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ABSTRACT
Crime and criminal activities have been increasing globally every day. Studies have shown an association between
psychopath and criminal conduct. In fact, adult psychopath have been shown to be responsible for a disproportionate
amount of crime in society and are among e most violent and persistent offenders. Studies on psychopath have
consistently focused on e prevalence of the act, not on the predictive factors that could lead o such behavioral
tendencies among the psycho path have not been adequately explored. The objective of this study therefore, was to
investigate the psychological (parenting bonding, parenting style) and criminological (gross income prior to
imprisonment, age of emancipation, numbers of times in prison) factors predicting psychopathy among prison inmates.
The study was anchored on attachments theory and the psychodynamic theory. The study was cross sectional survey
with ex-post factor design. 200 prison inmates were purposively sampled from Agodi prison, Ibadan participated in the
study. Data were collected using Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) and Hare
Psychopathy checklist. Collected data were analyzed using descriptive, Anova, T Test and Hierarchical regression at
P<.01 and .05. Five hypotheses were tested in the study.
The 200 participants were 12 females and 188males with mean age (30.40 years, SD=9.32). The result shows that
criminological risk factors, parenting style and parenting bonding predict psychopathy (F(9,195)=2.76 P (0.001)
with 49% variance accounted for by joint prediction of criminological risk factors, parenting bonding and parenting style
in the study. Age of emancipation independently predict psychopathy ( =,09 P>0.05). Age of first imprisonment ( =.15,
P>0.05), authoritative parenting style ( =.04 P>0.05), authoritarian parenting style(=24, P>0.05) permissive parenting
style (=.06 P>0.05) and parental Bonding (=.06 P>0.05) do not independently predict psychopathy among prison
inmates.
Criminological risk factors, parenting bonding and parenting style were significantly predictors of Psychopathy among
prison inmates. These factors should be taken into consideration in the development of intervention programs for
psychopaths. The intervention program should also be among parents.
Keywords: Psychopathy, Criminological Risk Factors, Parental Bonding, and Parenting Styles
INTRODUCTION
The concept of psychopathy has a long history in clinical psychology research which has
fascinated researchers for many years. There has been much debate about what characteristics
make up a psychopathic personality. Current conceptualizations of psychopathy, based on both
clinical and empirical work, suggest that it is a personality disorder defined by a specific
constellation of interpersonal, affective, and behavioral characteristics (Hare, 1998, Hart & Hare,
1998). In adults based on both clinical and empirical work suggests that Psychopathy is a
personality disorder characterized by persistent antisocial behavior, impaired empathy, and bold
and egotistical traits. However, similar antisocial traits are also common, yet less pronounced, in
people who are well-off psychologically and socially. There is a strong association between
psychopathy and criminal conduct in adult. Psychopaths are responsible for a misappropriate
amount of crime in society and are among the most violent and persistent offenders (Fourth &
Burke 1998; Newman, Scmidt & Voss 1997). There is an unprecedented upsurge of violent crimes
and the gruesome killing of innocent people worldwide (Ayokunle 2020). The pervasive nature
and stability of psychopathic traits throughout adulthood have led some researchers to question
whether its origins lie within an earlier point of development. Psychopaths are rare among the
“normal population” found in perhaps 1% but represented 25% of prison inmates because of the
danger keeping them among the population, a diagnosable mental illness that afflicts about 25%
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Parents can vary on how overprotective or responsive they are to the needs and concerns of their
children. These parental practices can significantly affect the temperament, relationships,
personality, motivation, and progress of their children and these can persist throughout life. For
example, compared to individuals whose parents were inconsistent-occasionally supportive and
warm, but sometimes neglectful, critical, and unfair individuals whose parents are almost
supportive, war, and responsive to their needs and concerns are less sensitive to rejection.
Baumrind (1978) who is commonly considered a pioneer researcher into parenting styles,
introduced three parenting styles to describe differences in normal parenting behavior; the
authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting styles. Authoritative parenting as
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Design: The study utilized a non-experimental study that adopted a cross-sectional survey with
an ex-post factor research design. The design examines multiple independent variables as
predictors of one dependent variable while it controls for the extraneous variable. Non -
experimental research is utilized, with no manipulation of the independent variable. The
independent variables are parental bonding, parental style, criminological risk factor; the age of
first imprisonment, age of the first imprisonment, age of emancipation, time spent in prison,
number of times in prison, the severity of offense, income, and length of sentence. The dependent
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variable is psychopathy. A purposive sampling technique was employed for this study. The
sample for the study was drawn from the prison inmates of Agodi prison. The choice of the
sampling technique was a result of the representative sample which is a large population (prison
inmates) and it is not possible to specify which of the large population psychopaths are, thereby
it is using the member of the population that is available.
Measures:
Demographic Information:
The demographics of the respondents include sex, age, marital status, and religion.
Criminological risk factors; The following items were used to measure criminological risk
factors; gross income before imprisonment, years of sentence, age of emancipation, the severity
of the offense, number of times in prison and number of years in prison.
Parental style
This questionnaire was developed my Buri (1991) to measure parental style of mothers. It is a 30
items scale. The scale is a self-report questionnaire eliciting information on how a person
perceives the parenting style of his/her mother developed by Buri (1991) which are rated on a
five- point Likert scale ranging from “Disagree Strongly=`” to “Agree strongly=5. Various studies
have established the Cronbach alpha at 0.77.
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RESULTS
TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF T-TEST OF INDEPENDENCE SHOWING SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
OLDER AND YOUNGER INMATES ON PSYCHOPATHY
Years N X SD df T P
Long stayed 78 90.15 12.39
90.15 1.91 >.05
Short Stayed 122 93.56 12.22
This result shows that There is a significant difference between long stayed and short stayed
prison inmate on psychopathy T (198) = -. (198) = 1.91; P>.05. The mean score of long stayed
inmate was (X=90.15) while that of the short-stayed inmates was (X=93.56) while that of the short
stayed was (X=93.56). This shows that there will be a significant influence of age of emancipation
on psychopathy. This means short stayed prison inmates have more psychopathic behavior than
long stayed prison inmates.
TABLE 2 SUMMARY OF T-TEST OF INDEPENDENCE SHOWING SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
EARLY SEPARATION FROM PARENT (S) AND LATE SEPARATION FROM PARENT(S) ON PSYCHOPATHY
Separation from N X SD df T P
parent
Early 73 92.96 11.23
170 1.43 <0.05
Lately 99 90.22 13.23
In the result above, there was a significant difference between early and lately separation from
parent(s) on psychopathy t(170)-1.43; P>.05. The mean score of early separation (X=92.96) while
that of the late separation was (X=90.22). This means that prison inmates that leaves parent early
are more psychopathic than prison inmates that leaves lately.
TABLE 3 SHOWING TABLE 3 THE DESCRIPTIVE OF ONE TIME, TWO TIMES AND THREE TIMES IN PRISON
ON PSYCHOPATHY
X SD N
First time prison inmate 88.51 12.99 73
Two -time prison inmate 12.28 12.28 22
Three-time prison inmate 7.60 7.59 10
Total 89.00 12.36 105
The tables above shows that numbers of times in prison have a significant effect on psychopathy
f(2,102)=216 p>.05. However, the descriptive statistics shows that first time prison inmate
(X=88.51, SD=12.00) have more psychopathic behavior than two times prison inmates (X=12.28,
SD=12.28) and three times prison inmates (X=7.60, SD=7.59).
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TABLE 5 SUMMARY OF HIERACHICAL REGRESSION SHOWING CRIMINOLOGICAL RISK FACTORS,
PARENTAL BONDING AND PARENTING STYLE ON PSYTCHOPATHY
Variables
B SE B B R R R F
Block 1 .43 .19 .14 3.82***
Criminological risk factors
Age of Emancipation -0.83 .29 -.33***
No. of time in prison -1.45 1.45 -.11
Age of first imprisonment -0.33 .24 -.15
Time spent in prison 1.25 6.5 .20
Severity of offense -.50 .58 -0.9
BLOCK 2 .48 .23 .16 3.10***
Parental style
Age of Emancipation -.83 .29 -.33***
No. of time in prison -1.78 1.45 -.13
Age of first imprisonment -.33 .25 -.15
Time spent in prison 1.10 .66 .17
Severity of offense -.54 .57 -.10
Authoritarian Parenting style 4.12 2.25 .25
Authoritative Parenting Style -.34 1.81 -.02
Permissive Parenting style -.04 .17 -.03
BLOCK .49 .24 .15 2.76***
Parental Bonding
Age of Emancipation -.80 2.9 -.31**
No. of time in prison -1.59 1.49 -.12
Age of first imprisonment -.33 2.5 -1.5
Time spent in prison 1.15 .67 .18
Severity of offense -.52 .58 -.09
Authoritarian Parenting style 3.94 2.28 .24
Authoritative Parenting Style -.62 1.87 -.04
Permissive Parenting style -.08 .19 -.06
Parental Bonding .09 .14 .08
Result in table 5 above shows that criminological risk factors identified in the study significantly
and jointly predict psychopathy (F (5,195)-3.82, P<0.001). However, 43% variance observed
among psychopathic prison inmates are accounted for by the criminological risk factors identified
in the study. Also, the table revealed that age of emancipation independently predicts
psychopathy (β=.33, p<0.001) while numbers of time imprisoned (β.11, p>0.05), age of first
imprisonment (β=.15, p>0.05), time spent in prison (β=.20, p>0.05) and severity of offence (β=.09,
p>0.05) do not independently predict psychopathy
Furthermore, in block B of the table above shows that criminological risk factors and parenting
style identifies in the study significantly and jointly predict psychopathy among prison inmate (F
(8,195)=3.10, p<0.0001).. However, 48% variance observed among psychopathic prison inmates
are accounted for by the criminological risk factors and parenting style in the study. Also, the table
revealed that age of emancipation independently predicts psychopathy (β =.33 p<0.001), while
numbers of time imprisoned (β=.13, p>0.05), age of first imprisonment (β=15, p>0.05), time spent
in prison (β.17, p > 0.05), and severity of offence (β=.01, p>0.05), authoritarian parenting style
(β=.25 p>0.05), authoritative parenting style, (β=.02 p>0.05), and permissive parenting style,
(β=.03, p>0.05), do no independently predict psychopathy among prison inmate
Also, in block C of the table above shows that criminological risk factors, parenting style and
parental bonding identified in the study significantly and jointly predict psychopathy among prison
inmates (F (9,195)=2.26 p<0.0021). However, 49% variance observed among psychopathic
prison inmates are accounted for by the criminological risk factors, parenting style and parental
bonding in the study. Also, the table revealed that age of emancipation independently predicts
psychopathy(β=.31, p<0.0001), while numbers of time imprisoned(β=.12, p>0.05), age of first
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TABLE 6 SHOWING THE SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE IN LEVEL OF PSYCHOPATHY BETWEEN INMATE WITH
LOW PARENTAL BONDING AND HIGH PARENTAL BONDING
DV Parental Bond N X SD df t P
Low 117 89.44 10.01
psychopath 198 2.82 <.05
High 83 94.36 14.73
T test table above shows that there is a significant difference in the level of psychopath between
prison inmate with high parental bond and inmates with low parental bond (T (198) = 2.83, P<.05).
However, the mean scores in the table shows inmates with high parental bonding(X=89.44).
Two hundred participants used in the study responded to the demographic information presented
in the descriptive table. This table showed that none of them was below 17years and above
77years. The age descriptive statistics showed that the participant minimum age was 17 and the
maximum age is 77, the mean age is 30.40. The gender distribution in the study involves 12
females (6%) and 188 males (94%). 72 participants were identified as single (35.8%) by marital
status, 80 participants were married (0.0%), 28 participants were divorced (14.0%), 20
participants were separated (10%). The religion distribution shows that 104 participants were
Christian by religion (52.0%), 78 participants were Muslim (39.0%) 17 participants were identified
as traditional (8.5%).
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DISCUSSION
The study investigated parenting style, parenting bonding and criminological factors as predictors
of psychopathy. The independent variables of the study were parenting style, parenting bonding
and criminological risk factors. Parenting bonding has two levels; the two levels are High and low,
parenting style has three dimensions authoritative parenting style authoritarian parenting style,
permissive parenting style, and authoritative parenting style. Criminological risk factors is of seven
dimensions level of sentence, age of emancipation, age of first imprisonment, severity of offence,
length of sentence, numbers of times in prison times spent in prison early
Five hypotheses were tested in the study. There are several other findings as presented earlier
in Chapter four; this chapter is therefore to discuss the findings in line with each of hypotheses.
Apart from this, the summary, conclusion, implication of findings, recommendations, limitation of
study and suggestion for further studies were made in this chapter.
Times spent in prison and psychopathy
The hypothesis which states that long stayed prison inmate will have a significant higher score on
psychopathy than short stayed prison inmate was not supported. The result of the findings shows
that short stayed prison inmate scored higher than long stayed prison inmate. This shows that
short stayed prison inmate have psychopathic behavior than long stayed prison inmate. This
reveals that times spent in prison inhibit psychopathy.
Separation from parents on Psychopathy
The outcome of hypothesis two shows that there is a significant difference in the level of
psychopathy between prison inmate with early separation from parents and inmates with late
separation from parents. However, prison inmate with early separation from parents ha significant
higher score on psychopathy than prison inmate with late separation from patents which
supported the stated hypothesis two. This shows that inmates who separated early from parents
have more psychopathic behavior than those who separated from their parent lately.
This is in support of saltaris (2002) he found out that insights from clinical accounts suggest that
the emotional detachment shown by psychopathic individuals is so fundamental and pervasive
that it is likely to originate from the first few months of a child's life, and that it is relatively
independent of later inadequacies in the rearing environment (Saltaris, 2002). In particular
insecure avoidant and disorganized attachments have been linked to early hostile behavior
problems (Lyons-Ruth, Alpern & Repacholi, 1993). Furthermore, the relationship between
avoidant attachment and antisocial behavior has been shown to be stronger in high-risk samples
of children than in low risk samples (Greenberg, Speltz, & Deklyen, 1993).
Most explanations of personality disorders focus on early stages of development and assume
problems in child rearing and family structure that resulted from the loss of one of the parents
through divorce or death (Rutter, 2005). According to attachment theory, children lacking the
attachment to a significant adult figure are unable to empathize and care about others (Van der
Horst, 2011). It is difficult to objectively track down early experiences and even more difficult to
measure the effects of those experiences on people's current thoughts and feelings. This study
found a significant association between the age at which prison inmates left their parents’ home
and psychopathy among a group of prison inmates in a medium security prison in Apodaca,
Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Findings suggest that the lesser the time subjects spent in at their homes
of origin, the higher their level of diagnosed as psychopathy will be. The subgroup of subjects’
psychopaths lived at their homes of origin an average of 13 years while inmates not psychopaths
lived at their homes of origin an average of 18 years. This finding suggests the possibility that the
previously mentioned 5 year difference enabled inmates without psychopathy to develop the
capacity to empathize and care about others, even though there study design does not enable to
form a clearly establish cause and effect relationships. It is possible that separating too early from
the protection of one's family of origin may be a risk factor for psychopathology and more
specifically for psychopathy. It would be worth discovering to what extent the prolonged lack of
access of children to attachment figures may contribute to psychopathy and to what extent
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psychopathy may lead to criminal behavior. By attachment figures we mean persons to which
normally children become attached and who children prefer over other individuals. Links have
been made between avoidant attachments and conduct problems and disorganized attachment
and aggression (Carlson, Sampson, & Sroufe, 2003; Sroufe, 2005). Furthermore, research has
shown a link between attachment classification and specific DSM-IV diagnoses (American
Psychiatric Association, 1994) of personality disorders (Fonagy et al., 1996).
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social support and all the various types of parental support they need are not well embedded in
them before they got separated from them. With this, it could lead to very severe risk for them
because the environment in which they find themselves could inculcate another behavior in them
which will make them have psychopathic traits and behavior.
Summary
The study provided a means of finding answers to the problem identified in the beginning of this
study. The cause of psychopathy was investigated, criminological risk factors, parental bonding
an parenting style were tested using five hypothesis, three of them was upheld, one was partially
accepted and one was not supported by the findings. The study shows that short stayed prison
inmate have more psychopathic behavior than long stayed prison inmate, prison inmate with early
separation from parents are more psychopathy than prison inmate with late separation from
parents, first time prison inmate exhibit high psychopathy than two and three times prison inmates,
the study shows that age of emancipation has a significant relationship on psychopathy,
criminological risk factors, parenting style and parental bonding jointly predict psychopathy
Conclusion
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The study concludes that long stayed prison inmate have significant high score on psychopathy
than short stayed prison inmate. The result of the findings further shows that short stayed prison
inmate scored higher than long stayed prison inmate. This shows that short stayed prison inmate
have psychopathic behavior than long stayed prison inmate. Meanwhile, the study also shows
that there is a significant difference in the level of psychopathy between prison inmate with early
separation from parents and inmates with late separation from parents. However, prison inmate
with early separation from parent has significant higher score on psychopathy than prison inmate
with late separation from parent. The study further evaluates the influence of frequency criminal
behavior on psychopathy, numbers of times in prison was found to have significant influence on
psychopathy. Furthermore, various independent variables such as criminological risk factors,
parenting style and parental bonding was showed to have jointly predicts psychopath among
prison inmate, independently, the findings revealed that age of emancipation, times spent in
prison, severity of offence, number of times in prison, age of first imprisonment, authoritative
parenting style, authoritarian parenting style, authoritative parenting style and parental bonding
jointly predict psychopathy, but only age of emancipation independently predict psychopathy.
Finally, parental bonding was found to have significantly predicted increase of adult psychopathic
personality. The study found that high maternal care was the aspect of bonding most associated
with psychopathic traits.
Recommendation
There are important implications of these findings for both researchers and practitioners with
respect to attempting to ameliorate the negative trajectory associated with psychopathy. It is
critical to pay attention to and work with children and adolescents, especially boys, who have had
early disruption to parental care giving arrangements. Additionally, it is equally important to work
with to-be adoptive or foster parents on how to handle and support potentially emotionally
damaged children.
Therapy sessions such as Group therapy; Group psychotherapy is intended to provide education,
encouragement and support for inmates who are psychopathy so as to secure an environment in
which information can be exchanged and opinions heard, with this, inmates will be able to
examine their difficulties in a situation reflecting the family and the social networks in which their
problem developed so that a solid emotional and interpersonal foundation could be improved on
which psychopathy inmates really need.
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Behaviour therapy or the use of behaviour modification techniques which is an attempt to apply
the results of learning theory and experimental psychology to the problems of maladaptive
behaviour
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