FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT AND QUANTITY SURVEYING

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY 1 (CTY150S/CTY150X)
2022
F. CONRAD
SUPERSTRUCTURE BRICKWORK

Contents
Brickwork ................................................................................................................................................ 2
Setting out and levelling superstructure brickwork........................................................................ 3
External Walls ................................................................................................................................. 3
Internal Walls .................................................................................................................................. 4
Damp-proof course (DPC) ............................................................................................................... 4
Typical Details ................................................................................................................................. 7
Roof Anchoring: .............................................................................................................................. 9
SANS 10400 – Part K: Walls........................................................................................................... 11
References ............................................................................................................................................ 15

Figure 1: Superstructure Brickwork ........................................................................................................ 2

Figure 2: Typical cavity wall detail. ......................................................................................................... 3
Figure 3: Typical internal wall detail ....................................................................................................... 4
Figure 4: Flashing in masonry walls: (a) over an opening for a window or door; (b) under a window
sill; (c) at the base of a wall; (d) and (e) below weep holes. (Frederick S. Merritt, 2000) ...................... 5
Figure 5:DPC at windowsill SANS2001-CM1: Figure 19 .......................................................................... 6
Figure 6: DPC at door frame SANS2001-CM1: Figure 17a ...................................................................... 6
Figure 7: DPC at lintels SANS2001-CM1: Figure 17c ............................................................................... 6
Figure 8: Wall ties at a corner (Standards South Africa, 2007) ............................................................... 7
Figure 9: Wall ties at control joints (South African National Standard, 2011)........................................ 7
Figure 10: Brickforce at lintels (Standards South Africa, 2007) .............................................................. 8
Figure 11: Lintel detail (South African National Standard, 2011) ........................................................... 9
Figure 12: Hoop iron roof anchors .......................................................................................................... 9
Figure 13: Wall with door and window openings (South African National Standard, 2011) ................ 12
Figure 14: Wall with window openings only (South African National Standard, 2011) ....................... 13
Figure 15: Typical section through brickwork above lintels (South African National Standard, 2011) 13
Figure 16: Rain penetration acceptance criteria (South African National Standard, 2011) ................. 14
Figure 17:The Southern Coastal Condensation Problem (SCCP) Area (South African National
Standard, 2011)..................................................................................................................................... 14
Brickwork
Bricks and blocks are the basic building materials for walls. Since blocks are more porous than bricks
and thus less weather resistant, bricks are typically used for external wall construction while blocks
are used for internal wall construction. Cavity walls are typically constructed with a brick external
leaf and a block internal leaf. (Charlett, 2007)

Figure 1: Superstructure Brickwork

Setting out and levelling superstructure brickwork
The foundation walls serve as a
guide for the superstructure
brickwork. If the setting out has
been checked from reference
points on a regular basis, they
should be correct. However,
before beginning with
brickwork, draw reference lines
in the centre of each room –
these will be used throughout
the superstructure.

Levelling at superstructure would be establishing the following:

• Lintel heights

• Sill heights

• Wall plate heights

External Walls
Internal Walls
With a non-load bearing partition wall, one must either thicken or possibly reinforce the floor slab
locally. A foundation may be required for a heavily loaded wall. Using the floor slab can be cost
effective if the upfill is deep, even if the entire floor slab must be reinforced. (Flemming, 2005)

An internal wall's primary function is to

enclose or divide space. Generally, such
walls are used as house partitions to
create rooms. Internal walls can be made
of a variety of materials and are classified
as solid or lightweight. Solid partitions are
typically made of bricks or blocks and can
be load bearing. Lightweight partitions,
also known as stud partitions, are typically
built from a framework of wood or light
galvanised steel members with
plasterboard facings. The partitions can
also be made from light panels of bonded
plasterboard sheets with a cardboard core.
Lightweight partitions are typically non-
loadbearing. (Charlett, 2007)
Figure 3: Typical internal wall detail

Damp-proof course (DPC)

Background to cavity wall construction
Water penetration was one of the first shortcomings to be addressed. Rain blown against a one-
brick-thick wall will penetrate to the wall's full depth if it is of sufficient volume and duration. Even if
no penetration occurs during the rainy season, moisture in the outer layers of the wall will percolate
to the inner face, causing the inside of the house to become damp. This dampness, combined with a
lack of ventilation and substructures lacking DPC or DPM, contributed to many of the health issues
associated with that type of housing.

The Industrial Revolution brought with it the need to quickly construct low-cost housing to
accommodate a growing workforce migrating from rural to urban areas. In many cases, this meant
incorporating brickwork, and the preferred method was to construct one brick thick walls to support
the roof. This was adequate from a structural standpoint, but the methodology was deficient on
nearly every other front.

To address these issues, DPCs and DPMs were installed in the substructure, as well as the cavity wall.
Instead of a single layer of brickwork one brick thick, two layers were built, each half a brick thick,
and the layers were joined together with wrought iron wall ties placed three per square yard. The
layers are known as leaves or skins. The cavity's primary function is to keep moisture from entering
the masonry's inner leaf. (Flemming, 2005)
 Flashing should be used to divert water that may penetrate or condense on the interior face of
masonry walls to the building's exterior. As a result, depending on the type of construction, flashing
should be installed in exterior walls at horizontal surfaces such as roofs, parapets, and floors; at shelf
angles; at openings such as doors and windows; and at the bases of walls just above grade. The
flashing should extend through a mortar joint to the outside face of the wall and then turn down to
form a drip. (Frederick S. Merritt, 2000)

Flashing in tooled mortar joints, on the other hand, would trap water unless a means of draining it to
the outside was provided. As a result, flashing should be used in conjunction with weep holes
formed in head joints directly above the flashing. Flashing materials include sheet copper,
bituminous fabrics, plastics, or a combination of these. Copper may be chosen for its durability, but
it may be more expensive than other materials. Material combinations, such as cold-formed steel
and plastic or bituminous coating, may result in a more durable flashing at a lower cost. (Frederick S.
Merritt, 2000)

DPC below superstructure must overlap between the foundation wall and the edge of the
concrete over the jointex at the expansion joint between the foundation wall and the perimeter of
the surfacebeds forming a continuous barrier against rising damp.

Figure 4: Flashing in masonry walls: (a) over an opening for a window or door; (b) under a window sill; (c) at the base of a wall; (d) and (e)
below weep holes. (Frederick S. Merritt, 2000)
Windows and doors:

• In cavity wall construction, DPC must be installed as follows:

• Vertically, sandwiched against the outside leaf of brick work at all windows and doors. DPC
should be wider than the brick returning and protrude from the brickwork by at least 30mm.

• Two layers horizontally at lintels

• one tucked below the inner leaf and sandwiched between the lintels extending
below the lintel (This should be against the outer leaf of brickwork – vertical DPC
should be behind it)

• The other should step from below the second course of the inner leaf to the below
the first course of the outer leaf – weepholes should be formed as above
surfacebeds.

• Window sill DPC details vary - but the concept remains the same – the DPC should tuck into
the bottom of the window frame and lead out through the outer leaf of the wall.

Figure 6: DPC at door frame SANS2001-CM1: Figure 17a

Figure 5:DPC at windowsill SANS2001-CM1:
Figure 19

Figure 7: DPC at lintels SANS2001-CM1: Figure 17c

Typical Details
Wall ties:

• Butterfly ties shall be provided in cavity walls at

vertical centres that do not exceed 450mm and at
horizontal centres that do not exceed 600mm.
• Additional ties shall be provided in cavity walls at
vertical centres that do not exceed 300mm centres
within 150mm of the edges of all openings and
movement or control joints (or both) and where a
leaf intersects with another wall.
• Ties shall be laid in the mortar as the work
proceeds and shall have a length of embedment in
the mortar of not less than 50 mm. Ties shall be set
level or with a slight slope to the outside leaf of the
masonry.

Figure 8: Wall ties at a corner (Standards South Africa, 2007)

Figure 9: Wall ties at control joints (South African National Standard, 2011)
Brickforce:
• Bed joint brickforce shall be laid horizontally
in the mortar at vertical spacing not
exceeding 400mm
• Every course above lintels for 4-9 courses,
depending on the span of the opening.

Figure 10: Brickforce at lintels (Standards South Africa, 2007)

Lintels
Prestressed Concrete Lintels minimum bearing:

• lintel supporting masonry only: 150 mm

• lintel supporting roof trusses:
o span less than or equal to 1,5 m: 150 mm
o span between 1,5 m and 2,5 m: 250 mm
o span greater than or equal to 2,5 m: 350
mm

Lintels shall be suitably supported for a period of not less

than 7 days after completion.
Figure 11: Lintel detail (South African National Standard, 2011)

Roof Anchoring:
Roof anchors shall be installed in the masonry as work proceeds in accordance with the
requirements of the scope of work. Such anchors shall be located in walls at evenly spaced centres
wherever roof trusses, rafter or purlin beams are to be located.

All timber passing through masonry to wrapped in DPC

The brickwork between the trusses from wall plate height to the roof covering is referred to as
Beamfilling.

Figure 12: Hoop iron roof anchors

SANS 10400 – Part K: Walls
4.5.3. Rising damp
4.5.3.1. Any wall or sleeper pier of a building shall be provided with damp-proofing and vapour
barrier installations in such positions and to such an extent that will reliably protect the wall
against rising damp and the interior of the building against ingress of moisture from abutting
ground.
4.5.3.2. Any material used as a damp-proof course shall comply with the relevant requirements
contained in SANS 248, SANS 298 or SANS 952-1, or shall be the subject of an Agrément
certificate if the product is not covered by these standards.
4.5.3.3. In a masonry wall, a damp-proof course shall be installed
a) at the level of the top of a concrete floor slab resting on the ground; or
b) where applicable, below any ground floor timber beam or joist.
4.5.3.4. In the case of a masonry cavity wall,
a) each leaf of such wall shall be provided with its own damp-proof course which shall extend
over the full thickness of such leaf, in which case the cavity shall extend 150 mm below the
damp-proof course; or
b) each leaf of such wall shall be covered by a membrane which extends across the cavity
provided that the position of the membrane at the inner leaf is higher than its position at
the outer leaf; and
c) where necessary, weepholes to prevent build-up of water in the cavity shall be provided in
the external leaf of every cavity wall, spaced not more than 1 m apart, in the masonry unit
course immediately below the damp-proof course contemplated in (a) or in the masonry
unit course immediately above the membrane contemplated in (b).
4.5.3.5. In any timber-framed wall, a damp-proof course shall be installed between the bottom plate
of the wall and any foundation wall or concrete floor slab.
4.5.3.6. In the case of a solid masonry wall, or timber-framed wall, the damp-proof course shall
extend over the full thickness of such wall.
4.5.3.7. No horizontal damp-proof course shall be installed less than 150 mm above the level of the
adjacent finished ground.
4.5.3.8. Transverse joints in the damp-proof course shall be overlapped to a minimum distance of
150 mm and at junctions and corners to a distance equal to the full thickness of the wall or
the leaf, as the case might be.
4.5.3.9. Where any part of any wall of a room is so situated that the ground will be in contact
therewith, it shall be protected by a vertical waterproof membrane or by a drained cavity
which shall extend below the level of the floor of such room. Drainage shall be provided at
the base of such wall to prevent water accumulating there.
4.9.1 Weepholes Weepholes, where required to drain away moisture, and where detailed in the
construction drawings, shall be located in the first course above any damp-proof course. In cavity
wall construction the weepholes shall be approximately 50 mm high and located in perpend joints at
intervals that do not exceed 1 000 mm. In hollow masonry walls the weepholes shall be of the same
thickness as the bedding course, approximately 30 mm wide and located in the bedding course
under the masonry unit cores. This eStandard is exclusively for use on one standalone PC. To access
it from a file server/intranet constitutes a violation of SABS copyright rules. Note that only one
printout of the standard may be made. SANS 2001-CM1:2007 Edition 1 36 4.9.2 Damp-proof courses
(DPC)

4.9.2.1 Damp-proof courses, unless otherwise specified in the scope of work, shall be provided in all
walls in accordance with the relevant requirements of figures 13 to 18.

4.9.2.2 Damp-proof courses shall be provided above all window and door openings in cavity waIl
construction unless roof overhangs of 750 mm or more are provided and the distance between the
wall plate and the top of the window or door frame (or both) does not exceed 700 mm. (See figure
17.)

4.9.2.3 Horizontal damp-proof courses shall be laid with mortar above and below. (See figure 18.)

4.9.2.4 Damp-proof courses shall be laid to the full thickness of the wall and lapped at least 150 mm
at all joints in the running length. At ends, intersections and angles, the damp-proof courses shall
overlap the full width of the wall. All horizontal damp-proof courses shall protrude 5 mm from the
external face of the wall.

4.9.2.5 In cavity walls, damp-proof courses shall be laid across the full width of the wall, including
the cavity, and shall be stepped down one course in the cavity over a mortar fillet.

4.9.2.6 As far as is practicable, damp-proof courses in solid masonry construction shall not be
punctured. Where the unit width is 140 mm or greater, damp-proof courses in hollow masonry
construction may be pierced at regular intervals at the centre of each core, to allow the passage of
any moisture that might otherwise accumulate. Such piercing shall not exceed 40 mm in diameter
and the surface of the membrane adjacent to the piercing shall be depressed towards the piercing.
NOTE Piercing of the damp-proof course is usually undertaken in single-leaf construction where
damp-proof courses are provided at first-floor level.

4.9.2.7 Unless otherwise specified in the scope of work, damp-proof courses under window sills
exposed to the weather, shall be in accordance with figures 19 and 20.

SANS 10400 – Part K: Walls

4.2.1.1 a)
1) the foundations for masonry walls comply with the requirements of SANS 10400-H and the
supporting members comply with the requirements of SANS 10400-B. SUBSTRUCTURE
2) the span of roof trusses or rafters (or both) between supporting walls does not exceed
o i) 6,0 m in respect of 90 mm and 110 mm single-leaf walls,
o ii)8,0 m in respect of 140 mm (or greater) single-leaf walls and all cavity and collar-
jointed walls.
3) the nominal height of masonry above the top of openings is not less than 0,4 m.
4) the average compressive strength of hollow and solid masonry units is not less than 3,0 MPa
and 4,0 MPa, respectively;
 5) the mortar is class II that complies with the requirements of SANS 2001-CM1.
6) the mass of the roof covering, in roofs other than concrete slabs, does not exceed 80 kg/m2
7) the span of the concrete roof slabs between supporting walls does not exceed 6,0 m.
8) concrete roof slabs are not thicker than 255 mm if of solid construction, or they are of the
equivalent mass of such a solid slab if of voided construction.
9) foundation walls are not thinner than the walls which they support; and
10) the height of foundation walls does not exceed 1,5 m.

4.2.1.4

Metal wall ties used in areas:

a) between the coastline and an imaginary line 30 km inland,

b) parallel with the coastline, or
c) at the top of the escarpment or watershed of the first mountain range inland, if these are
less than 30 km from the coastline, shall have a minimum thickness of galvanizing of 750
g/m2 and in tidal splash zones shall be manufactured from stainless steel.

4.2.1.5 In areas within 1 km from the coastline or shoreline of large expanses of salt water and
within 3 km of industries that discharge atmospheric pollutants which are corrosive,

a) brick force shall be manufactured from pre-galvanized wire, and the galvanizing shall be in
accordance with SANS 935 for a grade 2 coating; and

b) rod reinforcement shall be galvanized in accordance with the requirements of SANS 935 for a
grade 2 coating or SANS 121, as appropriate.

4.2.1.6 In tidal and splash zones, brickforce and rod reinforcement shall be made of stainless-steel
wire.

4.2.1.7 Lintels shall be provided above all window and door openings in accordance with the
requirements of 4.2.9.

4.2.1.8 Bed joint reinforcement shall be discontinuous across a control joint that is tied.

4.2.2.5 Walls supporting either concrete floors or roofs shall have a thickness of not less than 90 mm
in cavity wall construction and 140 mm in single-leaf and collar-jointed wall construction and contain
no openings wider than 2,5 m.

Figure 13:
Wall with
door and
window
openings
(South
African
National
Standard,
2011)
Figure 14: Wall with
window openings only
(South African National
Standard, 2011)

Figure 5: a and c not less than 150 mm (solid units) or 200 mm (hollow units) b.

4.2.9.1.7

Lintels shall be adequately supported for a period of not less than 7 d after completion.

Figure 15: Typical section through brickwork above lintels (South African National Standard, 2011)

4.2.9.3.5

Lintels shall be set in mortar and have a minimum bearing of

a) lintel that supports masonry only: 150 mm

b) lintel that supports roof trusses of
1) span less than or equal to 1,5 m: 150 mm
2) span between 1,5 m and 2,5 m: 250 mm
3) span greater than or equal to 2,5 m: 350 mm
4.5.1.1

The design and construction of the building envelope in the Southern Coastal Condensation Problem
Area (see figure 36) shall be such that

a) the thermal performance of a building other than a category 1 building is of a sufficient

standard to ensure that it will not contribute significantly to the occurrence of condensation
on the internal surfaces of external walls for extended periods of time during the cold winter
months; and
b) the thermal performance of a category 1 building can be upgraded to that of (a) without
rebuilding the building, by means of the insulation of walls, the installation of ceilings, etc.

Figure 16: Rain penetration acceptance criteria (South African National Standard, 2011)

4.5.3.3

In a masonry wall, a damp-proof course shall be installed a) at the level of the top of a concrete floor
slab resting on the ground;

4.5.3.4

In the case of a masonry cavity wall,

a) each leaf of such wall shall be provided with its own damp-proof course which shall extend
over the full thickness of such leaf, in which case the cavity shall extend 150 mm below the
dampproof course; or
b) each leaf of such wall shall be covered by a membrane which extends across the cavity
provided that the position of the membrane at the inner leaf is higher than its position at
the outer leaf; and
c) where necessary, weepholes to prevent build-up of water in the cavity shall be provided in
the external leaf of every cavity wall, spaced not more than 1 m apart, in the masonry unit
course immediately below the damp-proof course contemplated in (a) or in the masonry
unit course immediately above the membrane contemplated in (b).

Figure 17:The Southern Coastal Condensation Problem (SCCP) Area (South African National Standard, 2011)
References
Charlett, A. J. (2007). Fundamental Building Technology. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Flemming, E. (2005). Construction Technology an illustrated introduction. Oxford: Blackwell

Publishing Ltd.

Frederick S. Merritt, J. T. (2000). Building design and construction handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.

South African National Standard. (2011). The application of the National Building Regulations Part K:
Walls. Pretoria: SABS Standards Division.

Standards South Africa. (2007). SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL STANDARD Construction works Part
CM1: Masonry walling. Pretoria: Standards South Africa.