A

SEMINAR
ON

CHROMIUM ADSORPTION FROM WASTEWATER USING

HARDWOOD-DERIVED BIOCHAR

BY

ISAIAH, ANDREW IRUO-ABOHENE (CVE/18/6581)

SUBMITTED TO: DR. F. O. AJIBADE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR

THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG.)
DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

JULY, 2024
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Industrial activities release heavy metal ions into the environment, posing a significant threat to

human health and the ecosystem (Jock et al., 2021). Chromium, in particular, is a major pollutant

released from industries like leather tanning, electroplating, and textile dyeing (Choudhury et al.,

2022). These industries generate wastewater containing high levels of hexavalent chromium (Cr),

a known carcinogen (Yusuff et al., 2022). Therefore, removing Cr from industrial effluents is

crucial to protect public health and the environment (Chen et al., 2023). The World Health

Organization has set limits for chromium concentrations in potable and surface waters due to these

concerns. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Federal Environmental

Protection Agency (FEPA) in Nigeria, the maximum permissible limit of chromium in drinking

water is 50 μg/L (0.05 ppm) (Yusuff et al., 2022). The conventional practice of Cr (VI) removal

from contaminated water include chemical and electrochemical methods, which are often costly

and sometimes inefficient for complete removal (Domingos et al., 2014). Adsorption is a widely

used technique for removing heavy metal ions from wastewater due to its cost-effectiveness,

efficiency, and ease of operation (Jock et al., 2021). This technique involves using materials called

adsorbents, which can bind to and remove target pollutants from the water (Choudhury et al.,

2022).

Previous studies have explored the use of various absorbents (biomass feedstocks), such as

eucalyptus tree bark (Yusuff et al., 2022) and Leucaena leucocephala (Abatal et al. 2022; Lala et

al. 2023), for the production of biochar adsorbents. However, the adsorption performance of

biochar can be further enhanced through chemical modification techniques (Hsu et al. 2024; Zhao
et al. 2023). The biochar that will be considered in this study is hardwood (Gmelina arborea), a

more competitive alternative to commercial adsorbents, especially for the removal of Cr from

aqueous solutions (Yan and Li, 2020; Yusuff et al., 2022).

To understand the adsorption process and design efficient treatment systems, kinetic and isotherm

models are employed (Chen et al., 2023). Kinetic models, such as pseudo-first-order and pseudo-

second-order models, describe the rate of adsorption and provide insights into the mechanism of

pollutant removal (Choudhury et al., 2022). Isotherm models, such as Langmuir and Freundlich

isotherms, describe the equilibrium distribution of pollutants between the adsorbent and the

solution, helping determine the adsorption capacity and affinity of the adsorbent for the target

pollutant (Yusuff et al., 2022).

1.2 Problem Statement

Chromium can be can be found in two forms, the trivalent chromium (Cr (III)) and hexavalent

chromium (Cr (VI). Chromium (Cr (III)) is necessary for human health and so it not harmful if

present in wastewater. Whereas the hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)) is highly toxic and

carcinogenic, posing severe risks to human health even at low concentrations (Ambika et al.,

2022), it is highly soluble in water and because of its water solubility, Thus, there is the need to

treat Cr (VI)-containing effluent before its discharge to the water environment.

Hexavalent chromium (Cr) is a widespread industrial pollutant due to its extensive use in various

industries and poses significant environmental and health risks due to its carcinogenic nature. Due

to its high level of solubility alone, Cr (VI) is 500 times more hazardous than Cr (III). Notably,

hexavalent chromium poses serious threats to human health, including carcinogenic and mutagenic
effects, skin diseases, and internal organ damage (Yusuff et al., 2022). Health problems associated

with inhaling nickel dust are diarrhoea, renal oedema, nausea, chest pain, pulmonary fibrosis and

gastrointestinal ache (Ugwu and Igbokwe, 2019).

1.3 Aim of the Study

This study aims to adsorb Cromium from wastewater using hardwood derived biochar, specifically

Gmelina arborea, at a pyrolysis temperature of 700°C.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study will be achieved through the following objectives:

a. To prepare the hardwood-derived biochar (Gmelina arborea).

b. To determine the optimum adsorption conditions, as well as the capacity of hardwood-derived

biochar in adsorbing Chromium from wastewater.

c. To use the adsorption isotherm and kinetics to determine the purification efficiency of

hardwood-derived biochar.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This study is confined to laboratory-synthesized hardwood biochar, focusing on the parameters

affecting the adsorption of Chromium. The scope includes synthesis of biochar from hardwood at

700°C, characterization, and testing its adsorption capacity for Cr removal under controlled

laboratory conditions.

1.6 Justification of the Study

Hardwood is a readily available waste material that can be sustainably sourced, making it an

effective and environmentally friendly adsorbent for Chromium removal. A research by

Dhananjaneyulu (2019) has shown that hardwood-derived biochar has a high adsorption capacity,

making it an effective adsorbent for the removal of this toxic metal from wastewater. According

to Lala et al. (2023), Chromium is one of the highly occurring heavy metal in the environment,

and it is also highly toxic, which a great concern especially in Nigeria (Oluwatuyi et al., 2020).

Chromium removal from wastewater is crucial to prevent contamination of water sources and

protect public health because it is a highly toxic heavy metal that poses significant health risks to

humans and the environment even at low concentration (Yusuff et al., 2022). Moreover, utilizing

hardwood based biochar for Chromium removal from wastewater provides an avenue to utilize a

waste material to purify a waste substance.

1.7 Expected Contribution to Knowledge

The study is expected to contribute to the body of knowledge by:

a. Verifying the capacity of hardwood-derived biochar as an adsorbent for Chromium when

produced at optimized conditions.

b. Potentially expanding the application of hardwood-derived biochar in water treatment

technology and present a sustainable use of wood waste.

c. Leading to a more efficient and eco-friendly method for treating industrial effluents containing

Chromium, thereby protecting water resources and human health.

CHAPTER TWO
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Background

Heavy metal pollution poses a significant threat to ecosystems and human health globally. The

toxicology of Cr and its environmental impact are well-documented, as well as various treatment

methods, highlighting the advantages of adsorption (Yusuff et al., 2022).

Adsorption has emerged as a promising technology for removing heavy metals from wastewater

due to its simplicity, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness (Dhananjaneyulu, 2019). Various

adsorbents have been investigated for Cr removal, including activated carbon, zeolites, and

industrial byproducts. However, these materials often suffer from limitations such as high cost,

low selectivity, and regeneration challenges (Chen et al., 2023).

Biochar, a carbon-rich material produced from the pyrolysis of biomass, has gained significant

attention as a sustainable and environmentally friendly adsorbent for heavy metal remediation

(Choudhury et al., 2022). Biochar exhibits several advantageous properties, including high

porosity, large surface area, and abundant surface functional groups, making it an effective

adsorbent for various pollutants (Yusuff et al., 2022). The physicochemical properties of biochar,

including its surface area, pore size distribution, and surface chemistry, are influenced by the type

of biomass feedstock and pyrolysis conditions (Ambika et al., 2022).

2.2 Existing Studies

Studies have shown that agricultural waste materials like peanut shells, wood, and cereal by-

products can be converted to biochar and utilized for adsorbing Cr from water with varying degrees

of effectiveness, serving as potential low-cost adsorbents for chromium removal (Domingos et al.,
2014; Sergeev et al. 2023). These materials, due to their carbonaceous nature, serve as a precursor

for biochar, which has shown promise in adsorbing toxic metals from aqueous solutions (Yusuff

et al., 2022). Modified wood, specifically, has been studied for its chromium adsorption properties

where treatments such as heat treatment have been applied to improve its absorption efficiency to

remove this toxic heavy metal from wastewater (Domingos et al., 2014). Studies like the one

conducted by Domingos et al. (2014) have revealed that at a pH of 3, treated wood absorbs

substantially more chromium compared to untreated wood, and most of the adsorption occurs

within the first few hours. Similarly, Dhananjaneyulu (2019) explored the use of Acacia Arabica

wood-derived biochar for Cr removal, highlighting the influence of biochar dosage, pH, and

contact time on adsorption efficiency. This study emphasized the importance of optimizing process

parameters for efficient Cr removal using biochar.

The pyrolysis temperature significantly influences the properties and adsorption capacity of

biochar (Chen et al., 2023). Chen et al. (2023) reported that increasing the pyrolysis temperature

enhanced the surface area and pore volume of pomegranate peel-derived biochar, resulting in

improved Cr adsorption capacity. This study provided evidence for the role of pyrolysis

temperature in tailoring the structural properties of biochar for enhanced adsorption. Similarly,

Choudhury et al. (2022) observed that flax-derived biochar produced at higher temperatures

exhibited a higher adsorption capacity for Cr due to its increased surface area and more developed

pore structure. Their findings further supported the positive correlation between pyrolysis

temperature and biochar’s adsorption capacity.

Modifying biochar through chemical or physical activation methods can further enhance its

adsorption capacity for heavy metals. Yusuff et al. (2022) demonstrated that modifying eucalyptus
tree bark-derived biochar with 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 significantly increased its surface area and introduced

additional functional groups, leading to enhanced Cr adsorption. Ambika et al. (2022) provided a

comprehensive review of modified biochar as a green adsorbent for Cr removal, highlighting the

mechanisms, methods, and prospects of biochar modification for enhanced heavy metal

remediation. They emphasized that modifying biochar can enhance its adsorption capacity by

increasing its surface area, porosity, and functional groups, leading to stronger interactions with

heavy metal ions.

2.3 Heavy Metals in Wastewater

Industrial wastewater often contains a cocktail of heavy metals, posing a significant threat to

human health and the environment (Jock et al., 2021). Unlike organic pollutants, heavy metals are

non-biodegradable and can persist in the environment for extended periods (Abatal et al., 2022).

Exposure to heavy metals like lead, cadmium, nickel, and copper, even at low concentrations, can

lead to various health problems, including organ damage, developmental issues, and cancer (Jock

et al., 2021). Therefore, removing these toxic metals from industrial effluents is crucial to

safeguard public health and ecosystems (Abatal et al., 2022). A large treatment unit might need to

deal with different heavy metals, including chromium, lead, zinc, and other heavy metals.

Hardwood-based biochar can be easily modified to suit the required purpose. The ability of

materials like this to serve a dual purpose when needed in a reactive form makes it a better

adsorbent material compared to others (Ambika et al., 2022).

2.4 Adsorption

Among the various methods employed for heavy metal removal, adsorption has emerged as a

promising technique due to its cost-effectiveness, high efficiency, and ease of operation (Jock et
al., 2021). Adsorption involves using materials called adsorbents, which can selectively bind to

and remove target pollutants from wastewater (Choudhury et al., 2022). Numerous materials have

been investigated for their potential as adsorbents, including activated carbon, clay minerals,

agricultural wastes, and industrial byproducts (Abatal et al., 2022). These materials often possess

a large surface area and functional groups that can effectively bind to heavy metal ions (Chen et

al., 2023). Claoston et al. (2014) made use of empty fruit bunch and rice husk biochar in their

studies, Jock et al. (2021) made use of Nigerian Bentonite clay to remove Chromium and nickel

metal ions from water. Ahmad et al. (2012) utilized Soybean stover and peanut shell biochar to

remove Trichloroethylene (TCE). Dhananjaneyulu (2019) used Acacia Arabica wood (Black

Babul) biochar to remove Chromium from water, and Yusuff et al. (2022) utilized Eucalyptus tree

bark-derived biochar to remove Hexavalent chromium from water as well. Numerous literature

have studied the use of various types of biomass material as biochar to remove other metals from

wastewater.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Approach

The study will employ an empirical research methodology where data will be collected through

direct observation to gather evidences that will be analyzed to draw conclusions. An experimental

research design where biochar will be produced from hardwood at 700°C, and its adsorption

capacity for hexavalent chromium will be experimentally assessed under controlled conditions.

3.2 Justification for the Methodological Approach

This approach is grounded in the need for precise and replicable results that highlight the enhanced

adsorption properties of biochar processed at high temperatures, thereby providing a direct

measure of its effectiveness in removing Cr from water (Sergeev et al. 2023). Producing biochar

at 700°C is expected to enhance its porosity and adsorption capacity, which is crucial for effective

heavy metal adsorption, warranting examination through experimental methods.

3.3 Biochar Preparation

The hardwood (Gmelina arborea), locally sourced in Ilara-Mokin, Ondo state, will serve as the

raw materials for biochar production. A controlled pyrolysis process will be employed, utilizing a

heating rate of 5°C/minute and a residence time of 3 hours at a peak temperature of 700°C. This

temperature is chosen to maximize surface area and pore volume, potentially enhancing Cr

adsorption. Each material will be pyrolyzed separately, and the resulting biochar batches will be

meticulously labeled for traceability.

Following pyrolysis, the biochar will undergo crushing and sieving to achieve a particle size range

of 2-10 mm, ensuring uniformity for subsequent characterization and experimental procedures.

3.4 Physicochemical Characterization

A comprehensive analysis of the produced biochar's physicochemical properties will be conducted

to understand its potential for Cr removal from wastewater.

 Particle Size Distribution: This analysis will determine the size distribution of biochar

particles, a crucial factor influencing its interaction with contaminants in wastewater.

 Bulk Density: Bulk density, the mass of biochar per unit volume, will be measured to assess

its potential impact on the handling and application in wastewater treatment systems.

 Elemental Composition: Techniques like X-ray fluorescence will be employed to determine

the elemental composition of the biochar, providing insights into its chemical makeup and

potential for interaction with Cr ions.

 pH: The pH of the biochar will be measured to assess its acidity or alkalinity, which can

influence its adsorption capacity and interaction with the aqueous environment.

 Functional Groups: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) will be utilized to

identify the functional groups present on the biochar surface. This analysis will provide

valuable information about the potential binding sites for Cr ions.

3.5 Materials and Equipment

The materials and equipment that would be needed to conduct this study includes:

 Sampling bottles

 Beaker
 Hand gloves

 Atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS) equipment

 pH meter

 Centrifuge

 Thermometer

 Filter paper

 Distilled water

 Potassium dichromate (𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7)

 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

 Absorbent (Gmelina arborea)

3.6 Adsorption Studies

Adsorption tests will be conducted, varying parameters such as contact time, pH, and initial

chromium concentration to evaluate the adsorption performance of the biochar. The Langmuir

model will also be employed to analyze the adsorption isotherms obtained from the data. The data

will be collected through a series of batch adsorption experiments, including but not limited to,

adsorption isotherms, kinetics, and thermodynamics studies. The use of advanced analytical

techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy

analysis will further elucidate the changes in biochar characteristics after thermal modification

(Yusuff et al., 2022)

Kinetic models are essential tools for understanding the rate at which adsorption occurs, providing

valuable insights into the mechanism of pollutant removal (Choudhury et al., 2022). Two

commonly used kinetic models are:

3.6.1 Pseudo-First-Order Model: This model, based on the assumption that the rate of

adsorption is proportional to the number of available adsorption sites, is often represented

by the following equation:

𝑑𝑞𝑡⁄
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘₁(𝑞𝑒 − 𝑞𝑡 )

Where:

 𝑞𝑒 is the amount of pollutant adsorbed at equilibrium (𝑚𝑔/𝑔)

 𝑞𝑡 is the amount of pollutant adsorbed at time t (𝑚𝑔/𝑔)

 𝑘₁ is the pseudo-first-order rate constant (𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 )

By plotting 𝑙𝑛(𝑞ₑ − 𝑞ₜ) versus t, a straight line indicates that the adsorption process follows

pseudo-first-order kinetics, and the rate constant (𝑘₁) can be determined from the slope

(Choudhury et al., 2022).

3.6.2 Pseudo-Second-Order Model: This model assumes that the rate of adsorption is

proportional to the square of the number of available adsorption sites and is represented by

the following equation:

𝑑𝑞𝑡⁄ 2
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘2 (𝑞𝑒 − 𝑞𝑡 )

Where:
 qₑ is the amount of pollutant adsorbed at equilibrium (𝑚𝑔/𝑔)

 qₜ is the amount of pollutant adsorbed at time t (𝑚𝑔/𝑔)

 k₂ is the pseudo-second-order rate constant (𝑔/𝑚𝑔. 𝑚𝑖𝑛)

Plotting 𝑡/𝑞ₜ versus 𝑡 yields a straight line if the adsorption process follows pseudo-second-order

kinetics, and the rate constant (𝑘₂) can be calculated from the slope (Abatal et al., 2022).

Isotherm models describe the equilibrium distribution of pollutants between the adsorbent and the

solution, providing information about the adsorption capacity and affinity of the adsorbent for the

target pollutant (Yusuff et al., 2022). Two widely used isotherm models are:

3.6.3 Langmuir Isotherm Model: This model assumes monolayer adsorption onto a

homogeneous surface with a finite number of identical adsorption sites (Yusuff et al.,

2022). The Langmuir isotherm equation is given by:

𝐾𝐿 𝐶𝑒
𝑞ₑ = 𝑞ₘ
1 + 𝐾𝐿 𝐶𝑒

Where:

 𝑞ₑ is the amount of pollutant adsorbed at equilibrium (𝑚𝑔/𝑔)

 𝑞ₘ is the maximum adsorption capacity (𝑚𝑔/𝑔)

 𝐶ₑ is the equilibrium concentration of the pollutant in the solution (𝑚𝑔/𝐿)

 𝐾𝐿 is the Langmuir constant related to the affinity of the adsorbent for the pollutant (𝐿/𝑚𝑔)

The Langmuir isotherm can be linearized into different forms, with one common form being:
 𝐶ₑ 1 𝐶ₑ
= +
𝑞ₑ 𝑞ₘ𝐾𝐿 𝑞ₘ

Plotting 𝐶ₑ/𝑞ₑ versus 𝐶ₑ yields a straight line if the adsorption follows the Langmuir model. The

values of 𝑞ₘ and 𝐾ₗ can be determined from the slope and intercept, respectively (Jock et al.,

2021).

3.6.4 Freundlich Isotherm Model: This empirical model describes adsorption onto a

heterogeneous surface with different adsorption site energies (Choudhury et al., 2022). The

Freundlich isotherm equation is:

𝑞ₑ = 𝐾𝑓 𝐶ₑ1/𝑛

Where:

 𝑞ₑ is the amount of pollutant adsorbed at equilibrium (𝑚𝑔/𝑔)

 𝐶ₑ is the equilibrium concentration of the pollutant in the solution (𝑚𝑔/𝐿)

 𝐾𝑓 is the Freundlich constant related to the adsorption capacity (𝑚𝑔/𝑔)(𝐿/𝑚𝑔)1/n

 n is the Freundlich exponent related to the adsorption intensity (dimensionless)

The Freundlich isotherm can be linearized by taking the logarithm of both sides:

1
𝑙𝑛𝑞𝑒 = 𝑙𝑛𝐾𝑓 + ( ) 𝑙𝑛𝐶ₑ
𝑛

Plotting 𝑙𝑛𝑞ₑ versus 𝑙𝑛𝐶ₑ gives a straight line if the adsorption follows the Freundlich model. The

values of 𝐾𝑓 and 𝑛 can be determined from the intercept and slope, respectively (Yusuff et al.,

2022).
By analyzing experimental data using these kinetic and isotherm models, we can gain a

comprehensive understanding of the adsorption process, including the rate of adsorption,

adsorption capacity, and the mechanism governing the interaction between the adsorbent and the

pollutant (Chen et al., 2023). This information is crucial for designing and optimizing efficient and

cost-effective treatment systems for removing heavy metals from wastewater (Jock et al., 2021).

3.7 Proposed Work Plan and Schedule

The proposed workplan for this study is simplified into a series of 6 activities as show in Table 1.

The first activity is the literature review of the study from past works that has been done in line

with the topic of the study, and it will span through till the end of the study. The second activity

involves the proposal seminar. The third activity will be the acquisition of the materials and

equipment needed for the project. The fourth activity involves the laboratory work where the actual

experiment needed for this study will be undertaken. The fifth activity is analyses and

interpretation of results gotten from the experiment. The sixth activity is the final seminar

presentation while the seventh activity involves the report and oral presentation of the findings and

conclusion of the study.

 Table 1 - A Gantt Chart Representing The Schedule of The Project.

DURATION (MONTHS)

S/N ACTIVITY JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY. JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT.

1 Literature
Review

2 Proposal
Seminar/CVE
509

3 Acquisition
of Materials

4 Laboratory
Test/Analyses
5 Statistical
Analyses and
Interpretation
6 Final Project
Presentation

7 Oral
Presentation
3.8 Budget for research

The research budget is as shown in table 2.

Table 2 – Research Budget

S\N Item Description Cost per unit(₦) Amount (₦)
a. Materials and LS 40,000
Equipment
b. AAS Analysis 60 samples 300 18,000

Report Writing Seminar report, Final LS 20,000

c.
submission and
defense
d. Logistics Transportation 3,000

e. Miscellaneous 10% of total 8,100

Total 89,100

3.9 Ethical Considerations

The research will follow ethical guidelines for environmental testing, ensuring that all waste

materials generated will be disposed of safely, i.e., Proper disposal methods for chromium-laden

effluents and biochar will be enforced, and no unauthorized hazardous materials will be used

during the study to ensure minimal environmental impact.

REFERENCES

Abatal, M., Avendaño, Y. S. D., Hernández, N. C., Giannakoudakis, D. A., Anastopoulos, I., and

Gutierrez, M. T. O. (2022). Leucaena leucocephala as biomass material for the removal of

heavy metals and metalloids. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 287–306).

https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-91914-2.00002-7

Ahmad, M., Lee, S. S., Dou, X., Mohan, D., Sung, J., Yang, J. E., and Ok, Y. S. (2012). Effects of

pyrolysis temperature on soybean stover- and peanut shell-derived biochar properties and

TCE adsorption in water. Bioresource Technology, 118, 536–544.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.042

Ambika, S., Kumar, M., Pisharody, L., Malhotra, M., Kumar, G., Sreedharan, V., Singh, L.,

Nidheesh, P., and Bhatnagar, A. (2022). Modified biochar as a green adsorbent for removal

of hexavalent chromium from various environmental matrices: Mechanisms, methods, and

prospects. Chemical Engineering Journal, 439, 135716.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.135716

Angın, D., and Şensöz, S. (2014). Effect of pyrolysis temperature on chemical and surface

properties of biochar of rapeseed (Brassica napusL.). International Journal of

Phytoremediation, 16(7–8), 684–693. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2013.856842

Ani, J. U., Akpomie, K. G., Okoro, U. C., Aneke, L. E., Onukwuli, O. D., and Ujam, O. T. (2020).

Potentials of activated carbon produced from biomass materials for sequestration of dyes,

heavy metals, and crude oil components from aqueous environment. Applied Water

Science, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-1149-8

Chen, Y., Yang, J., and Abbas, A. (2023). Enhanced Chromium (VI) Adsorption onto Waste

Pomegranate-Peel-Derived Biochar for Wastewater Treatment: Performance and

Mechanism. Toxics, 11(5), 440. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11050440

Choudhury, T. R., Rahman, M. S., Liba, S. I., Islam, A., Quraishi, S. B., Begum, B. A., Mustafa,

A. I., and Amin, M. N. (2022). Adsorptive removal of chromium from aqueous solutions

using flax (Linum usitatissimum): Kinetics and equilibrium studies. Environmental

Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, 4, 132–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enceco.2022.02.004

Claoston, N., Samsuri, A., Husni, M. A., and Amran, M. (2014). Effects of pyrolysis temperature

on the physicochemical properties of empty fruit bunch and rice husk biochars. Waste

Management and Research, 32(4), 331–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242x14525822

Dhananjaneyulu, B. (2019). Removal of Heavy Metal (Chromium) From Aqueous Solution using

Acacia Arabica Wood (Black Babul). International Journal of Recent Technology and

Engineering, 8(4), 1495–1498. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijrte.d7631.118419

Domingos, I., Esteves, B., Figueirinha, A., Cruz-Lopes, L. P., Ferreira, J., and Pereira, H. (2014).

Chromium adsorption by modified wood. Zenodo (CERN European Organization for

Nuclear Research). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2666735

Hsu, C., Ajaj, Y., Mahmoud, Z. H., Ghadir, G. K., Alani, Z. K., Hussein, M. M., Hussein, S. A.,

Karim, M. M., Al-Khalidi, A., Abbas, J. K., Kareem, A. H., and Kianfar, E. (2024).

Adsorption of heavy metal ions use chitosan/graphene nanocomposites: A review study.

Results in Chemistry, 7, 101332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2024.101332

Jock, A. A., Oboh, I. O., Inyang, U. E., Ganchok, L. P., and Adeku, O. (2021). Chromium and

nickel metal ions removal from contaminated water using Nigerian bentonite clay. Water

Practice and Technology. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2021.031

Lala, M., Ntamu, T., Adesina, O., Popoola, L., Yusuff, A., and Adeyi, A. (2023). Adsorption of

hexavalent chromium from aqueous solution using cationic modified rice husk: Parametric

optimization via Taguchi design approach. Scientific African, 20, e01633.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2023.e01633

Oluwatuyi, O. E., Ajibade, F. O., Ajibade, T. F., Adelodun, B., Olowoselu, A. S., Adewumi, J.

R., & Akinbile, C. O. (2020). Total concentration, contamination status and distribution

of elements in a Nigerian State dumpsites soil. Environmental and Sustainability

Indicators, 5, 100021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2020.100021

Sergeev, V., Balandinsky, D., Romanov, G., and Rukin, G. (2023). Sorption treatment of water

from chromium using biochar material. Arab Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 30(1),

299–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/25765299.2023.2207407

Ugwu, M. I. and Igbokwe, A. O. 2019 Sorption of Heavy Metals on Clay Minerals and Oxides: A

Review, Advanced Sorption Process Applications. Intechopen, 1–24. DOI:

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80989

Xiao, X., Chen, Z., and Chen, B. (2016). H/C atomic ratio as a smart linkage between pyrolytic

temperatures, aromatic clusters and sorption properties of biochars derived from diverse

precursory materials. Scientific Reports, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22644

Yan, Y., and Li, L. (2020). The adsorption performance of hexavalent chromium Cr(IV) in

aqueous with three biomass carbons materials. IOP Conference Series. Earth and

Environmental Science, 615(1), 012115. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/615/1/012115

Yusuff, A. S., Popoola, L. T., and Igbafe, A. I. (2022). Response surface modeling and

optimization of hexavalent chromium adsorption onto eucalyptus tree bark-derived pristine

 and chemically-modified biochar. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 182, 592–

603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2022.04.007

Zhao, L., Sun, Z., Pan, X., Tan, J., Yang, S., Wu, J., Chen, C., Yuan, Y., and Ren, N. (2023).

Sewage sludge derived biochar for environmental improvement: Advances, challenges,

and solutions. Water Research. X, 18, 100167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wroa.2023.100167