The Choice of The Propeller: IN This Paper An Attempt Is Made To Explain I N An

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The Choice of the Propeller

By J. D . v a n Manen^

In this paper the four main requirements for a propeller ore dealt with. These require-
ments concern efficiency, cavitation, propeller-excited forces and stopping abilities. In a
propeller diagram the characteristic efficiency curves for different conditions are ex-
plained. A comparison of the optimum efficiencies for various types of propulsors is
given, and the applications on a 1 30,000-dwt tanker are considered. Cavitation-in-
ception curves both for a specific propeller and for systematic propeller series are dis-
cussed. Predicted torque and thrust fluctuations, based on model-test d a t a , and the
results o f measurements on the full-size ship are compared. Finally a quasi-steady testing
technique, developed to analyze difTerent types of stopping maneuvers, is described.

IN this paper an attempt is made to explain i n an


'P-I^T^
instructive way the results of applied research i n the
propulsion of ships. I n particular i t is hoped that i t
will be instructive to those who are active i n the field of
ship design.
The main requirements for a ship propeller are:
1 H i g h efhciency.
2 M i n h n u m danger of cavitation erosion.
3 M i n i m u m propeller-excited vibratory forces.
4 Good stopping abilities.
5 Favorable interaction w i t h the rudder, to improve
maneuverability.
• 6 Dependability—minimum vulnerability.
7 Low initial and maintenance costs.
I n the following sections the author has restricted him- Fig. 1 R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t KT, t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t
self to a discussion of the requirements mentioned under KQ a n d advance c o e f f i c i e n t J o f p r o p e l l e r
points 1 through 4.
There are two important diagrams, w i t h the aid of
which insight into nearly every propulsion problem can influence of the ship that ultimately is to be driven by
be obtained. These are: the propeller.
(a) The diagram giving the relation between the As a rule, thrust and torque are given i n nondimen-
thrust coefRcient KT and torque coefhcient KQ and the sional f o n n
advance ratio J of the propulsor is shown i n Fig. 1.
(b) The velocity and force diagram of a screw-blade KT = (thrust coefficient)
element is shown i n Fig. 2.
Results such as those given i n Fig. 1 were obtained Q Q
KQ = (torque coefficient)
f r o m an "open-water test" of a given screw model. I n
such tests the screw model is driven f r o m behind. The
propulsion motor and the measuring apparatus are where
housed i n a boat which is a considerable distance behind p = mass density of fluid
the screw model and is connected to the carriage of the ni) = a, measure of rotative speed of screw
towing tank. I n this manner the thrust T and the = a measure of screw-disk area
torque Q can be measured for constant values of rotative
speed n and varying advance speed Va without the These thrust and torque coefficients are plotted as a
function of the advance coefficient J , which is the ratio
1 L e c t u r e held at a Seminar of T h e Roj^al I n s t i t u t e of Engineers, between the speed of advance 7 a and the rotative speed
D e l f t , T h e Netherlands, 1965. i:iD.
' Assistant D i r e c t o r , Netherlands Ship M o d e l Basin, W a g e n i n -
gen, T h e Netherlands. Most design problems can be solved for a particular

158 MARINE TECHNOLOGY


dQ <1Q|

Fig. 2 Force a n d v e l o c i t y d i a g r a m o f screw-blade element>t


Lj radius r

-Bp

Fig. 4 Bp — S d i a g r a m

J
Fig. 3 iCr-jKg-/diagram

screw using a diagram such as Fig. 1. If, for instance, for


the screw concerned, the speed of advance Va and tlie Fig. 5 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c curves i n a Bp-S d i a g r a m
rotative speed n are Imown, then the thrust and torque
can be read off, or, w i t h known Va and Q the rotative
speed n can be found. Thus, when two out of the four dTi, dQi = thrust and torque force of blade element
quantities Va, n, T and Q are given, the other two can be without influence of profile drag
determined from the diagram. dT, dQ = thrust and torque force including influence
I n Fig. 2 the force and velocity diagram of a screw- of profile drag
blade element at a certain radius r is given. The thrust- P = hychodynamic pitch angle uncorrected for
ing action of the screw induces velocities i n the fluid. induced velocities
The magnitude of these induced velocities depends on the Pi = hydrodynamic pitch angle corrected for
screw loading. I f the speed of advance Va (or ship induced velocities
speed Fs) is decreased, while the rotative speed is held
constant, the screw loading will increase and the induced This force and velocity diagram forms the basis for the
velocities will increase at a rate proportional to the i n - lifting-hne theory for ship propellers. This theory w i l l
crease i n l i f t force dL and the effective angle of attack be treated in greater detail i n the section "Cavitation of
Oti.
the Screw-Blade Sections."
The induced velocities c„, which are, to a good ap- This diagram is also helpful when analyzing propulsion
proximation, at right angles to the resultant incoming problems using quasi-steady considerations, see also sub-
velocity V, can be resolved into axial and tangential sequent sections.
components and c,. A t the screw disk the induced Efficiency of the Propeller
velocities are one-half of their ultimate values far behind
the screw. A n important source of data for screw design are the
I n the diagram, Fig. 2, the following symbols are i n - results of open-water tests w i t h systematical screw series.
dicated: A systematic screw series consists of a number of screw
models, i n which only the pitch ratio P/D is varied. AU
cor or irnd = tangential speed of blade element at other characteristic dimensions, including diameter D,
radius r number of blades z, blade-area ratio A,/A, blade plan-
dDp = profile drag of blade element form, form of blade sections, blade thicknesses and hub-

APRIL 1966 159


Table 1 Transformation of the KT — KQ — J Diagram into 6^,-5 Diagram

KQ Bp
6 J
P/D=0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

200 0.606 0.182 0.0100 0.0234 0,0398 0.0512 0.0840 18.2 278 35.3 45.0 52.3

210 0.482 0.161 0.0108 0.0244 0.0410 0.0624 ,0,0854 21.3 32.1 41.6 51.3 50.0

220 0.460 0.144 0.0115 0.0254 0.0420 0.0636 • 0,0868 24.7 35.7 47^3 63.1 679

230 0.440 0.128 0.0122 0.0262 0.043 0 0.0647 0,0879 28.4 41.7 53.4 65.5 76.4

24 0 0.422 0.116 0.0128 0.0269 0.0438 0.0656 0,0890 32,4 470 60.0 73.4 855

250 0.405 0.104 0.0134 0.0276 0.0446 0.0665 0,0900 36.7 52.3 67.0 81.8 95.2

260 0.390 0.095 0.0138 0.0282 0.04 53 0.0672 0.0909 41.0 58.4 74.1 90.3 105.0

270 0.375 0.086 0.0143 0.0287 0.0460 0.0680 0.0917 45.9 65.1 82.4 1002 116.3

280 0.362 0.079 0.0148 0.0292 0.0466 0.0687 0.0924 61.0 71.7 90.6 110.0 1276

290 0,349 0.072 0.0152 0.0297 0.04 72 0,0693 0.0932 56.7. 79.3 100.0 121.1 140.5

300 0.339 0.066 0.0156 0.0301 0.0477 0.0698 0.0937 62.2 86.4 108.8 131.6 152.5

101.277 BP = 3 3 . 0 8 \ / M :

diameter ratio ch/D are fixed for tlris series. Tire re,sults I n the coefficient Bp, N is the number of revolutions per
of open-water tests for sucli a screw series are given i n the minute, the power P is i n horsepower and the speed of
KT-KQ-J diagrams, Fig. 3. advance Va is i n knots (1 knot = 0.5144 m/sec = 1.689
The propeller efficiency }?p can be expressed i n terms of fps).
these nondimensional coefficients as follows: I n the usual diagram, the design coefficient Bp is
the base and a new speed ratio 8 is used. This speed
^ TVa ^ K T J _
ratio is defined as
2TvQn KQ2W

B y interpolation i n the KT-KQ-J diagram of a screw ND 101.27


S =
series most problems, which arise when designing or Va J
analyzing screw propellers, can be solved.
The most widely encountered design problem is that in which D = screw diameter i n feet.
where the speed of advance of the fluid into the screw The manner i n which tlie KT-KQ-J diagram is trans-
disk Va', the power to be absorbed by the screw P and formed into the Bp-S diagram is shown i n Table 1.
the number of revolutions ?i are given. The diameter D Fig. 4 gives an example of a Bp-5 diagram for a par-
is to be chosen so that the greatest efficiency can be ob- ticular screw series.
tained. This is done as follows: I n Fig. 5 some characteristic cui'ves i n the Bp-5 diagram
" • B y choosing discrete values of the diameter D, the are shown:
corresponding values of the advance ratio J and the
(a) Optimum rip for P/D = const. This curve goes
torque coefRcient KQ can be calculated. F r o m the KT-
through the points where the tangents to the curves of
KQ-J diagram, Fig. 3, the corresponding pitch ratios P/D
equal efficiency {-qp = const) are horizontal (P/D =
•and the efficiency r/p can be read off for each diameter
const). The optimum »;p-values correspond to the peaks
chosen. Plotting the values of r]p as a function of the
of the i7p-curves i n the KT-KQ-J diagram. Fig. 3.
diameter will allow the diameter leading to the optimum
(b) Optimum -qp for / = const. This curve goes
efficiency to be chosen.
through the points of contact between the curves of ö =
I n order to simplifj^ this frequent design jDroblem, the
const and' those for -qp = const. These optimum
KT-KQ-J diagrams can be transformed into another dia-
values coincide w i t h those on the envelope of the efficiency
gram, f r o m which the optimum diameter D can be read
curve in the KT-KQ-J diagram, Fig. 3.
off directly when the speed of advance Va, the power P
(c) Optimum ijp for the most favorable diameter D.
and the rotative speed n are given. For this purpose a
This curve connects the points of contact between the
.design coefficient Bp has been formed f r o m the torque
curves of ijp = const and their vertical tangents {Bp =
coefficient KQ and the advance ratio J i n such a way that
const; P , i V and Fa are given).
the screw diameter is eliminated:
(d) Optimum for the most favorable number of
NP'/'- revolutions N'. This is the locus of the points of contact
B, = 33.08
between the curves of constant efficiency = const) and

160 MARINE TECHNOLOGY


TANKERS
o,so.

5 0.6,74m
a s 6,<2fn

7 CR, D.P Twin Tripl»


scr. ocr.
3-3 3-6-3

Fig. 7 P r o p u l s i v e coefficients f o r a 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 - t o n t a n k e r

<0 60 60 70 80 90 100 125 150


Table 2 Survey of Wageningen B-Series

Fig. 6 C o m p a r i s o n o f o p t i m u m e f f i c i e n c y values f o r d i f f e r e n t NUMBER

types o f p r o p u l s o r s
OF BLADE AREA-RATIO
BLADES

2 0.30 0,38

curves on whicli P, D and Va have constant values. 3 0.35 0.50 0.65 0.80

These cui'ves can be constructed easily starting from a


i 0.40 0.55 0.70 0.85 1.00
certain vahie of and S (for instance points on the v^-
optimum curve for optimum diameter) and reducing 5 0.45 0.60 0.75 1.05

the rotative speed by, say 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 percent. B 0.50 0.65 0.80

The Bp and 5-values will then also be reduced by 10, 20,


7 0.55 0.70 0.85
30, 40 and 50 percent.
The four typical curves coincide at one point i n the left
upper corner of the diagram. This point corresponds
to the maximum of the envelope of the efficiency curves
in the open-water characteristics, Fig. 3. Open-water tests have been performed w i t h systematic
I f both the screw diameter D and the rotative speed series for types of propellers other then the conventional
are free to be chosen for a given power P and speed of screw. Some of those results are summarized i n Fig. 6.
advance Va, the optimum propeller w i l l correspond to I n this figure curves are given showing the liighest
this optimum point. As a rule, however, either the obtainable efficiency rjj, for dift'erent types of propellers
resulting diameter is too large or the resulting number, as a function of Bp. A t the top of the figure the ranges
of revolutions too small for practical purposes. of .Bp-values typical for different slrip types are indicated.
I t is of great importance that the propeller designer The lightly loaded screws of fast slnps are at the left-
makes himself thoroughly familiar w i t h one type of design hand side, whUe the heavily loaded propellers of towing
chart. I t is advised, therefore, that the propeller de- vessels are at the right. Such a chagram can give a quick
signer restricts himself to the open-water characteristics indication which type of propeller will give the best
(KT-KQ-J diagrams) and the B^-S diagrams when making efficiency for a given type of ship.
use of systematic screw-series data. I f necessary, the I n particular, i t can be seen f r o m the diagram that
open-water characteristics can be transformed i n such a propellers i n nozzles are to be reconunended f o r heavy
maimer that the required calculations for any given de- loadings, such as occur i n tugs, trawlers and large tankers.
sign requirements are reduced to a bare minimum. Ex- For heavy towing a long nozzle w i t h a chord-diameter.
amples are the Bu-S diagrams f o r given values of the ratio of 0.83 is preferable to a short nozzle w i t h a chord-
speed Va, r p m N and thrust T and the ti-a diagrams for diameter ratio of 0.50 [4].
the construction of the tow-force diagram of a tug [1].^ For fast ships, contrarotating propellers appear to give
The advantage of the reduced amount of calculations a higher efficiency than conventional screws, such as
when using a special diagram does not outweigh the dis- the B-4.70 or broad-bladed screws such as the Gawn 3¬
advantages arising from the use of an unfamiliar diagram. 110.
I n Table 2 a survey of the systematic screw series Information on the optimum efficiency of f u l l y cavitat-
tested by the N S M B is given. Results are available i n ing and vertical-axis propellers has been included i n the
the four forms discussed previously [1-3]. diagram [5], [6].
Fig. 7 gives the results of calculations of the propeUer
2 N u m b e r s i n brackets designate References a t end of paper. for a tanker w i t h a deadweight of 130,000 tons, a ship

APRIL 1966
161
Table 3 Required Power for a Tanker

Displacement v o l u m e = 156,000 m^; deadweight = 130,000 tons


R P M = 100; 7 . = 15.8 k n o t s ; 100 percent S H P = 27,720 hp.

D = 7.20 m 7.60 m 8.00 m

C o n v e n t i o n a l screw z = 4, percent. . . . 1 0 4 100 96


z = 5, percent. . . . 1 0 3 100 98
z = 6, percent. . . . 1 0 3 100 100
z = 7, percent. . . . 1 0 2 101 103

C o u n t e r r o t a t i n g propellers
2 = 4, 5;
D = 6.57 - 5.78 m . 95%
Propeller w i t h nozzle
D = 7.00 m
Resistance increase due to 89%
H o g n e r stern and nozzle a t t a c h m e n t
. . . . 6 percent

T w i n - s c r e w ship
z = 3 - 3; D = 7.47 m
Resistance increase due to bossings 100%
. . . . 5 percent

Triple-screw ship
g = 3 - 5 - 3; Fig. 8 A r r a n g e m e n t o f p r o p e l l e r i n nozzle f o r a t a n k e r m o d e l
D = 6.74 - 6.42 m
Resistance increase due to bossings 94%
. . . . 4 percent
. I n Table 3 the required power for each case is given,
using 27,720 shp as 100 percent.
speed of 15.8 laiots and an installed power of 27,720 shp. The large saving i n SHP which can be obtained using
The rotative speed of the propeller has been fixed at 100 a shrouded propeller should be noticed.
rpm.. The propulsive coefficient, which is a measure of As tanker sizes continue to increase, the advantage
the efiiciency of the propeller including the hydrodynamic of shi-ouded propellers will become greater. I n Fig. 8,
interaction of the ship's hull and the propeller, is plotted the installation of a propeller i n a clear-plastic shroud
vertically. on the afterbody of a tanlcer model is shown.
A t the left-hand side of the diagram results are given For the very big. tanlcer the contrarotating propeller
for conventional ship propellers w i t h 4, 5, 6 and 7 blades. leads to a power reduction of 5 percent compared to
The calculations have been carried out for tluee different conventional screws. The advantage of this type of
diameters: D = 7.20, 7.60 and 8.00 ni. I n order to give propulsion for large tanlcers lies primarily i n the smaller
a complete survey of the potentialities of a conventional allowable screw diameters and thus a possible reduction
screw propeller i t is necessary to carry out calculations in the danger of vibration caused by the fluctuating
for a range of number of blades, diameters and rotative propeller-force field. As shown by Fig. 6, the centra-
speeds. I n tins diagram the rotative speed has been rotating' propeller may become a serious competitor of
fixed at 100 r p m and i t is obvious that for the higher the conventional screw propeller for fast cargo ships [7].
number of blades (6 and 7) a screw diameter of 8.00 m
is too large; the highest efficiency is found for a diameter Cavlfatlon of the Screw-Blade Sections
of 7.60 m . For the lower number of blades the efficiency The lifting-line theory for ship screws gives an idea of
continues to increase w i t h increasing diameter. the induced velocities, pressures and forces along the
I t might be the question if a diameter of 8.00 m gives different radii of the screw blades. This information
already the optimum for a 4-bladed propeller for this forms the basis of considerations of cavitation and
slnp. For lower rotative speeds, for instance 80 r p m for strength.
turbine-driven ships, these tendencies are intensified. Fig. 9 gives schematically the screw w i t h a bound
T o the right, results are given for a set of contrarotating vortex or circulation T at the radius r and trailing heli-
propellers (CR) and a propeller i n a nozzle (DP = ducted coidal vortices. The circulation r of a screw-blade sec-
propeller). Results are also given for a twin-screw tion is defined as the line integral of the flow field along
arrangement of two 3-bladed propellers and a triple- a closed curve around this profile. This line integral
screw slup w i t h two 3-bladed and one 5-bladed pro- is the integration of the product of a line element ds and
peller. The increase i n resistance (EHP) due to the the component of velocity tangent to this line element.
nozzle attachment or due to the brackets for the twin- B y clioosing the closed curve along which the line integral
screw or triple-screw configuration are specified to be 6, 5 is to be evaluated, i n the manner indicated i n Fig. 9, a
and 4 percent, respectively. For each configuration the relation can be derived easily between the circulation r
optimum diameter, at 100 rpm, is indicated. of a screw-blade section and the tangential-induced

162 MARINE TECHNOLOGY


1.00
r
6

G'
—r

/
/
2irrct.
I zT f "7
0.50 2'

\y— \o.l6
0.07 * LL

l/l .0.04 6°[_ l'


Fig. 9 R e l a t i o n between c i r c u l a t i o n r a n d t a n g e n t i a l i n d u c e d
-1'
v e l o c i t y c,
0.5 . 1.0

Fig. 11 CL — t/l — Apll d i a g r a m for c i r c u l a r - a r c p r o f i l e s


STEAOy VORTICES

.o.eo

VO.70

- -•050

F i g . 10 Oosterveld's h y d r o d y n a m i c m o d e l for s c r e w blade as


v o r t e x sheet

velocity c, at the same radius r. The curve shown in 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 OM 0.16 0.1S
Fig. 9 consists of a coaxial cylinder, of radius cut open Vl
along a line paraUel to the axis. Far forward of the F i g . 12 R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t d , r a t i o t/l and
propeller C( = 0, so that that part of the boundary has c a v i t a t i o n n u m b e r a, respectively, pressure c o e f f i c i e n t Ap/q for
circular-arc profiles
zero contribution to the line integral. The two longi-
tudinal boundaries make equal but opposite contributions
and, hence, cancel each other. Far aft, the contribution
is 27rrc,. When the axial cylinder is flattened out, as at I t follows for 23ractical screws that for the circulation
the right-hand side of Fig. 9, the chosen,boundary sur- around the screw blade we have
rounds the bound vortices of the 2-screw blades and thus, ZT = 27r)'Cimeaii = 27r?'f<C(
according to Stokes' law, we find
The product of the l i f t coefficient and chord I of a
zV = 27rrc, blade section is a basic parameter i n the calculation of
the cavitation properties of the blade section. According
For a finite number of blades, say 4 or 5, the value c, to the law of Kutta-Joukowski the l i f t i n g force of a
for the tangential induced velocity far a f t the screw will screw-blade element, see Fig. 2, is
occur only at the helicoidal vortex sheets. Between
these vortex sheets the tangential induced velocities will dL = pVTdr
be less. On a circle with radius r the tangential induced where V is the resultant velocity of the screw-blade sec-
velocities will have an undulating magnitude w i t h a maxi- tion. B y definition
mum Ci at the free vortices and a minimum in between.
The ratio between the mean and the maximum induced dL = CLipVHdr
tangential velocity is given by the Goldstein reduction and hence
factor:
2r
Cd = (KX)
V zY V

APRIL 1966 163


NACA 6-SERIES
DESIGN CL-0

— -T'

Mcr t/l =0.0


"^^^^
u.ua// /
0 . 1 2 / / / /
0 1 5 / / /
o.ie//'
0.21/

-04 -0,2 0 02 0,4 0,6 0,6 1.0


_ CL

Fig. 13 R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n c r i t i c a l M a c h n u m b e r a n d pressure
coefficient l\plq

— THRUSTCOEFFICIENT K^

Fig. 14 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c curves i n a a-Kr diagram


where .1; = nondimensional raduis =
W i t h the aid of Fig. 2 a geometric relation can be
derived between \ctlY and the hydrodynamic pitch
in CL (and, hence, i n angle of attack a) gives a large
angles /? and jSj
change i n Ap/q (pressure-side cavitation).
^ ' = sin /?.• tan (^^ - /3)
(6) A n area where the lowest Ap/g-values are reached
and a change i n C L gives almost no change i n Ap/q (the
area of shoclc-free entrance).
For a known velocity distribution the forces on the
screw-blade element can now be calculated easily. (c) A n area of high Ct-values where a small change
in CL corresponds to a large change i n Ap/q (suction-side
Tills paper will be restricted to these elementary re-
cavitation).
marks based on the steady lifting-line theory for ship
propellers. Further details can be found i n the available I n Fig. 12 the data of Fig. 11 have been replotted i n a
literature, such as [3]. For a clear insight into the pro- manner, more instructive to the screw designer. This
peller action, the construction of more complicated hy- figure indicates, for a certain value of a (or Ap/q) the
drodynamic models may often be necessary. Theories thickness-chord ratio t/l where a maximum variation i n
have been developed i n wliich the screw blades are re- the l i f t coefficient CL can be sustained without cavitation.
garded as vortex sheets, both for steady and unsteady The point at the extreme right-hand side of the GL-I/I
phenomena. Fig. 10 gives Oosterveld's hydrodynamic loop for a given Ap/g-value is the point where a is about
model f o r the screw blade as a vortex sheet. The addi- 0 deg and where shock-free entrance changes into pres-
tional unsteady vortices are created when the screw sure-side cavitation. For calculation of propeller cavita-
passes a region of low speed of advance, such as occurs tion according to steady lifting-line theory, a margin of
when the blade passes the stern post. safety against cavitation is generally used i n the calcula-
tions, for instance Ap/q = a — 20 percent.
The creation of l i f t at the different radii of the screw
blade can be accomphshed by camber and by angle of Fig. 12 shows that this reduction i n cavitation number
attack. The importance of the distribution of l i f t be- affects only the determination of the optimum thickness-
tween these two for good cavitation properties can be chord ratio t/l i n order to obtain a maximum CL varia-
determined f r o m : tion at a given Ap/q.
Experimental and theoretical data, such as given in
(a) Characteristics for two-dimensional profiles giv- Figs. 11 and 12, are scarce. A n extra source for i n -
ing the relation between the l i f t coefficient CL, the angle formation, however, is given by the calculations for the
of attack a and the cavitation number cr, or the pressure inception of supersonic phenomena i n aerodynamics [8].
coefficient t^vll) see Figs. 11, 12 and 13. There is a simple relation between the maximum pressure
(&) Cavitation-inception curves such as a <S-KT dia- coefficient Ap/q of a profile and the critical Mach num-
gram for a ship screw, Fig. 14. ber, as is shown i n Fig. 13. The critical Mach number is
(c) Cavitation-inception curves superimposed on a the ratio between that advance velocity V, when at some
Bp-h screw-series diagram, Fig. 15. point on the profile the velocity of sound c has been
I n Fig, 11 the maximum pressure coefficient Ap/g = reached, and that velocity of sound:
(F^ma^ — V^)/V^ is given as a function of the l i f t coefficient
C i for four circular-arc profiles w i t h thickness-chord ratio
of 0.04, 0.07, 0.1 l a n d 0.15.
Three areas can be discerned: Fig. 13 gives an example of the relation between the
crikcal M a c h number M „ and the l i f t coefficient Cr, of a
(a) A n area w i t h low Ci-values, where a small change
MARINE TECHNOLOGY
164
F i g . 15 C a v i t a t i o n - i n c e p t i o n curves i n a Bp-d d i a g r a m

P-f (1.6„ for optimum diameter for a given power P, rotative speed
A'' and speed Va, lies i n the region of suction-side cavita-
tion. B y a slight change i n camber of the blade sections
the area more favorable f r o m the viewpoint of cavitation
can be moved toward the position of the D„pt-curve.

Vibration Generated by Propeller


Usually the variations of the flow field at the screw
can be split up into two components, i.e.:
(a) The radial variation, especially of the axial veloci-
ties. This variation does not lead to unsteady phe-
nomena at the screw. A propeller working i n such a
velocity field has a steady flow and force pattern. Moie-
over, the propeller can be adjusted to this radially non-
F i g . 16 A x i a l wake d i s t r i b u t i o n behind single-screw ship uniform flow by an appropriate distribution of pitch and
model
camber, and optimum efficiency and cavitation proper-
ties may be-expected i n such cases.
profile m t h o u t camber but w i t h six thickness-chord (b) The chcumferential (at a given radius) variation
ratios [8]. of both axial .and tangential velocities. This nonuni-
For the investigation of screw models i n the cavitation formity is the origin of the periodically fluctuating force
tunnel i t is important to show the different results i n a pattern and the unsteady pressure distributions along the
characteristic diagram. Fig. 14 gives, i n an instructive blade chords, and determines the. dynamic pressure
manner, the onset of the different types of cavitation. fluctuations induced by the propeller on the stern.
Such a diagram can be made f o r every screw model by I n Fig. 16 an example is given of the wake distribution
systematically varying the cavitation number ir at cer- behind a single-screw slup model. I n this figure only
tam values of the thrust coefhcient KT. From such a the axial velocity component is given i n the f o r m of the
diagram i t can be ascertained if the screw model is too local wake fraction iv = ( 7 . - Va)/V„ where 7 . is the
near the inception of pressure-side cavitation at the ship speed.
design-condition.' B y reducing the camber somewhat
Although often attempted [10], the expermrental
and compensating for this camber reduction by a pitch
deterinination of the tangential-velocity components
increase, the curves f o r the onset of pressure-side and
usually meets many difficulties. The 5-holed spherical
suction-side cavitation can be shifted to the left, making
pitot tube of Van der Hegge-Zijnen still gives no consistent
pressure-side cavitation less likely.
results for velocities below 1 m/sec. These tangential-
Tests i n the cavitation tunnel w i t h systematically velocity components are much smaller than the axial
varied screw series can give data about the onset of pres- components but for an accurate theoretical analysis of
sure-side or suction-side cavitation. B u r r i l l [9] has the unsteady phenomena at the screw propeller the cir-
systematically tested some screw series and has indicated cumferential inequality caused by the tangential veloci-
the hues for cavitation inception i n a Bp-5 diagram, see. ties may not be neglected i n the future.
Fig. 15. . From this diagram i t is evident that the curve A simple quasi-steady analysis w i t h the aid of a KT-KQ-

APRIL 1966
165
, - 7 0

• ERATELY U - S H A P E D
80

90

U - S H A P E D SECTION

60

F i g . 18 C o o r d i n a t e s , elastic d e f o r m a t i o n s a n d f o r c e s

Looking more closely at the variation of torque, i t


is obvious that a dynamic-force pattern is created i n the
F I G U R E S INDICATE T H E

B L A D E A N S L E S IN D E G R E E S
propeller shaft i n way of the propeller because of the
circumferential inequality of the wake and, hence, the
torque-generating force. These horizontal and vertical
Fig. 17 T h r u s t e c c e n t r i c i t y calculated by Stuntz, P i e n , H i n t e r -
than, and Ficken
transverse forces and bending moments" have to be
absorbed mainly by the sterntube and the sternpost.
The forces and moments acting on the propeller work-
/ diagram as proposed by Scliuster [11 ] may give a quali- ing i n the flow field behind the ship can be divided into
tative picture of the forces generated by a screw i n a ch- six components:
cumferentially nonuniform flow field. Axial. Tlu'ust and torque. . .
For every 5 or 10 deg of the circumference an instan- Transverse. A transverse force, because of the
taneous exannnation of the blade is made. The axial circumferential inequality of the torque force (unbalance
wake velocities are regarded as constant at each blade of torque); a vertical bending moment due to the thrust
position. W i t h the aid of the open-water characteristics eccentricity.
{KT-KQ-J diagram) of the particular screw, the time Vertical. A vertical force and a horizontal bending
history of the thrust and torque can be found. The path moment for the same reasons as stated i n the foregoing,
of the center of the thrust w i l l be symmetrical w i t h re- see Fig. 18.
gard to the longitudinal centerplane of the ship when the The experimental determination of the thrust and
tangential wake velocities are neglected. This path Avill torque fluctuations of a screw model behind a model of a
be swept 2-times every revolution for a 2-bladed propeller. single-screw ship was carried out successfully for the first
Usually the region of maximum wake velocity above the time by Krohn and Wereldsma [12]. They carried out
propeller axis w i l l be broader (thicker) than that below their measurements of the hydi-odynamic forces created
the propeller shaft. The closed path on which the center by the propeller using a measuring shaft of very great
of tlu'ust is moving w i l l lie mostly above the propeller stiffness.
axis. Many systematic and individual experiments have
When the tangential wake velocities are included, the been done using the'^apparatus of Krohn and Wereldsma
rotative speed of the screw blades w i l l be smaller when [13,14]. The systematic experiments give information
entering the peak of the wake and larger when leaving about the influence of number of blades, the shape of the
this peak. This will cause a shift of the patli of the center afterbody and the position of the propeher shaft.
of thrust to starboard for a screw that rotates clockwise The frequencies of the periodic force fluctuations due
and to port for a screw that rotates counterclockwise. to the propeller running i n the flow field behind the ship,
The shape of the sections i n the ships afterbody has a will be equal to the number of revolutions of the pro-
pronounced influence On the position and form of this peller times the number of blades (the blade frequency)
path, Fig. 17. or a multiple thereof.
Because of this eccentric position of the tln-ust, hori- Regarding the influence of the number of blades, the
zontal and vertical bending moments are created i n the characteristic difference between propellers with even
propeller shaft. and odd numbers of blades must be mentioned.

166 MARINE TECHNOLOGY


TORQUE VARIATIONS VERTICAL BENDIN6 MOMENT (prop.U«-VrtigN Mctud«d)

••6

0 . \

--5
A


A 90°

THRUST VARIATIONS

A • A 90° 180° 270°


Propeller position 6

i A/lA 111 A/ A /, Z-i


Z. 5
Z= 6

90° 180° 270° 360°


PropeUer position 8

F i g . 19 Eifect o f n u m b e r o f blades o n d y n a m i c p r o p e l l e r f o r c e s , e x c i t e d i n " b e h i n d '


condition

Table 4 Formulas Approximating Transverse Forces and Bending Moments,


Excited by Propeller (]5-Knot Tanker)

FORMULAE APPROXIMATING THE TRANSVERSE FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS E X C I T E D B Y


A PROPELLER ( 15KN0TS TANKER )

1) HORIZONTAL TRANSVERSE FORCE = 0 . 1 2 . 0.073 S I N ( 4 p t 8 0 ° ) t. Z • A )


Tz gem.

• 0.12 . 0.150 SIN ( 5 p . 1 0 1 ° ) (Z.5)

Fv. 0.7 D
2) VERTICAL TRANSVERSE FORCE = 0.06.0.076 SIN ( 4 p . 1 2 6 ° ) (2=4)
T2 gem.

=0.06t0.130 SIN ( 5 p . 2 0 1 ° ) (Z=5)

3) HORIZONTAL BENDING MOMENT = 0 . 0 0 7 . 0.008 SIN(40+147°) (2=4)


F2 gem.0.7D

= 0.007»0.019 SIN ( 5 p - . 1 5 9 ° ) ( Z .= 5 )
t

4 ) VERTICAL BENDING MOMENT =0032*0.012 SIN(4p.130°) (Z=4)


F2 gem.O.TD

=0 0 3 2 . 0 0 5 3 SIN(5p.155°) (Z=5)

For a screw propeller w i t h an even number of blades, gives an illustration of results of measurements on 4-, 5-
the fluctuating forces of two opposite blades will give rise and 6-bladed screw models i n the wake of a ship model.
to a larger total thrust and torque amplitude because two A statistical investigation of the experimental data
blades pass simultaneously the stern and its associated on thrust and torque fluctuations of some 40 different
peaks in wake velocities. The transverse force and ship models, tested at the N S M B , leads to the following
bending moment of one blade w i l l be compensated more conclusions:
or less by those of the opposite one. 1 No systematic relation can be found to ëxist be-
For propellers w i t h an odd number of blades, the blades tween the amplitudes of the force fluctuations and the
will pass, alternatingly, the upper and lower wake peak. principal ship-shape parameters such as block coefhcient,
The total thrust and torque fluctuations wiU thus be prismatic coefhcient and screw diameter-ship length ratio.
smaller than for an even-bladed propeller. ' For an odd 2 For prismatic coefhcients of the afterbody . be-
number of blades the transverse forces and bending tween 0.73 and 0.79 i t was ascertained for 4-blade<i pro-
moments, the favorable mutual compensation experi- pellers that w i t h a probability of about 80 percent the
enced by the even-bladed propeller wih not occur. Fig. 19 following results wiU be obtained: The amplitude of the

APRIL 1966 167


Table 5 Stopping Maneuvers for a 100,000-dwt Tanl<erfor
,E, C, .F,
Headreacli of 4 l<m (2.5 miles)

Initial speed kn 10.1 11.7 13.3 14.6

Speed at which tugs assist


effectively In braking and keep
symbol the ship on course kn 7 8 9 10

Hydrodynamic Reach at, 20 R P M . ahead


7.6 • 1 0 ' l^gm s e c before tug assistance becomes
m o m e n t of i n e r t i a
effective km 3.1 2.9 2.6 2,3

Hydrodynamic Reach at 60 R.RM. astern


0.8S 10 kgm sec
torsional damping and 40 tons extra braking force
exerted by tugs km 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7

Hydrodynamic mass Head reach km 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

Hydrodynamic Kg s e c bladed propeller (although unimportant) are twice as


axial damping
large as those for the 4-bladed propeller.
(&) The fluctuations i n bending moment are much
Acceleration coupling 1.4.10' kg sec2 higher for a 5-bladed than for a 4-bladed propeller.
Realizing that the ship designer generally has at hand
effective and relatively cheap means of avoiding axial
V e l o c i t y coupling 0.23 l(g s e c
shaft vibrations (torque and thrust) and that he has to
reduce the excitation of horizontal huU vibrations to a
F i g . 2 0 Scheme o f c o u p l e d dififerential equations o f s c r e w shaft- minimum, the 5-bladed propeUer is to be regarded as an
t h r u s t b l o c k system unfavorable propeUer compared to a 4-bladed one.
From results of recent systematic tests with, among
first harmonic* of the torque fluctuation wiU be 63^ per- others, the "Wageningen B-Series i t could be deduced that
cent of the mean total torque, the amplitude of the first a 6-bladed propeller has about 3 percent less efhciency
harmonic of the tlirust fluctuations w i l l be 10 percent than the comparable 4-bladed propeUer [4]. The smaller
of the mean total thrust, and the amphtudes of the higher screw diameter, the larger screw clearances and the very
harmonics wül be substantiaUy lower. favorable pattern of the fluctuating forces (see Fig. 19)
are, however, distinct advantages, justifying the applica-
And lilcewise for a 5-bladed propeller: The amplitudes
tion of 6-bladed propeUers for single-screw ships.
of the first and second harmonics of the torque fluctua-
tions wül be, respectively, lYi and 1 percent of the total The propeller shaft and the ship's stern are not i n -
torque, and the amphtudes of the first and second har- finitely stift'. Thus, because of the described force
monics of the thrust fluctuations will be, respectively, 2 patterns, elastic deformations wül occur. •
and V/2 percent of the total thrust. The torsion and the axial displacement of the screw
Deviations from these indications larger than 2 per- owing to the elastic shaft give rise to hydrodynamic
cent absolute do not occur. • coupling between the axial dynamic screw forces (thrust)
3 Fine-ended vessels, which includes most fast ships, and the dynamic torsion forces (torque).
can have substantially greater force fluctuations. The deflections of the propeUer shaft due to the
I n Table 4 a review of the formulas which appioxi- bending moments create gyroscopic phenomena at the
mate the transverse forces and moments generated by a propeller.
4- bladed and a 5-bladed propeUer behind a 15-knot A certain volume of water follows the unsteady move-
tanlcer is given. .^For the loading of the shaft i n the ver- ments of the screw blades, manüesting itself as an added
tical directipn besides the hydrodynamic forces the weight mass. • •
of the propéller has to be taken into account. The unsteady character of the screw loading wUl in-
The mean value of the propeller-generated transverse duce i n the screw race helicoidal traUing vortex patterns,
forces can be neglected compared to the propeller weight varying periodically m strength, see Fig. 10. The energy,
f r o m a viewpoint of static' shaft loading. The static carried away by this vortex system causes hydrodynamic
bending moment l ü t s the propeller up and reduces the damping. AU tlie hydrodynamic quantities of the screw
deflection of the. sterntube. Reckoning has to be lieH, as a source of vibration are summed' up now. I f i t were
however, w i t h a large beiidihg moment i n the shaft i n possible to calculate or determine experimentally these
way of the screw plane. ... ' ' hydrodynamic quantities, then i t would be possible to
, Comparing the dynaniic" behavior of a 4-bladed and predict the expected stresses i n the stern construction and
in the' propeller shaft resulting from the unsteady forces
5-bladed propeller, i t i s hqted that:
of itlïê'-ship propeller.
r (a) The fluctuations in, the transverse, force of the 5-
- - - lïjg. 20 gives the scheme of coupled differential equa-
* T h e first h a r m o n i c has the blade frequency.' tions of the screw-sliaft-thrustblock system.

168 MARINE TECHNOLOGY


PICK-UP FOR AXIAL MOTIONS

Fig. 2 1 P r o p e l l e r e x c i t e r f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f coefficients f o r h y d r o d y n a m i c mass a n d d a m p i n g and h y d r o d y n a m i c


c o u p l i n g between thrust and torque vibrations

Fig. 20 the values for a model of a specific single-screw


cargo ship, as measured by Wereldsma, are given [15].
The results of Wereldsma's prediction of the torque
and thrust fluctuations based on model-test data and the
results of measurements on the full-size ship are compared
in Fig. 22. The good correlation between prediction and
measurement indicates that a new area of ship-model
testing has been opened as a service for the shipbuUding
and ship operating industry.

Stopping of Ships
Propeller position 0
W i t h the aid of the quasi-steady velocities and forces
• M £ A 5 U R t D - FULL SIZE SHIP
diagram acting on a screw-blade section an insight can be
• PREDICTION DERIVED FROM MOÜELTEST-RESULTS
gained into the force pattern around the screw during
Fig. 2 2 C o r r e l a t i o n o f measurements o n f u l l size a n d p r e d i c t i o n stopping, Fig. 23. -'
o f t o r q u e a n d t h r u s t v a r i a t i o n s , based o n model-test results When the rotative speed of the screw is reduced the
angle of attack, and, hence, the thrust, will decrease f r o m
that at full-ahead power (phase 1). A t about 70 per-
The hydrodynamic mass and damping and the hydro- cent of the normal ahead number of revolutions the thrust
dynamic coupling between thrust and torque vibrations will become zero and the screw turns freely (phase 2).
have to be determined for the prediction of the stresses As the R P I \ I is further reduced, a negative angle of
in a given shaft configuration. Wereldsma has developed attack wiU result i n negative lUt and thrust. A further
a propeUer exciter, Fig. 21, to evaluate the coefficients reduction i n RPJM leads to such large negative angle of
appearing i n the left-hand side of the equations. W i t h attack that flow separation on the screw blades wiU
this exciter a given axial or torsional vibration can be i m - occur with an accompanied loss in l i f t . This separation
posed on a model screw at a certain load KT or KQ and at starts at about 30 percent of the R P M ahead (phase 3).
a certain advance ratio J. I n the column at the right in The decreasing l i f t causes a decrease i n braking force

APRIL 1966 169


1 1 1
1 1 uU p o w a r
» l i a m supply shut d o w n ast«m s c r s w 5topp«d tugl m i d i f l i t
s c r e w turning stack 'Js= -50 t u g s m a i t t fast ilowty l i t i r n

15
1
. R P M OF THE PROP E t L E R
L

i
SPEED O F SHIP

SPEED =iEDUCTIOf 1
14- 9 knots 9-6 knots 6-i kno:s

ol0 1 1 1
1 2 3 i 5 e 7 8
— HEAD REACH IN km

Fig. 25 Headreach for a 100,000-dwt tanker; initial speed


14 knots

Fig. 23 Relation between thrust and R P M at a constant ship The hydrodynamic added mass has been taken into ac-
speed. Force and velocity diagrams f o r blade element of screw count by the use of a factor 1.05.
The values of the ratio V/K can be determined f r o m a
model test for each speed V at different rotative speeds.
dt ds dt ds
For a given ship displacement the braking force K can be
calculated for any combination of speed V and the rota-
tive speed, and the integral for the headreach can be
ds= m .J^ dv
determined.
Vi •
The ratio between displacement and power A/SHP, or
S . — / - d v as written in the integral of Fig. 24, the ratio A/K, is
Vv,
very important for the length of the headreach. A large
in which S= Head reach rn displacement propelled by a relatively small power will
A= Displacement ton give a long headreach (large value of the ratio A/SHP,
g = Gravitational acceleration m.sec" tankers). A low value for the ratio A/SHP, as for i n -
V j = Initial speed m.sec" stance for destroyers and tugboats, wUl give a very short
V( = Terminal speed m.sec" headreach.
K= Braking force ton
Analysis for a maximum allowable headreach of 4 k m
Fig. 24 Integral for calculation of headreach of ships (2.5 miles) were made for a 100,000-dwt tanker at differ-
ent initial speeds, with the assumption that tugs would
assist in the stopping maneuver. Table 5 is a review
until such time as the separation or profile drag become of tins analysis. The only possible maneuver is the one
large enough to predominate and the braking force again starting from an initial speed of 10.1 knots. When brak-
increases (phase 4). ing from 10.1 to 7 knots w i t h a rotative speed of 20 rpm,
the distance covered is 3.1 k m (2 miles). A t 7 knots the
The continued increase of profile drag w i t h the astern
tugs take hold and exert an extra braking force of 40 tons.
operation of the propeller will further increase the brak-
The rotative speed becomes 50 rpm astern and the tanker
ing force (phase 5). A t a high number of astern revolu-
stops after another 0.9 k m (0.6 mUe). Operations re-
tions the probability of cavitation and of drawing air into
quu'ing tugs to make fast at speeds greater than 7 Imots
the propeller increases. The occurrence of one of these
must be considered a very risky undertaking. For a
may cause a decrease m braking force.
maximum allowable headreach of 4 k m the initial speed
The typical S-characteristic, describing the thrust of the 100,000-ton tanlcer may, hence, not exceed 10.1
between 100 percent R P M ahead and 100 percent R P M knots.
astern operation, was described for the first time by
These conclusions are based on model tests. I t may
Thau [16]. For the propeUer alone, tins curve can be
be possible, due to a conservative interpretation of the
determined for quasi-steady operation, when the open-
scale effect, that these results are somewhat pessimistic.
water screw characteristics are available for the ahead and
Owing to the lack of sufficient data f r o m full-scale tests,
astern running condition [17]. These quasi-steady con-
a correction of the data i n Table 5 for scale eft'ects is not
siderations are at the same time the basis for a method
possible.
for calculating the headreach. I n Fig. 24 an integral
I n Fig. 25 the calculation of stopping of a 100,000-ton
is derived calculating the headreach f r o m the basic law of
tanlcer is given for an initial speed of 14 knots. The
dynamics, that
different phases into which the whole maneuver can be
Force = mass X acceleration divided are indicated. A n essential part of the maneuver

170 MARINE TECHNOLOGY


is tlie fact that the screw is to be stopped when the speed tion: Further Tests on 16 in. Propeller Models i n the
reaches 6 Icnots and the tugs malce fast. Otherwise the King's College Cavitation Tunnel," Trans. NECI, 1962¬
vessel will loose steerageway. 63; International Shipbuilding.Progress, 1963.
Finally, i t may be noted that data and testing methods 10 J. D . van Manen, "Durch die Schraube erregte
as treated in this review are important resom-ces needed Schiffsschwingungen," Schiffstechnik, 1965; Schip en
in the choice of the type of propeller and the determina- Werf, 1965.
tion of its dimensions for a given application. 11 S. Schuster, "Propeller in Non-Uniform Wake-
References Collection of Existing Work," Tenth I T T G , London,
England, 1963, Report of Propulsion Committee, A p -
1 L . Troost, "Open Water Test Series w i t h Modern pendix 7.
Propeller Forms," Trans. NECI, 1950^51. 12 J. Krohn and R. Wereldsma, "Comparative Model
2 W. P. A. van Lammeren, L . Troost, and J. G. Tests on Dynamic Propeller Forces," International Ship-
Koning, Resistance, Propulsion and Steering of Ships, The building Progress, 1960.
Technical Publishing Company, H . Stam, Haarlem, 1948.
13 (a) J. Krohn, "Üeber den Einflusz der Propeller-
3 J. D . van Manen, "Fundamentals of Ship Resist-
belastung bei verschiedener Hinterschiffsform auf die
ance and Propulsion, Part B, Propulsion," International
Schub- und Drehmomentschwankungen am ftlodell,"
Shipbuilding Progress, 1957.
Schiff und Haf en, 1958.
4 J. D . van Manen, " A Review of Research Activi-
(b) J. Krohn, "Üeber den Einflusz des Propeller-
ties at the Netherlands Ship Model Basin," hitemational
durchmessers auf die Schub- und Drehmomentschwank-
Shipbuilding Progress, 1963.
ungen am Modell," Schiff stechnik, 1959.
5 A. J. Tachmindji and W. B. Morgan, "The Design
and Estimated Performance of a Series of Supercavitating 14 J. D . van Manen and R. Wereldsma, "Propeller
Propellers," Second Symposium on Naval Hydrody- Excited Vibratory Foi'ces in the Shaft of a Single Screw
namics, Washington, 1958 (1960). Tanker," Ijitemational Shipbuilding Progress, 1960.
6 .J. D . van Manen, "Ergebnisse systematischer 15 (a) R. Wereldsma, "Dynamic Behaviour of Ship
Versuche m i t Propellern m i t annahernd senla-echt Propehers," Doctor's Thesis, Technological University,
stehender Achse," Jahrbuch STG, 1963; Schip en Werf, Delft, 1965; Pubhcation No. 255 of the N S J M B .
1964. (6) R. Wereldsma, "Experiments on Vibrating
7 J. B . Hadler, W. B. Morgan, and K . A. Meyers, Propeller Models," I hitemational Shipbuilding Progress,
"Advanced Propeller Propulsion for High-Powered 1965.
Single-Screw Ships," Trans. SNAME, vol; 72, 1964, pp. 16 W. E. Thau, "PropeUers and PropeUing M a -
231-293. chinery. Maneuvering Characteristics During Stopping
8 I . H . Abbott, A. E. von Doenhoff, and L . S. and Reversing," Trans. SNAME, 1937.
Stivers, "Summary of Airfoil Data," N A C A Report 824, 17 H . F. Nordstrom, "Screw Propeller Character-
1945. istics," Meddelanden Statens Skeppsprovningsanstalt
9 L . C. Burrill and A. Emerson, 'Propeller Cavita- No. 9, .1948.

APRIL 1966 171

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