The Choice of The Propeller: IN This Paper An Attempt Is Made To Explain I N An
The Choice of The Propeller: IN This Paper An Attempt Is Made To Explain I N An
The Choice of The Propeller: IN This Paper An Attempt Is Made To Explain I N An
By J. D . v a n Manen^
In this paper the four main requirements for a propeller ore dealt with. These require-
ments concern efficiency, cavitation, propeller-excited forces and stopping abilities. In a
propeller diagram the characteristic efficiency curves for different conditions are ex-
plained. A comparison of the optimum efficiencies for various types of propulsors is
given, and the applications on a 1 30,000-dwt tanker are considered. Cavitation-in-
ception curves both for a specific propeller and for systematic propeller series are dis-
cussed. Predicted torque and thrust fluctuations, based on model-test d a t a , and the
results o f measurements on the full-size ship are compared. Finally a quasi-steady testing
technique, developed to analyze difTerent types of stopping maneuvers, is described.
-Bp
Fig. 4 Bp — S d i a g r a m
J
Fig. 3 iCr-jKg-/diagram
KQ Bp
6 J
P/D=0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
200 0.606 0.182 0.0100 0.0234 0,0398 0.0512 0.0840 18.2 278 35.3 45.0 52.3
210 0.482 0.161 0.0108 0.0244 0.0410 0.0624 ,0,0854 21.3 32.1 41.6 51.3 50.0
220 0.460 0.144 0.0115 0.0254 0.0420 0.0636 • 0,0868 24.7 35.7 47^3 63.1 679
230 0.440 0.128 0.0122 0.0262 0.043 0 0.0647 0,0879 28.4 41.7 53.4 65.5 76.4
24 0 0.422 0.116 0.0128 0.0269 0.0438 0.0656 0,0890 32,4 470 60.0 73.4 855
250 0.405 0.104 0.0134 0.0276 0.0446 0.0665 0,0900 36.7 52.3 67.0 81.8 95.2
260 0.390 0.095 0.0138 0.0282 0.04 53 0.0672 0.0909 41.0 58.4 74.1 90.3 105.0
270 0.375 0.086 0.0143 0.0287 0.0460 0.0680 0.0917 45.9 65.1 82.4 1002 116.3
280 0.362 0.079 0.0148 0.0292 0.0466 0.0687 0.0924 61.0 71.7 90.6 110.0 1276
290 0,349 0.072 0.0152 0.0297 0.04 72 0,0693 0.0932 56.7. 79.3 100.0 121.1 140.5
300 0.339 0.066 0.0156 0.0301 0.0477 0.0698 0.0937 62.2 86.4 108.8 131.6 152.5
101.277 BP = 3 3 . 0 8 \ / M :
diameter ratio ch/D are fixed for tlris series. Tire re,sults I n the coefficient Bp, N is the number of revolutions per
of open-water tests for sucli a screw series are given i n the minute, the power P is i n horsepower and the speed of
KT-KQ-J diagrams, Fig. 3. advance Va is i n knots (1 knot = 0.5144 m/sec = 1.689
The propeller efficiency }?p can be expressed i n terms of fps).
these nondimensional coefficients as follows: I n the usual diagram, the design coefficient Bp is
the base and a new speed ratio 8 is used. This speed
^ TVa ^ K T J _
ratio is defined as
2TvQn KQ2W
5 0.6,74m
a s 6,<2fn
Fig. 7 P r o p u l s i v e coefficients f o r a 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 - t o n t a n k e r
types o f p r o p u l s o r s
OF BLADE AREA-RATIO
BLADES
2 0.30 0,38
curves on whicli P, D and Va have constant values. 3 0.35 0.50 0.65 0.80
the rotative speed by, say 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 percent. B 0.50 0.65 0.80
APRIL 1966
161
Table 3 Required Power for a Tanker
C o u n t e r r o t a t i n g propellers
2 = 4, 5;
D = 6.57 - 5.78 m . 95%
Propeller w i t h nozzle
D = 7.00 m
Resistance increase due to 89%
H o g n e r stern and nozzle a t t a c h m e n t
. . . . 6 percent
T w i n - s c r e w ship
z = 3 - 3; D = 7.47 m
Resistance increase due to bossings 100%
. . . . 5 percent
Triple-screw ship
g = 3 - 5 - 3; Fig. 8 A r r a n g e m e n t o f p r o p e l l e r i n nozzle f o r a t a n k e r m o d e l
D = 6.74 - 6.42 m
Resistance increase due to bossings 94%
. . . . 4 percent
. I n Table 3 the required power for each case is given,
using 27,720 shp as 100 percent.
speed of 15.8 laiots and an installed power of 27,720 shp. The large saving i n SHP which can be obtained using
The rotative speed of the propeller has been fixed at 100 a shrouded propeller should be noticed.
rpm.. The propulsive coefficient, which is a measure of As tanker sizes continue to increase, the advantage
the efiiciency of the propeller including the hydrodynamic of shi-ouded propellers will become greater. I n Fig. 8,
interaction of the ship's hull and the propeller, is plotted the installation of a propeller i n a clear-plastic shroud
vertically. on the afterbody of a tanlcer model is shown.
A t the left-hand side of the diagram results are given For the very big. tanlcer the contrarotating propeller
for conventional ship propellers w i t h 4, 5, 6 and 7 blades. leads to a power reduction of 5 percent compared to
The calculations have been carried out for tluee different conventional screws. The advantage of this type of
diameters: D = 7.20, 7.60 and 8.00 ni. I n order to give propulsion for large tanlcers lies primarily i n the smaller
a complete survey of the potentialities of a conventional allowable screw diameters and thus a possible reduction
screw propeller i t is necessary to carry out calculations in the danger of vibration caused by the fluctuating
for a range of number of blades, diameters and rotative propeller-force field. As shown by Fig. 6, the centra-
speeds. I n tins diagram the rotative speed has been rotating' propeller may become a serious competitor of
fixed at 100 r p m and i t is obvious that for the higher the conventional screw propeller for fast cargo ships [7].
number of blades (6 and 7) a screw diameter of 8.00 m
is too large; the highest efficiency is found for a diameter Cavlfatlon of the Screw-Blade Sections
of 7.60 m . For the lower number of blades the efficiency The lifting-line theory for ship screws gives an idea of
continues to increase w i t h increasing diameter. the induced velocities, pressures and forces along the
I t might be the question if a diameter of 8.00 m gives different radii of the screw blades. This information
already the optimum for a 4-bladed propeller for this forms the basis of considerations of cavitation and
slnp. For lower rotative speeds, for instance 80 r p m for strength.
turbine-driven ships, these tendencies are intensified. Fig. 9 gives schematically the screw w i t h a bound
T o the right, results are given for a set of contrarotating vortex or circulation T at the radius r and trailing heli-
propellers (CR) and a propeller i n a nozzle (DP = ducted coidal vortices. The circulation r of a screw-blade sec-
propeller). Results are also given for a twin-screw tion is defined as the line integral of the flow field along
arrangement of two 3-bladed propellers and a triple- a closed curve around this profile. This line integral
screw slup w i t h two 3-bladed and one 5-bladed pro- is the integration of the product of a line element ds and
peller. The increase i n resistance (EHP) due to the the component of velocity tangent to this line element.
nozzle attachment or due to the brackets for the twin- B y clioosing the closed curve along which the line integral
screw or triple-screw configuration are specified to be 6, 5 is to be evaluated, i n the manner indicated i n Fig. 9, a
and 4 percent, respectively. For each configuration the relation can be derived easily between the circulation r
optimum diameter, at 100 rpm, is indicated. of a screw-blade section and the tangential-induced
G'
—r
/
/
2irrct.
I zT f "7
0.50 2'
\y— \o.l6
0.07 * LL
.o.eo
VO.70
- -•050
velocity c, at the same radius r. The curve shown in 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 OM 0.16 0.1S
Fig. 9 consists of a coaxial cylinder, of radius cut open Vl
along a line paraUel to the axis. Far forward of the F i g . 12 R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t d , r a t i o t/l and
propeller C( = 0, so that that part of the boundary has c a v i t a t i o n n u m b e r a, respectively, pressure c o e f f i c i e n t Ap/q for
circular-arc profiles
zero contribution to the line integral. The two longi-
tudinal boundaries make equal but opposite contributions
and, hence, cancel each other. Far aft, the contribution
is 27rrc,. When the axial cylinder is flattened out, as at I t follows for 23ractical screws that for the circulation
the right-hand side of Fig. 9, the chosen,boundary sur- around the screw blade we have
rounds the bound vortices of the 2-screw blades and thus, ZT = 27r)'Cimeaii = 27r?'f<C(
according to Stokes' law, we find
The product of the l i f t coefficient and chord I of a
zV = 27rrc, blade section is a basic parameter i n the calculation of
the cavitation properties of the blade section. According
For a finite number of blades, say 4 or 5, the value c, to the law of Kutta-Joukowski the l i f t i n g force of a
for the tangential induced velocity far a f t the screw will screw-blade element, see Fig. 2, is
occur only at the helicoidal vortex sheets. Between
these vortex sheets the tangential induced velocities will dL = pVTdr
be less. On a circle with radius r the tangential induced where V is the resultant velocity of the screw-blade sec-
velocities will have an undulating magnitude w i t h a maxi- tion. B y definition
mum Ci at the free vortices and a minimum in between.
The ratio between the mean and the maximum induced dL = CLipVHdr
tangential velocity is given by the Goldstein reduction and hence
factor:
2r
Cd = (KX)
V zY V
— -T'
Fig. 13 R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n c r i t i c a l M a c h n u m b e r a n d pressure
coefficient l\plq
— THRUSTCOEFFICIENT K^
P-f (1.6„ for optimum diameter for a given power P, rotative speed
A'' and speed Va, lies i n the region of suction-side cavita-
tion. B y a slight change i n camber of the blade sections
the area more favorable f r o m the viewpoint of cavitation
can be moved toward the position of the D„pt-curve.
APRIL 1966
165
, - 7 0
• ERATELY U - S H A P E D
80
90
U - S H A P E D SECTION
60
F i g . 18 C o o r d i n a t e s , elastic d e f o r m a t i o n s a n d f o r c e s
B L A D E A N S L E S IN D E G R E E S
propeller shaft i n way of the propeller because of the
circumferential inequality of the wake and, hence, the
torque-generating force. These horizontal and vertical
Fig. 17 T h r u s t e c c e n t r i c i t y calculated by Stuntz, P i e n , H i n t e r -
than, and Ficken
transverse forces and bending moments" have to be
absorbed mainly by the sterntube and the sternpost.
The forces and moments acting on the propeller work-
/ diagram as proposed by Scliuster [11 ] may give a quali- ing i n the flow field behind the ship can be divided into
tative picture of the forces generated by a screw i n a ch- six components:
cumferentially nonuniform flow field. Axial. Tlu'ust and torque. . .
For every 5 or 10 deg of the circumference an instan- Transverse. A transverse force, because of the
taneous exannnation of the blade is made. The axial circumferential inequality of the torque force (unbalance
wake velocities are regarded as constant at each blade of torque); a vertical bending moment due to the thrust
position. W i t h the aid of the open-water characteristics eccentricity.
{KT-KQ-J diagram) of the particular screw, the time Vertical. A vertical force and a horizontal bending
history of the thrust and torque can be found. The path moment for the same reasons as stated i n the foregoing,
of the center of the thrust w i l l be symmetrical w i t h re- see Fig. 18.
gard to the longitudinal centerplane of the ship when the The experimental determination of the thrust and
tangential wake velocities are neglected. This path Avill torque fluctuations of a screw model behind a model of a
be swept 2-times every revolution for a 2-bladed propeller. single-screw ship was carried out successfully for the first
Usually the region of maximum wake velocity above the time by Krohn and Wereldsma [12]. They carried out
propeller axis w i l l be broader (thicker) than that below their measurements of the hydi-odynamic forces created
the propeller shaft. The closed path on which the center by the propeller using a measuring shaft of very great
of tlu'ust is moving w i l l lie mostly above the propeller stiffness.
axis. Many systematic and individual experiments have
When the tangential wake velocities are included, the been done using the'^apparatus of Krohn and Wereldsma
rotative speed of the screw blades w i l l be smaller when [13,14]. The systematic experiments give information
entering the peak of the wake and larger when leaving about the influence of number of blades, the shape of the
this peak. This will cause a shift of the patli of the center afterbody and the position of the propeher shaft.
of thrust to starboard for a screw that rotates clockwise The frequencies of the periodic force fluctuations due
and to port for a screw that rotates counterclockwise. to the propeller running i n the flow field behind the ship,
The shape of the sections i n the ships afterbody has a will be equal to the number of revolutions of the pro-
pronounced influence On the position and form of this peller times the number of blades (the blade frequency)
path, Fig. 17. or a multiple thereof.
Because of this eccentric position of the tln-ust, hori- Regarding the influence of the number of blades, the
zontal and vertical bending moments are created i n the characteristic difference between propellers with even
propeller shaft. and odd numbers of blades must be mentioned.
••6
0 . \
--5
A
0°
A 90°
THRUST VARIATIONS
Fv. 0.7 D
2) VERTICAL TRANSVERSE FORCE = 0.06.0.076 SIN ( 4 p . 1 2 6 ° ) (2=4)
T2 gem.
= 0.007»0.019 SIN ( 5 p - . 1 5 9 ° ) ( Z .= 5 )
t
=0 0 3 2 . 0 0 5 3 SIN(5p.155°) (Z=5)
For a screw propeller w i t h an even number of blades, gives an illustration of results of measurements on 4-, 5-
the fluctuating forces of two opposite blades will give rise and 6-bladed screw models i n the wake of a ship model.
to a larger total thrust and torque amplitude because two A statistical investigation of the experimental data
blades pass simultaneously the stern and its associated on thrust and torque fluctuations of some 40 different
peaks in wake velocities. The transverse force and ship models, tested at the N S M B , leads to the following
bending moment of one blade w i l l be compensated more conclusions:
or less by those of the opposite one. 1 No systematic relation can be found to ëxist be-
For propellers w i t h an odd number of blades, the blades tween the amplitudes of the force fluctuations and the
will pass, alternatingly, the upper and lower wake peak. principal ship-shape parameters such as block coefhcient,
The total thrust and torque fluctuations wiU thus be prismatic coefhcient and screw diameter-ship length ratio.
smaller than for an even-bladed propeller. ' For an odd 2 For prismatic coefhcients of the afterbody . be-
number of blades the transverse forces and bending tween 0.73 and 0.79 i t was ascertained for 4-blade<i pro-
moments, the favorable mutual compensation experi- pellers that w i t h a probability of about 80 percent the
enced by the even-bladed propeller wih not occur. Fig. 19 following results wiU be obtained: The amplitude of the
Stopping of Ships
Propeller position 0
W i t h the aid of the quasi-steady velocities and forces
• M £ A 5 U R t D - FULL SIZE SHIP
diagram acting on a screw-blade section an insight can be
• PREDICTION DERIVED FROM MOÜELTEST-RESULTS
gained into the force pattern around the screw during
Fig. 2 2 C o r r e l a t i o n o f measurements o n f u l l size a n d p r e d i c t i o n stopping, Fig. 23. -'
o f t o r q u e a n d t h r u s t v a r i a t i o n s , based o n model-test results When the rotative speed of the screw is reduced the
angle of attack, and, hence, the thrust, will decrease f r o m
that at full-ahead power (phase 1). A t about 70 per-
The hydrodynamic mass and damping and the hydro- cent of the normal ahead number of revolutions the thrust
dynamic coupling between thrust and torque vibrations will become zero and the screw turns freely (phase 2).
have to be determined for the prediction of the stresses As the R P I \ I is further reduced, a negative angle of
in a given shaft configuration. Wereldsma has developed attack wiU result i n negative lUt and thrust. A further
a propeUer exciter, Fig. 21, to evaluate the coefficients reduction i n RPJM leads to such large negative angle of
appearing i n the left-hand side of the equations. W i t h attack that flow separation on the screw blades wiU
this exciter a given axial or torsional vibration can be i m - occur with an accompanied loss in l i f t . This separation
posed on a model screw at a certain load KT or KQ and at starts at about 30 percent of the R P M ahead (phase 3).
a certain advance ratio J. I n the column at the right in The decreasing l i f t causes a decrease i n braking force
15
1
. R P M OF THE PROP E t L E R
L
i
SPEED O F SHIP
SPEED =iEDUCTIOf 1
14- 9 knots 9-6 knots 6-i kno:s
ol0 1 1 1
1 2 3 i 5 e 7 8
— HEAD REACH IN km
Fig. 23 Relation between thrust and R P M at a constant ship The hydrodynamic added mass has been taken into ac-
speed. Force and velocity diagrams f o r blade element of screw count by the use of a factor 1.05.
The values of the ratio V/K can be determined f r o m a
model test for each speed V at different rotative speeds.
dt ds dt ds
For a given ship displacement the braking force K can be
calculated for any combination of speed V and the rota-
tive speed, and the integral for the headreach can be
ds= m .J^ dv
determined.
Vi •
The ratio between displacement and power A/SHP, or
S . — / - d v as written in the integral of Fig. 24, the ratio A/K, is
Vv,
very important for the length of the headreach. A large
in which S= Head reach rn displacement propelled by a relatively small power will
A= Displacement ton give a long headreach (large value of the ratio A/SHP,
g = Gravitational acceleration m.sec" tankers). A low value for the ratio A/SHP, as for i n -
V j = Initial speed m.sec" stance for destroyers and tugboats, wUl give a very short
V( = Terminal speed m.sec" headreach.
K= Braking force ton
Analysis for a maximum allowable headreach of 4 k m
Fig. 24 Integral for calculation of headreach of ships (2.5 miles) were made for a 100,000-dwt tanker at differ-
ent initial speeds, with the assumption that tugs would
assist in the stopping maneuver. Table 5 is a review
until such time as the separation or profile drag become of tins analysis. The only possible maneuver is the one
large enough to predominate and the braking force again starting from an initial speed of 10.1 knots. When brak-
increases (phase 4). ing from 10.1 to 7 knots w i t h a rotative speed of 20 rpm,
the distance covered is 3.1 k m (2 miles). A t 7 knots the
The continued increase of profile drag w i t h the astern
tugs take hold and exert an extra braking force of 40 tons.
operation of the propeller will further increase the brak-
The rotative speed becomes 50 rpm astern and the tanker
ing force (phase 5). A t a high number of astern revolu-
stops after another 0.9 k m (0.6 mUe). Operations re-
tions the probability of cavitation and of drawing air into
quu'ing tugs to make fast at speeds greater than 7 Imots
the propeller increases. The occurrence of one of these
must be considered a very risky undertaking. For a
may cause a decrease m braking force.
maximum allowable headreach of 4 k m the initial speed
The typical S-characteristic, describing the thrust of the 100,000-ton tanlcer may, hence, not exceed 10.1
between 100 percent R P M ahead and 100 percent R P M knots.
astern operation, was described for the first time by
These conclusions are based on model tests. I t may
Thau [16]. For the propeUer alone, tins curve can be
be possible, due to a conservative interpretation of the
determined for quasi-steady operation, when the open-
scale effect, that these results are somewhat pessimistic.
water screw characteristics are available for the ahead and
Owing to the lack of sufficient data f r o m full-scale tests,
astern running condition [17]. These quasi-steady con-
a correction of the data i n Table 5 for scale eft'ects is not
siderations are at the same time the basis for a method
possible.
for calculating the headreach. I n Fig. 24 an integral
I n Fig. 25 the calculation of stopping of a 100,000-ton
is derived calculating the headreach f r o m the basic law of
tanlcer is given for an initial speed of 14 knots. The
dynamics, that
different phases into which the whole maneuver can be
Force = mass X acceleration divided are indicated. A n essential part of the maneuver