave front:
It is the wave front of point source or linear source at infinite distance.
A small portion of spherical or cylindrical wavefront at large distance from the
source will appear to be plane
Wavelets:
Wavelets emerging from the wavefront are called secondary wavelets.
Huygen’s principle of secondary wavelets:
According to Huygen's Principle,
1) Every point on a given wave front is a source of secondary wavelets. These wavelets spread out in
all directions with the speed of the wave.
2) The tangent drawn to all secondary wavelets represents the position of new wavefront.
Let AB represent a given wavefront at a
time t = 0. According to Huygens’s principle.
Every point on AB acts as a source of secondary
wavelets which travel with the speed of light c in
isotropic medium. To find the position of the
wave front after a time t, circles are drawn with
points S1, S2 and S3…etc. as centers on AB and
radii equal to ct (x=vt). These are the traces of
secondary wavelets. The arc A1B1 drawn as a
forward envelope of the small circles is the new
wavefront at that instant. If the source of light is at a large distance, we obtain a plane wave front A1B1
as shown in Figure-2.
Law of reflection of light on the basis of Huygens’s wave theory of light:
In the figure,
MN is the reflecting surface,
PA and QC are the incident rays,
AB is the incident wavefront,
EC is the reflected wavefront,
i is the angle of incidence, r is the angle of reflection.
According to Law of reflection of light
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection  i = r
Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 1
 Let v be the speed of the light wave in the medium and t be the time taken by the secondary
wavelets to move from the point B to C.
Then the distance, BC = v t
In order to construct the reflected wavefront, let us draw a sphere of radius AE = vt. .CE
represents the tangent drawn from the point C to this sphere. This tangent represents the position of the
new reflected wavefront.
From figure it is observed that, AE = BC = vt.
The triangles EAC and BAC are congruent and therefore, i = r. This is the law of reflection.
Law of refraction of light (Snell's law on the basis of Huygens’s wave theory of light when the light
travels from rarer medium to denser medium:

In the figure,
MN is the refracting surface,
PA and BC are the incident rays,
AE is the refracted ray,
AB is the incident wavefront,
EC is the refracted wavefront,

i is the angle of incidence, r is the angle of refraction, 𝑛1 is the refractive index of rarer medium, 𝑛2 is
the refractive index of denser medium, 𝑣1 is the velocity of light in rarer medium, 𝑣2 is the velocity of
light in denser medium,
The plane wavefront AB is incident at A. The secondary wavelets travel from B to C in air in a
time t. At the same interval of time t, secondary wavelets travel from
A to E in the denser medium
In order to construct the refracted wavefront, draw a sphere of radius AE = 𝑣2 𝑡.
CE represents the tangent drawn from the point C to this sphere.
BC v1t
From the triangle ABC, sin i =  --------------- (1)
AC AC
AE v 2 t
From the triangle AEC, sin r =  --------------- (2)
AC AC
sin i v1t AC
  --------------- (3)
sin r AC v 2 t
v1 n 2 sin i n 2
But     n1 sin i  n 2 sin r
v 2 n1 sin r n1
This is the Snell's law of refraction.
Refraction of plane wave at rarer medium:
In the figure, AB is the incident wavefront
EC is the refracted wavefront,
i is the angle of incidence,

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r is the angle of refraction.
MN is the refracting surface,
AA and BC are the incident rays,
AE is the refracted ray,
sin i n 2
v1  v 2 So i  r but 
sin r n1
n2
If i  iC  r  90 o  sin iC  If i  iC
n1
wavefront will be total internally reflected.
Shape of the refracted wavefront when a plane wavefront is incident on the prism:
AB is the incident wavefront and AlBl is the refracted wavefront.
Explanation:
Different parts of the wavefront travel different thickness of the prism. The
velocity of light in rarer medium is greater than that in the denser medium.
The upper part of the wavefront A travels minimum thickness and slowed
down for short time. The lower part of the wavefront B travels maximum thickness
and slowed down for long time. This explains the tilting of the plane wavefront after
refraction through a glass prism.
Shape of the refracted wavefront when a plane wavefront is incident on
the convex lens:
AB is the Incident wavefront and AlBl refracted wavefront.
Different parts of the wavefront travel different thickness of the lens.
The velocity in the rarer medium is greater than that in the denser medium.
The upper and lower parts of wavefront travel minimum thickness and slowed
down for short time. The middle part wavefront travels maximum thickness
and slowed down for long time.
This explains the tilting of the plane wavefront after refraction at the edges and forms a spherical
wavefront and converges to the principal focus F.
Shape of the reflected wavefront when a plane wavefront is incident on
the concave mirror:
AB is the Incident wavefront and AlBl is the reflected wavefront.
A plane wavefront AB is incident on a concave mirror with the pole
at P. The middle of the wavefront has to travel the largest distance to P before
it get reflected. The peripheral portion of wavefront has travel the smallest
distance before getting reflected. Therefore, the reflected wavefront is
converging as spherical wavefront AlBl.
NP.1:
(a) When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected and refracted
light both have the same frequency as the incident frequency. Explain why?
(b) When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does the reduction in speed
imply a reduction in the energy carried by the light wave?
(c) In the wave picture of light, intensity of light is determined by the square of the amplitude of the wave.
What determines the intensity of light in the photon picture of light.

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Solution:
(a) Reflection and refraction arise through interaction of incident light with the atomic constituents of
matter. Atoms may be viewed as oscillators, which take up the frequency of the external agency (light)
causing forced oscillations. The frequency of light emitted by a charged oscillator equals its frequency
of oscillation. Thus, the frequency of scattered light equals the frequency of incident light.
(b) No. Energy carried by a wave depends on the amplitude of the wave, not on the speed of wave
propagation.
(c) For a given frequency, intensity of light in the photon picture is determined by the number of photons
crossing an unit area per unit time.
TP.1: Monochromatic light of wavelength 589 nm is incident from air on a water surface. What are the
wavelength, frequency and speed of
(a) reflected, and (b) refracted light? Refractive index of water is 1.33.
TP.2: What is the shape of the wavefront in each of the following cases:
(a) Light diverging from a point source.
(b) Light emerging out of a convex lens when a point source is placed at its focus.
(c) The portion of the wavefront of light from a distant star intercepted by the Earth.
TP.3: (a) The refractive index of glass is 1.5. What is the speed of light in glass? (Speed of light in
vacuum is 3.0 ×108 m s–1)
(b) Is the speed of light in glass independent of the colour of light? If not, which of the two colours red
and violet travels slower in a glass prism?
Phase: it is the state of vibration of a particle.
Phase difference: It is difference in phases of two vibrating particles.
Path difference: It is the distance traveled by the two waves in reaching a given point
Relation between path difference and phase difference:
2
   x Where x is path difference

 is phase difference and  is wavelength.
Intensity of plane wave (I):
It is the wave energy passing normally across unit area in one second. Intensity of a wave
is directly proportional to square of the amplitude of the wave
Interference of light:
It is the phenomenon of redistribution of light energy due to superposition of two or more light
waves.  I a2
Super position principle of waves:
When number of waves of same nature are superposed, the resultant displacement at the point of
  
superposition is equal to the vector sum of displacements due to individual waves. If y1 , y 2 and y 3 are
the independent displacements due to individual waves, then the resultant displacement is given by
   
y = y1 + y 2 + y 3 +------
Constructive interference: When crest of one wave falls on crest of the other or
trough of one wave falls on trough of the other, their displacements get added,
this is known as constructive interference. At the point of constructive
interference, the intensity of resultant wave is maximum.
Destructive interference: When a crest of one wave falls on trough of the other
or vice versa, their displacements get subtracted. This is known as destructive
interference. At the point of destructive interference, the intensity of resultant
wave is minimum.

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Examples for interference of light:
1. Colours are seen on soap bubble when exposed to sun light. It is due to interference of light waves
at thin films.
2. Colours are seen on a film of oil on the surface of water when exposed to sun light, It is due to
interference of light waves at thin films.
3. Alternate bright and dark fringes are obtained in the Young’s double slit experiment due to
interference of light waves.
Incoherent sources:
These are sources of light, which emit the light waves of different wavelength and having
different phase.
Example: Two 40 watt monochromatic bulbs.
Coherent sources:
These are the sources of light, which emit the light waves of same wavelength and having
constant phase difference.
Example: Young's double pin holes, Young's double slits.
Theory of interference:
In the above figure, 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are the coherent sources,
P is the point of superposition, 𝑆2 N is the normal drawn to 𝑆1 P
Let a and  , be the amplitude and wavelength of the waves emitted by 𝑆1
and 𝑆2 .
x be the path difference between the waves at the point P and  be the phase difference between the
waves at the point P. Then the displacement of the wave at P due to 𝑆1 is given by,𝑦1 = a sin t
The displacement of the wave at P due to 𝑆2 is given by, 𝑦2 = a sin t   
where  is the phase difference between the waves and
 is the angular frequency of the waves.
From superposition principle of waves, the resultant displacement is
y = 𝑦1 +𝑦2
 y = a sin t + a sin t    = 𝑎[𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]
  t  t     t  t      A B  A B
= a 2 sin   cos    sin A  sin B  2 sin   cos  
  2   2   2   2 
   2t   
= 2a cos   sin  
2  2 
   2t   
If R = 2a cos   is the resultant amplitude  y  R sin   ---------------- (1)
2  2 
Where R is the resultant amplitude
𝜙
but 𝐼 ∝ 𝑅2 ⇒ 𝐼 = 4𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2
Conditions for constructive interference:
Phase difference:
 
In the constructive interference, I maximum  I is maximum when cos    1
2

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 
i.e.  0,  , 2 , 3 .....
2
   0, 2 , 4 , 6 .....
   2n where n=0, 1, 2, 3,….
For constructive interference the phase difference should be integral multiple of 2
Path difference:

We have x   
2

 x  2n 
2
 x  n  where n=0, 1, 2,3,….
For constructive interference the path difference should be integral multiple of 
Conditions for destructive interference:
Phase difference:
In the destructive interference, I will be minimum
 
I is minimum, when cos    0
2
  3 5
ie  , , .....
2 2 2 2
    , 3 , 5 .....
   2n  1 where n=0, 1, 2, 3,….
The destructive interference the phase difference should be odd multiple of 
Path difference:

We have x   
2

 x  2n  1 
2

 x  2n  1 where n=0, 1, 2,3,….
2

For destructive interference the path difference should be odd multiple of
2
Why should we have a narrow source to produce good interference fringes?
It is because a broad source is equivalent to a large number of narrow sources ling close to each
other. Different pairs of narrow sources will produce their own interference patterns which will overlap
each other so the fringe system is lost.
Is there any difference between the colours emerging from a prism and the colours of a soap film
seen in sunlight?
Yes. In the prism, colours are produced due to dispersion of light. The colours of a soap film are
due to interference of light.

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Sustained interference or coherent interference:
Interference is said to be sustained if the positions of bright fringes and dark fringes remain fixed
on the screen.
Young's double slit experiment to demonstrate interference of light:
Young's double, slit apparatus consists of a narrow rectangular slit S. It is illuminated by a
monochromatic light. The light emerging from S illuminates the two identical close slits S1 and S2 which
acts as coherent sources. The waves emerging from S1 and S2 get superposed and interference fringes
are produced as shown on the observation screen.

The interference pattern will have the following characteristics

1) It has alternate bright and dark fringes.
2) The width of bright fringe is equal to the width of dark fringe.
3) The intensity of all the bright fringes is same.
4) The intensity of all the dark fringes is zero.
Bright fringes are formed on the screen due to the superposition of crests of two waves or troughs of
two waves. Dark fringes are formed due to the superposition of crest and trough of two waves. At the
centre of the screen always bright fringe is formed. This is because, all the waves meeting at the centre
of the screen have the zero path difference and zero phase difference.
Fringe width:
It is the distance between two consecutive bright fringes or dark fringes.
An expression for interference fringe width in young's double slit experiment:
Consider two coherent sources S1 and S2 which emits the light of wavelength  , the distance
between two slits d, distance between the double slit screen and an observation screen is D.
Now Q is the mid-point of the slits S1 and S2,
O is the point on the screen equidistant from the two slits S1 and S2,
P is the point on the screen at a distance x from O,
S1P and S2P are the waves meeting at P.
Draw S1N perpendicular to S2P.
Path difference, x = S2N = (S2P – S1P), NS1 S 2  PQO  
x
From NS1 S 2 , sin   ----------------- (1)
d
x
PQO , tan   ----------------- (2)
D
For small values of 𝜃, sin 𝜃 = tan 𝜃

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 x x
From (1) and (2), we get, 
d D
xd xD
 x  = path difference  x ----------------- (3)
D d
For nth bright fringe from the central bright fringe, x = xn and x  n ,
nD
 xn  ----------------- (4)
d
For (n+1)th bright fringe from the central bright fringe, x = xn+1 and x  n  1

x n 1 
n  1D ----------------- (5)

d
Fringe width,   x n 1 - x n


n  1D  nD 
D
 
d d d
Conditions for sustained (permanent) interference:
Interference due to the superposition of two waves. For sustained interference,
1. The wavelength of the two waves must be same.
2. The phase difference between the waves must be constant.
3. The amplitude of the two superposing waves must be same.
4. The two waves must travel nearly along the same direction.
5. The distance between the double slit must be very small and the distance between the double
slits and the screen must be large.
Expression for path difference in terms of angular position of the point at which bright fringe (or)
dark fringe is formed on the screen: From triangle 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑁,
𝛿𝑥
sin 𝜃=( 𝑑 ) ⇒ 𝛿𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
For constructive interference, 𝛿𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃= 𝑛𝜆
2𝑛+1
For destructive interference 𝛿𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = ( )𝜆
2
where n = 0, 1, 2, -----
Angular positions of interference fringes:
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃, sin 𝜃=( 𝑑 ) ⇒ 𝜃 = sin−1 ( 𝑑 )
𝛿𝑥
For small angles, sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 = 𝑑
Resultant amplitudes in terms of intensities:
  𝜙
We have resultant amplitude R = 2a cos   but 𝐼 ∝ 𝑅2 ⇒ 𝐼 = 4𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2
2
If the intensities coming from slits are 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 then the different ten resultant intensity
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
For constructive interference   2n ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙=1
2
⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 ⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 =(√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 )
For destructive interference   2n  1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙= -1
2
⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 ⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 =(√𝐼1 − √𝐼2 )
Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 8
Ratio of maximum and minimum intensities in terms of amplitudes:
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 similarly 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎1 ~𝑎2
2
But 𝐼 ∝ 𝑅2 ⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2 and 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑎 +𝑎 )2
⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ (𝑎1 ~𝑎2 )2 ⇒ = (𝑎1 −𝑎2 )2
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 2

Ratio of maximum and minimum intensities in terms of intensities due to individual waves:
2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑎1 +𝑎2 )2 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 √𝐼1+√𝐼2
We have, = (𝑎 )2
. But 𝐼 ∝ (𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒)2 ⇒ √𝐼 ∝ 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 ∴ =( )
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 −𝑎2 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 √𝐼1−√𝐼2

Ratio of maximum and minimum intensities in terms of slit widths:

2 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 √𝐼1 +√𝐼2 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 √𝑊1 +√𝑊2
We have =( ) and 𝐼 ∝ 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ ⇒ 𝐼∝𝑊 ∴ =( )
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 √𝐼1 −√𝐼2 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 √𝑊1 −√𝑊2

Interference with slit width:

1. As the width of slits increases, the maximum intensity decreases and minimum intensity increases,
finally fringes disappear.
2. If one of the slit is covered, the fringes disappear.
3. If the source slit is moved towards the double slit the separation of the fringes is unaffected but
brightness increases.
4. If a thin transparent sheet like mica of refractive index n is introduced in the path of one of the beam,
the entire fringes shifts laterally towards the side on which the sheet is introduced. But fringes are
(𝑛−1)𝑡𝐷 𝛽(𝑛−1)𝑡 𝜆𝐷
unaffected. 𝐿𝑠 = 𝑑 = 𝜆 ∵𝛽= 𝑑
5. When whole apparatus of young’s double slit is immersed in a liquid pf refractive index n, the fringes
𝛽
come closer. 𝛽𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑛
TP.4: In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen is placed
1.4 m away. The distance between the central bright fringe and the fourth bright fringe is measured to be
1.2 cm. Determine the wavelength of light used in the experiment.
TP.5: In Young’s double-slit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength l, the intensity of
light at a point on the screen where path difference is l, is K units. What is the intensity of light at a point
where path difference is l/3?
TP.6: A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain interference
fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment.
(a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the screen from the central maximum for wavelength
650 nm.
(b) What is the least distance from the central maximum where the bright fringes due to both the
wavelengths coincide?
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon of diffraction was discovered by an Italian physicist Francisco Maria Grimaldi
in 1665. Subsequently, the phenomenon was studied by Newton and Hook. But Thomas Young was the
first person who applies the wave theory to explain diffraction.
Diffraction of light:
It is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle.
Phenomenon of diffraction of right:
Consider a slit AB placed between the
source of light and a screen. According to
rectilinear propagation of light, only the portion
A1B1 of the observation screen should be
illuminated as shown in the figure- 1. However, it

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 is seen that light enters in the region of the geometrical shadow beyond Al and B1 as shown in the figure-
2. This is due to the bending of light around the corners of the slit (or) obstacle. This phenomenon is
called as diffraction of light.
Examples for Diffraction of light:
1. Hold the two shaving blades near the eyes so that a narrow slit is formed between the edges of the blades.
Alternate bright and dark bands are seen when we look a straight filament glass bulb through the slit.
This is due to diffraction of light.
2. Alternate bright and dark bands are seen when we look a street light between two fingers pinched
together suitably. This is due to diffraction of light.
3. The coloured pattern is seen on spider web due to diffraction of light.
4. The spreading of light from a small hole made to opaque medium is due to diffraction.
5. The luminous border surrounding the profile of a mountain just before the sunrise is due to diffraction.
6. Luminous streaks of light are seen when a strong source of light is observed with half closed eyes. This
is due to diffraction of light.
7. To observe diffraction of light, the size of an obstacle should be comparable to the wavelength of light.
Diffraction through a single slit:

In the figure, S is the rectangular slit. It is illuminated by monochromatic light. The

diverging rays from S are made parallel by a converging lens L1. The parallel rays are then passed through
a small rectangular slit AB. The diffraction pattern is observed on the observation screen, which is placed
at the principle focus of converging lens L2.
O is the point on the observation screen equidistant from A and B. It is called as central maximum.
The secondary wavelets proceeding from A and B meets at O with zero path difference. Therefore the
point O has maximum intensity. The other bright fringes are called secondary maxima and the dark
fringes are called minima. Maximum is produced at the point P, if the waves meeting at that point are in
phase. Minimum is produced at the point P, if the waves meeting at that point are out of phase.
Characteristics of diffraction pattern:
1. It has central bright maximum, which is surrounded by alternate bright and dark fringes.
2. The intensity of bright fringes decreases gradually from central maximum.
3. The intensity of dark fringes increases gradually as order increases from central maximum.
4. The width of fringes is non-uniform.
Essential condition for diffraction of light to occur
Size of the obstacle (or) the aperture should be comparable with the wavelength of light.
A small circular disc is laced in the path of light from a distant source. Will the centre of shadow
be bright or dark?
Waves from distant source are diffracted by the edge of the disc. These diffracted waves interfere
constructively at the centre of the shadow and produce a bright fringe.

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You are able to hear a person standing behind a wall but not see him, though both light and sound
are waves. Why?
This is because sound waves get easily diffracted round the edge of the wall while light waves
do not.
Distinguish between interference and diffraction:
Interference Diffraction
1. The intensity of all bright fringes is same. 1. The intensity of all bright fringes is not same
2. The intensity of dark fringes is zero 2. The intensity of dark fringes is not zero.
3. The width of all the fringes is same. 3. The width of all the fringes is not same.
4. The number of fringes observed is more. 4. The number of fringes observed is less.
5. It is due to super position of two or more 5. It is due to superposition of secondary
light waves. wavelets starting from the same wavefront.
6. It is the phenomenon of redistribution of 6. It is the phenomenon of bending of light
light energy due to superposition of two around the corners of an obstacle.
or more light waves

Intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern obtained at single

slit:
The diffraction pattern consists of a central bright maximum
at O surrounded by alternate bright and dark fringes.
From the triangle ABC in the figure, the path difference between
the secondary wavelets emerging from the points A and B of the slit is
given by x  d sin 
where d is the slit width and  is the diffracting angle.
Central maximum
The central fringe of diffraction pattern is called central
maximum. The secondary wavelets emerging from various points in the
slit meet at O with zero path difference. Therefore, the point O has maximum intensity.
Diffraction minima:
The dark fringes such as P and R are called diffraction minima.
At point P the path difference between A and B is  . The plane wavefront AB is divided into 2
parts as shown in the figure-2. The path difference between A and D, D and B is  / 2 . For every point
in part AD there are corresponding points in the part DB with path difference  / 2 . This is the condition
for destructive interference. The part AD and DB cancel each other at P which is Ist minimum. Similarly,
the diffraction minima are produced when the path difference between A and B is 2 , 3 , 3....
In general, path difference for minima (dark fringes) is given by
 x  n where n =1,2,3
Secondary maxima:
At point Q the path difference between A and B is 3 / 2 . The plane
wavefront AB is divided into 3 parts as shown in the figure-3. The path
difference between A and B, D and E and. E and B is  / 2 . For every point
in part AD there are corresponding points in the part DE with path difference
 / 2 . This is the condition for destructive interference. The part AD and DE
cancel each other at Q. But the part EB contributes intensity at Q which is Ist

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secondary maximum' Similarly' the diffraction secondary maxima are produced when the path difference
between A and B is 5 / 2 , 7 / 2 ,…….
In general, path difference for maxima (bright fringes) is given by,

 x
2n  1 where n = 1,2,3,….
2
Angular positions of the diffraction fringes:
Path difference between the secondary wavelets x  d sin   for small angles sin   
x
 x  d   
d
 1
For maxima:    n  
 2 d
Where  is the angular position of the bright fringe and n = 1,2,3 .........
 is the wavelength of light used, d is the slit width
n
For minima:  
d
Where  is the angular position of the dark fringe and n = 1,2,3 .........
 is the wavelength of light used, d is the slit width.
Polarization of light:
It is the phenomenon in which the vibrations of light wave are restricted to one plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
In electromagnetic wave electric field vector represents the polarization.
Plane-polarized wave:
It is the wave having the vibrations in one plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
If the plane of vibration of wave is changed randomly in very short interval of time then it is
unpolarised wave
Suppose wave is vibrating in Z- axis and travelling in X axis is 𝑧(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)

Un polarized light
Plane polarized

Polaroid: It is a device used to produce and analyze plane-polarized light.

Pass-axis:
When a beam of unpolarised light is made to fall on the Polaroid, the vibrations of light vector
are transmitted in a particular direction. This direction is called pass axis. The pass-axis is perpendicular
to the aligned molecules in the Polaroids.
Explanation of polarization:
Dots are the vibrations of electric field vector
perpendicular to plane of paper
Double arrows are the vibrations of electric field vector
parallel to plane of paper.

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 When a beam of unpolarised light is made to fall on the Polaroid, the vibrations parallel to the
Pass-axis are transmitted whereas the vibrations perpendicular to the pass-axis are absorbed. Thus a
beam of polarized light produced.
Parallel Polaroids and Crossed Polaroids:
When two Polaroids are arranged one behind the
other with their pass-axis parallel, then the Polaroids are said
to be parallel Polaroids. If unpolarised light is made to fall on
such combination, the light is transmitted which is plane
polarized
When two Polaroids are arranged one behind the other with their pass-axis perpendicular, then
the Polaroids are said to be crossed Polaroids. If unpolarised light is made to fall on such combination,
the light is not transmitted and the field of view is dark
Applications of Polaroids:
1) They are used as sunglasses.
2) They are used in windows of vehicles.
3) They are used to view 3D movie cameras.
4) They are used in headlights of vehicles.
5) They are used to produce and analyze the plane polarized light.
6) They are used in windows of aero planes.
7) They are used in photographic camera as filters.
8) They are used to improve colour contrasts in old paintings.
Malus law:
Statement:
When a beam of completely plane polarized light is passed through analyzer, the intensity of
transmitted light is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between the pass axes
of polarizer and analyzer
Malus law is given by I  I o Cos 2
Where Io = Intensity of light emerged from
polarizer
I = Intensity of light emerged from analyzer
 = Angle between the pass axes of polarizer and
analyzer
NP.2: Discuss the intensity of transmitted light when a polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed
polaroids?
Solution: Let 𝐼𝑜 be the intensity of polarised light after passing through the first polariser 𝑃1 . Then the
intensity of light after passing through second polariser 𝑃2 will be
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 cos2θ , where θ is the angle between pass axes of 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 . Since 𝑃1 and 𝑃3 are crossed the angle
between the pass axes of 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 will be (𝜋/2– θ). Hence the intensity of light emerging from 𝑃3 will
be
𝜋 𝐼
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 cos2θ cos2 (2 − θ) = 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 cos2θ sin2 θ = 4𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2θ Therefore, the transmitted intensity will be
𝜋
maximum when θ = 4 .

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