Environmental Management

Environmental Management
This book is a part of the course by Jaipur National University, Jaipur.

This book contains the course content for Environmental Management.
JNU, Jaipur
First Edition 2013
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content whenever the need arises, and to vary it at any time without prior notice.
Index
I. Content....................................................................... II
II. List of Figures..........................................................VI
III. List of Tables........................................................ VII
IV. Abbreviations.......................................................VIII
V. Case Study.............................................................. 115
VI. Bibliography......................................................... 121
VII. Self Assessment Answers................................... 124
Book at a Glance
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Contents
Chapter I........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Environmental Management....................................................................................................................... 1
Aim................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Objectives....................................................................................................................................................... 1
Learning outcome........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Evolution of the Concept.......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Definition and Scope................................................................................................................ 3
1.2.2 Fundamentals and Goals........................................................................................................... 3
1.2.3 Environmental Management System........................................................................................ 4
1.3 Fundamentals of Sustainable Development.............................................................................................. 5
1.3.1 Principles of Sustainable Development.................................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Sustainable Economy................................................................................................................ 7
1.3.3 Sustainable Environment........................................................................................................ 10
1.3.4 The Notion of Capital in Sustainable Development................................................................11
1.3.5 Critique of the Concept of Sustainable Development............................................................ 12
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 14
References.................................................................................................................................................... 14
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 14
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 15
Chapter II.................................................................................................................................................... 17
Energy Management................................................................................................................................... 17
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 17
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 17
Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 17
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 18
2.2 Energy Management............................................................................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Fundamentals of Energy Management................................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Home Energy Management.................................................................................................... 18
2.2.3 Controlling and Reducing Energy Consumption in Organisation.......................................... 19
2.2.4 Best Ways to Manage Energy Consumption........................................................................... 20
2.2.5 Managing Energy Consumption Effectively: An Ongoing Process....................................... 21
2.3 Fossil Fuel Use........................................................................................................................................ 21
2.3.1 Characteristics, Origin, Applications and Effects................................................................... 21
2.3.2 Importance.............................................................................................................................. 23
2.4 Energy Production and Trade.................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.1 Controls on Ecosystem Function............................................................................................ 27
2.4.2 The Geography of Ecosystems............................................................................................... 27
2.5 Energy Balance Ecosystem Concepts..................................................................................................... 27
2.5.1 Ecosystem............................................................................................................................... 27
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 29
References.................................................................................................................................................... 29
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 30
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Chapter III................................................................................................................................................... 32
Environmental Management Systems....................................................................................................... 32
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 32
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 32
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 33
3.2 Environmental Management System...................................................................................................... 33
3.3 ISO Standards......................................................................................................................................... 33
3.4 The Environmental Management System............................................................................................... 37
3.4.1 PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act).................................................................................................. 37
3.4.2 Energy Efficiency................................................................................................................... 38
3.4.3 EMAS..................................................................................................................................... 39
3.4.4 Eco-Management and Audit Scheme...................................................................................... 39
3.5 Environmental Auditing.......................................................................................................................... 40
3.5.1 Impact Assessment and Environmental Auditing................................................................... 41
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 42
References.................................................................................................................................................... 42
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 43
Chapter IV................................................................................................................................................... 45
Environmental Laws................................................................................................................................... 45
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 45
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 45
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 46
4.2 Patent Laws............................................................................................................................................. 46
4.3 Pollution and Waste Management........................................................................................................... 47
4.3.1 Pollution and Small Islands.................................................................................................... 47
4.3.2 Costs of Pollution to the Tourism Industry............................................................................. 48
4.3.3 Costs of Pollution to Human Health....................................................................................... 48
4.3.4 Environmental Costs of Pollution........................................................................................... 48
4.3.5 Pollution from Mining............................................................................................................ 49
4.4 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981....................................................................... 50
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 56
References.................................................................................................................................................... 56
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 57
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Chapter V..................................................................................................................................................... 59
Water, Forest and Biodiversity Management........................................................................................... 59
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 59
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 59
5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 60
5.2 Water Management................................................................................................................................. 60
5.2.1 Irrigation Development and Potential in India....................................................................... 61
5.2.2 Soil-Water System.................................................................................................................. 62
5.2.3 Water Management in Developing Countries......................................................................... 63
5.2.4 Water-related Action for its Different Uses............................................................................ 64
5.2.5 Water Reservoirs..................................................................................................................... 65
5.2.6 Uses......................................................................................................................................... 65
5.2.7 Environmental Impact............................................................................................................. 66
5.3 Dams and Their Roles............................................................................................................................. 67
5.3.1 Types of Dams........................................................................................................................ 67
5.3.2 Based on Structure.................................................................................................................. 67
5.3.3 Purposes of Dams................................................................................................................... 68
5.4 Forest Management................................................................................................................................. 69
5.5 Forest Products and Their Trade............................................................................................................. 70
5.6 Biodiversity Management....................................................................................................................... 71
5.7 Role of Biodiversity in International Trade............................................................................................ 71
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 72
References.................................................................................................................................................... 72
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 73
Chapter VI................................................................................................................................................... 75
Disaster Management................................................................................................................................. 75
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 75
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 75
6.1 Introduction . .......................................................................................................................................... 76
6.2 Disaster Management.............................................................................................................................. 76
6.3 Basic Concepts of Emergency Management.......................................................................................... 76
6.3.1 Mitigation................................................................................................................................ 77
6.3.2 Preparedness........................................................................................................................... 77
6.3.3 Response................................................................................................................................. 78
6.3.4 Recovery................................................................................................................................. 79
6.4 Organisational Structure and Institutional Arrangements for Emergency Management in the State..... 79
6.5 Planning Process..................................................................................................................................... 82
6.6 Trigger Mechanism................................................................................................................................. 82
6.7 Paradigm Shift Towards Prevention and Reduction............................................................................... 83
6.8 Ushering in a New Culture of Disaster Management............................................................................. 83
6.9 Financial Arrangements.......................................................................................................................... 84
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 86
References.................................................................................................................................................... 86
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 87
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Chapter VII................................................................................................................................................. 89
The Legal and Regulatory Framework for Environmental Protection in India................................... 89
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 89
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 89
7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 90
7.2 Legislation for Environmental Protection in India................................................................................. 90
7.2.1 Water....................................................................................................................................... 90
7.2.2 Air........................................................................................................................................... 91
7.2.3 Forests and Wildlife................................................................................................................ 91
7.2.4 General.................................................................................................................................... 92
7.2.5 Hazardous Wastes................................................................................................................... 93
7.3 International Agreements on Environmental Issues............................................................................... 94
7.4 An Assessment of the Legal and Regulatory Framework for Environmental Protection in India.......... 96
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 98
References.................................................................................................................................................... 98
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 100
Chapter VIII.............................................................................................................................................. 102

Environmental Management Plan........................................................................................................... 102
Aim............................................................................................................................................................. 102
Objectives................................................................................................................................................... 102
Learning outcome....................................................................................................................................... 102
8.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 103
8.2 Purpose of Environmental Management Plan ..................................................................................... 103
8.3 Details of Environmental Management Plan........................................................................................ 103
8.3.1 Construction and Commissioning Phase.............................................................................. 103
8.3.2 Operation Phase ................................................................................................................... 105
8.4 Environmental Management Cell ........................................................................................................ 108
8.5 Monitoring of Environment ................................................................................................................. 109
8.6 Proposed Budgetary Provisions for EMP .............................................................................................111
Summary.....................................................................................................................................................112
References...................................................................................................................................................112
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................112
Self Assessment...........................................................................................................................................113
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List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 EMS continuous improvement cycle................................................................................................. 5
Fig. 1.2 A representation of sustainability...................................................................................................... 7
Fig. 1.3 Scheme of sustainable development.................................................................................................. 8
Fig. 1.4 Carrying capacity and quality of life (adapted from Mabbutt 1985)................................................. 9
Fig. 2.1 Global energy consumption by fuel type......................................................................................... 22
Fig. 2.2 Formation of fossil fuel................................................................................................................... 26
Fig. 6.1 Emergency management cycle........................................................................................................ 77
Fig. 8.1 An organogram of environment management cell........................................................................ 109
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Environmental auditing norms and standards............................................................................... 41
Table 5.1 Purpose of dams............................................................................................................................ 69
Table 8.1 Monitoring schedule for environmental parameters....................................................................110
Table 8.2 Laboratory equipments for environmental monitoring................................................................111
Table 8.3 Total capital and recurring cost for EPCM..................................................................................111
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Abbreviations
ARWSP - Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme
ATP - Adenosine triphosphate
CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity
CECAB - Canadian Environmental Certification Approvals Board
CHO - Carbohydrates
CIS - Commonwealth of Independent States
CITES - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
CNG - Compressed Natural Gas
COFI - Committee on Fisheries
COP - Conference of the Parties
CPCB - Central Pollution Control Board
CPM - Continuous Particulate Measurement
CREP - Corporate Responsibility For Environmental Protection
CRF - Calamity Relief Fund
DDP - Desert Development Programme
DPAP - Drought Prone Area Programme
EAP - Environmental Action Programme
ELD - Environmental Liability Directive
EMAS - Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
EMP - Environmental Management Plan
EMS - Environmental Management System
EOC - Emergency Operation Centre
EPA - Environment Protection Act
ESFs - Emergency Support Functions
GLCs - Ground Level Concentrations
HPC - High Power Committee
HVAC - Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning
IDNDR - International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
ISO - International Organisation for Standardisation
ITTA - International Tropical Timber Agreement
ITTC - International Tropical Timber Council
IWDP - Integrated Wasteland Development Programme
LOI - Letter Of Intent
MEA - Multilateral Environment Agreements
MoEF - Ministry of Environment and Forests
NA&ED - National Afforestation & Eco-development Programme
NAAQS - National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NCCF - National Calamity Contingency Fund
NOC - No Objection Certificate
ODS - Ozone Depleting Substances
PDCA - Plan-Do-Check-Act
PDSA - Plan, Do, Study, Act
PLIA - Public Liability Insurance Act
PM - Particulate Matter
PPEs - Personal Protective Equipments
PPGs - Pollution Prevention Guidelines
SCBD - Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity
SCG - State Crisis Group
SECR - State Emergency Control Room
SEM - State Emergency Manager
SEMPC - State Emergency Management Planning Committee
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SGRY - Sampurn Grameen Rozgar Yojana
SMF - Stack Monitoring Facility
SOP - Standard Operating Procedure
SPCB - State Pollution Control Board
SPFS - Special Programme for Food Security
SPS - Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
TAG - Technical Advisory Group
TBT - Technical Barriers to Trade
TPNs - Thematic Programme Networks
TRIPs - Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
UNCED - UN Conference on Environment and Development
UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
WBCSD - World Business Council for Sustainable Development
WCED - World Commission on Environment and Development
WPA - Wildlife Protection Act
WTO - World Trade Organisation
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Chapter I
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
• introduce environmental management
• explain evolution of the concept
• explicate the fundamentals of sustainable development
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
• enlist sustainable environment
• elucidate sustainable environment
• explain principles of sustainable development
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• identify the sustainable economy
• understand the critique of the concept of sustainable development
• define sustainability
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1.1 Introduction
Over ages, man, with his desirable and non-desirable activities, has affected the environment unquestionably and
sometimes irrevocably. However, awareness of the damage has also given rise to a lot of clamour about minimising
these effects. Across the globe, governments, trade associations, supply chains and other social and financial
stakeholders are bent on pressing the issue further. The concept of environment management is the offspring of this
widespread awareness about the human impact on the environment.
Now the key question is: what is environmental management? In layman’s language, it is the process by which
environmental health is regulated. Human beings cannot aspire to manage the environment themselves, but it is the
process of taking steps and behaviour to have a positive effect on the environment. Environmental management
involves the wise use of activity and resources to impact the world. Many organisations develop a management
plan or system to implement, manage and maintain environmental goals. Management plans for the environment
are conceptualised by many companies and organisations, because taking care of the planet has become the prime
responsibility of everybody in every type of profession.
1.2 Evolution of the Concept

Since prehistoric times, the human race has gathered environmental experience and has created strategies for
making the best possible use of nature. To facilitate management of resource-utilisation, people developed taboos,
superstitions and common rights, devised laws to improve conservation and even engaged in national resource
inventories (such as, the twelfth century AD Doomsday survey). While a few managed to maintain practical lifestyles
for long durations, the thought that pre-modern people ‘close to nature’ brought about slight environmental harm
is mostly an Arcadian myth. In fact, people in the prehistoric era, using fire and weapons of flint, bone, wood and
leather, managed to change the vegetation of a majority of continents and most likely eradicated numerous species
of large mammals (Tudge, 1995).
Developments observed in the late twentieth century make it imperative that environmental management should be
accurately comprehended. Such developments include, but are not limited to, global pollution, loss of biodiversity,
soil degradation and urban sprawl. The challenges are enormous; however, there has been progress in perceiving
the composition and function of the environment, in examining impacts, data-handling and analysis, modelling,
evaluation and planning. It is the responsibility of environmental management to organise and concentrate on such
advancements, to augment human welfare and diminish or curb further destruction of earth and its organisms.
Technological optimism evident in the west, chiefly from the 1830s onwards and articulated in natural resources
management, weakened somewhat after 1945 since environmental issues became a prime concern in people’s
consciousness (Mitchell, 1997). Some degree of efforts were put in to ascertain that natural resources utilisation was
incorporated in social as well as economic progress before the 1970s, e.g., integrated or comprehensive regional
planning and management was put into practice as early as the 1930s with the institution of river basin bodies
(Barrow, 1997). Urban and regional planning has roots in holistic ecosystem approaches as well things that have of
late caught the attention of those interested in environmental management (Slocombe, 1993:290).
Nevertheless, natural resources management (in contrast with environmental management) is more related to specific
components of the earth resources, that have utility and can be exploited mostly for short-term and which prove
advantageous to special interest groups organisations or governments. Moreover, natural resources management
responses to issues are likely to be reactive and usually depend on quick-fix technological methods and a project-by-
project approach. Natural resources managers usually hail from a narrow range of disciplines, characteristically with
limited sociological and environmental proficiency. Their management can be authoritarian and may not succeed in
reaching out to the public; they also are likely to overlook offsite and delayed impacts. Owing to these anomalies,
natural resources management has lost ground to environmental management in the last 40 years or so.
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1.2.1 Definition and Scope
There is no precise universal definition of environmental management. The reason lies in the vast scope of the
subject and diversity of specialism involved therein. An attempt, nonetheless, has been made to compile various
significant definitions of environmental management. That exercise precipitates to the following characteristics of
environmental management:
• It is mostly used as a generic term.
• It supports sustainable development.
• It is concerned with that sphere of nature, which is affected by humans. (Unfortunately, we can presently boast
of very few natural regions that are free of human interference.)
• It calls for multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach.
• It encompasses various paradigms of development.
• It takes cues from physical sciences, social sciences, policy-making and planning.
• The timescale involved is often long and the environmental concerns range from local to global.
• It assists us to identify and address problems simultaneously.
1.2.2 Fundamentals and Goals

In 1975, Laurence Sewell thought that the environmental manager ought to be capable to control both social institutions
as well as suitable technologies. However, it should execute these with the perception of an artist, understanding of
a poet and, maybe, the ethical purity and willpower of a pious devotee.
The nature of environmental management

Environmental management is a way to reach out for environmental conservation, which consolidates ecology,
policy-making, planning and social development. Its objectives consist of the following aspects:
• The obstacle and motion of environmental issues.
• Ascertaining restrictions.
• Ascertaining and fostering institutions that efficiently back up environmental research, observation and
management.
• Caution of threats and recognising better prospects.
• Supporting and in all probability enhancing the ‘quality of life’.
• Recognising new technology or procedures that are constructive.
It is obvious that these objectives obscure a lot of issues. Obviously, short-term objectives must be set in and contained
by a universal vision (Dorney, 1989: 5). Without a universal vision, it is not easy to circumvent split decision-making
or to implement a long-term vision or to arrange and recognise critical assignments. Environmental management
as a result demands ‘scoping’ (determining the objectives and putting restrictions on hard work) prior to taking
some action. From the early 1970s, famous texts have frequently published about the environmental variations.
Any invasion into nature has several effects, a lot of which are erratic (environmental management should deal
with the unanticipated).
• Since ‘everything is connected’, humans as well as nature are inseparably tied up together; what one individual
does, has an effect on the others (environmental management should think about the series of events, looking
further than the confined and short-term).
• A lot of care has to be taken that the substances manufactured by humans are not obstructing any of the earth’s
biogeochemical procedures (environmental management should keep an eye on the natural procedures and
human actions to make sure no critical process is disturbed).
In the past few years, a number of environmental managers have started to put across their universal vision and
objectives by publishing an environmental policy declaration to demonstrate the purpose, recognise priorities as
well as principles and provide the main reason behind it. While this notifies the public, it does not promise healthy
practices in environmental management. Environmental managers should believe that there is a most advantageous
equilibrium between environmental protection and permitting human actions. Ascertaining where that balance is
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placed is mostly dependant on ethics. Clark (1989) disputed that at its core, environmental management asks the
following two questions:
• What type of planet do we desire?
• What type of planet can we acquire?
Although agreement of a most advantageous balance can be attained, the way to environmental management objectives
might take diverse ways. Environmental management has not developed in seclusion. Regional planners frequently
implement a human ecology method; other planners implement a systems analysis or an ecosystem method. For
example, McHarg (1969) used river basins and Doxiadis (1977) attempted to create a science of planning settlement in
equilibrium with nature- ekistics. Rapoport (1993) identified two key segments: those who implement a horticultural
implied comparison, Garden earth and those who favour the one, that is, technological-spaceship earth. The diversity
of challenges and the truth that a lot of different aspects are engaged (e.g., the public, business interests, professions,
local and national government, special interest groups and the charitable segment), implies that when it comes down
to it, environmental managers usually focus on an area, ecosystem, area of activity or resource.
Environmental managers who may not be able to accomplish their goals could be criticised (or taken to court),
get disrespected by their employers and lose public faith. Therefore, like a majority of supervisors, environmental
managers are liable to follow risk-aversion procedures together with the following steps:
• Working to secure minimum standards.
• Implementing tolerable restrictions.
• Following a ‘win-win’ or ‘least regrets’ method (i.e., measures which derive advantages, no matter what the
outcome and measures which strive to decrease unnecessary effects respectively)
In actuality, all these techniques aim at preserving or safeguarding the environment except if public expenditure is
extremely high. The following preventive measures are not free of cost. In a majority of situations, it has proved to
be expensive since quite a few things have to be given up to keep the escape options open.
1.2.3 Environmental Management System

Environmental management system (EMS) refers to the management of an organisation’s environmental programmes
in a comprehensive, systematic, planned and documented manner. It includes the organisational structure, planning
and resources for developing, implementing and maintaining policy for environmental protection.
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EMS Model
POLICY
ommitment to
C
prevention of pollution
Commitment to compliance
Framework for action
Communicated
Available to public
MANAGEMENT PLANNING
REVIEW
Suitability, adequacy nvironmental aspects
E
& effectiveness Legal requirements
Continuous improvement Objectives and targets
Policy & objectives Management programs
review/revision
CHECKING & IMPLEMENTATION &

CORRECTIVE ACTION OPERATION
Monitoring and Structure, responsibility
measurement Corrective and Training & awareness
preventive action Documentation and
Recordkeeping controls Emergency
EMS audit preparedness & response
Fig. 1.1 EMS continuous improvement cycle

(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/RajendraGhuge/environmentmanagemnent-notes)
An EMS follows a Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle (PDCA). The diagram shows the three-fold process of developing an
environmental policy, planning the EMS and then implementing it. The process also entails checking the system and
acting on the findings. The model is continuous because an EMS is a process of continual improvement in which
an organisation is reviewing and revising the system on a continual basis. This model can be employed by a wide
range of organisations right from manufacturing facilities to service industries to government agencies.
1.3 Fundamentals of Sustainable Development

The fundamentals of sustainable development are explained in detail in the following paragraphs.
Sustainability
In common parlance, sustainability means the capacity to endure. In ecology, it is a term describing how biological
systems remain diverse and productive over a period of time. For human beings and for the purpose of our discussion,
sustainability should be understood as the potential for long-term maintenance of well-being, which in turn rests
with the well-being of the natural world and the responsible use of natural resources.
Sustainable development
This term can now be deduced from the above definitions of sustainability. Sustainable development is a pattern of
resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment with a view that these needs can be met
not only in the present, but also for future generations. Sustainable development embraces the prime, interdependent
and indivisible areas of environmental protection, economic development and social development.
The report of the World Commission on Environment and Development suggested strategies for dealing with
accelerating deterioration of the human environment and natural resources and the consequences of that deterioration
for economic and social development. Failing to manage the environment and sustaining the development process
are two sides of a balance which countries find difficult to balance, especially in the present times. In turn, they find
it an enormous task to focus on conserving the environment.
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Environment and development are not separate challenges; they are inexorably linked in a complex system of causality.
Development cannot subsist upon a deteriorating environmental resource-base; the environment cannot be protected
when growth fails to count the costs of environmental destruction in the final checklist. These problems have to
be countered jointly and managed by the respective governments; they will have to join hands to design solutions
in terms of government policies. Such government policies can then be implemented by measures like finance,
cooperation, capacity-building, education and public awareness, transfer of environmentally sound technology,
science for sustainable development, international institutions, legal measures, information dissemination, etc.
All definitions of sustainable development presume that we see the world as a system that connects space and time.
The reason is obvious. When you assume the whole world as one entity, you tend to believe that the onus of taking
care of it rests upon you. Certain realisations dawn on you: air pollution from North America affects the air quality
in Asia; that pesticides sprayed in Argentina could harm fish stocks off the coast of Australia. Over time, you also
start to evaluate and appreciate the decisions our grandparents made about how to farm the land because they affect
modern agricultural practice. Similarly, the economic policies we endorse today will have a definite impact on urban
poverty, when our children grow into adults. This is what is meant by presuming the world as a system connected
in space and time. The concept of sustainable development is rooted in this sort of systems thinking. It helps us
understand our world and ourselves.
1.3.1 Principles of Sustainable Development

For sustainable development to be plausible in the future, we must be ready and willing to maintain our natural
capital assets. It is high time we understand and accept that our social wealth has come with a price tag. The price
we have paid is intangible and irrevocable erosion of our natural resources. These resources are exhaustive and
their depletion has been harming the environment incessantly. As humans, as trustees of this wealth, we have failed
miserably to use this wealth to generate adequate levels of secondary or tertiary industries, which would enable us
to maintain a satisfactory level of financial prosperity while redirecting the resources back to maintain our natural
resource base at the same time. Instead, we are being increasingly forced to liquidate our natural resources in the
name of economies of scale and governments’ commitments to free trade and global competitiveness.
There has been a mention of a vicious circle in this regard. Sustainable development is difficult to maintain without
maintaining the growth rates, which, in turn, are difficult to maintain without harming the environment. There is a
grain of truth in this statement, indeed. To a large extent, it appears to present before you a vision for transforming
our currently growth-oriented socioeconomic system to one that is balanced on an emerging ecological worldview’s
vision of environmental sustainability and social justice. We know that vision to be an ideal, though. Therefore, the
major debate rests on how to balance the two sides. Within this perspective, there is a growing body of literature that
agrees on a broad set of principles for sustainability to guide us toward these goals. These principles will emphasise
upon our political and economic institutions the importance of realising that our natural resources are limited and
must not be overutilised.
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Some ecological components from the emerging worldview include the following principles:
• The value of biological diversity.
• Ecological limitations on human activity.
• The intimately intertwined and systemic nature of the planet’s abiotic and biotic components.
• Thermodynamic irreversibility of natural processes.
• The recognition of the dynamic, constantly evolving and often unpredictable properties of natural systems.
Economy
Society
Environment
Fig. 1.2 A representation of sustainability

Successful sustainable development involves a comprehensive understanding of policy and issues as well as a
balanced understanding of technical and financial realities. Emphasis is placed on understanding how the many
diverse elements of ‘green’ design and sustainable technologies and related cost implications can truly result in a
well-defined and manageable sustainable development plan. It is intended for professionals whose roles include
supervising and managing sustainable programmes.
1.3.2 Sustainable Economy

The ability to sustain a quality environment depends on the ability to foster a strong and sustainable economy.
Such an economy is more efficient and derives greater social benefits from the utilisation of fewer environmental
assets. In addition, a sustainable economy can make way for the means for increased environmental protection and
conservation, while also offering the society alternatives to undue exploitation of natural resources. A sustainable
economy is, therefore, very important for the betterment of the society and the increase in the standard of living of
the people and the future of humanity.
Some important facets of sustainable development are given below. If we, as humanity, need to meet the challenges
of growing population and managing resources, so that they can be utilised without harming the environment, these
principles must take centre stage in all our lives.
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Social
Bearable Equitable
Sustainable
Environment Viable Economic
Fig. 1.3 Scheme of sustainable development

The following are some of the facets of sustainable development:

• Inspire diversified economic development: Development that augments employment and other benefits derived
from a given stock of resources should be prioritised.
• Encourage efficient economic development: Development that reduces waste and makes efficient use of resources
should be inspired.
• Ensure that all renewable resources are used in a manner that is sustainable over a long-term: Renewable
resources include soils, wild and domesticated organisms and ecosystems. Renewable resources should not be
used at rates that exceed their capacity to renew themselves.
• Ascertain that nonrenewable resources are not exhausted and sufficient quantities are left for utilisation by future
generations: Nonrenewable resources should not be used at rates that exceed our capacity to create substitutes
for them.
• Economic activity should work within the capacity of ecosystems: It should strive to assimilate or process the
waste associated with such activity.
• Stimulate environmentally sound economic activity: This must be done through a combination of educational
awareness, political and legal measures and economic instruments.
• Inspire attitudinal and behavioural change: These profound economic changes can shape themselves only as a
result of altered behaviours and attitudes.
The concept of carrying capacity is often defined as the maximum population that can be supported in a given
habitat without permanently inflicting any damage to the ecosystem. However, in terms of human life, the issue of
‘quality of life’ cannot be discounted. How individuals and communities define quality of life will contribute to their
impact on the larger environment. For instance, in case of a community that values a rich and luxurious lifestyle,
the carrying capacity of the environment depletes. Therefore, the definition above might be amended by substituting
‘the optimal population’ for the phrase ‘the maximum population’.
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Environmental System
• Resources: fixed and renewable
• Assimilative capacity Human Systems
(cultural, social, political and economic)
• Reality description: what “is”
• Reality description: what
“ought” to be
Quality of Life • Technological process: extraction,
• Environmental production, etc.
• Human
Fig. 1.4 Carrying capacity and quality of life (adapted from Mabbutt 1985)
Consequently, carrying capacity, in terms of human systems, can be further defined as, “Carrying capacity means
the level of human activity (including population dynamics and economic activity) that a region can sustain
(including consideration of import and export of resources and waste residuals) at acceptable ‘quality-of-life’ levels
in perpetuity.” (Mabbutt, 1985)
The long-term goals of the ecological world view

The Brundtland Commission, formerly the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), was
convened by the United Nations in 1983. It was created to address growing concerns “about the accelerating
deterioration of the human environment and natural resources and the consequences of that deterioration for economic
and social development.”
The Brundtland Report has argued eloquently why we must reverse the current degradation of the environment,
which was “first seen as mainly a problem of the rich nations and a side effect of industrial wealth which has become
a survival issue for developing nations.” The report points out the link between the problems and prospects of the
planetary environment and those of human societies, both rich and poor. It had to find an acceptable compromise
between the North’s concern about a global demographic explosion and a rapidly deteriorating environment and
the South’s insistence that economic development and social opportunities must be given a higher priority than
environmental protection.
It places our species at the centre of the evolutionary process and consequently, perceives and evaluates the planet’s
ecology in terms of human needs and values. A growing number of environmental writers find this perception not
only grossly limited but also ultimately liable to be fraught with its own danger. They call for a ‘common future’,
that is, eco-centric, placing equal value and significance on all species without exception. For many, the ecological
worldview should include the following standards and goals:
• Human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive and the situation is rapidly worsening.
• Policies must therefore be changed. These policies, in essence, should affect the basic economic, technological
and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be essentially different from that of today.
• There must be recognition that both human and nonhuman living beings have value in themselves. Nonhuman
life is intrinsically valuable regardless of its value to humans.
• The richness and diversity of living beings (human and non-human) has an innate value.
• Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity, except when it is occasionally compelled to satisfy
vital human needs.
• The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease in the global population.
The flourishing of nonhuman life requires such a decrease.
• The appreciation of a high quality of life will have to supersede that of a high material standard of life (as
measured by economic and materialistic criteria).
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1.3.3 Sustainable Environment

A healthy environment is the solid foundation on which the system of a country depends. Therefore, it cannot
and should not be tampered with. The essential role that ecosystems play in supporting our society establishes an
environment that must be respected in all land, resource and economic decisions. Our priority must, in all situations,
be to maintain and retain natural systems for present and future generations through the following steps:
• Conserve life-support services: Certain ecological processes sustain productivity, adaptability and capacity for the
renewal of lands, water, air and all the life on earth. These processes include maintaining the chemical balance
of the planet, stabilising the climate, recycling nutrients, breaking down pollutants and cleansing air and water,
stabilising water flow, forming and regenerating soil and supplying food and a suitable habitat for all species.
• Conserve biological diversity in genes, species and ecosystems: This incorporates the total amount of plant,
animal and other species that constitute the planet earth; the variety of different genetic stocks in each species
and the variety of different ecosystems. There are three reasons for conserving the diversity of nature as a
matter of principle, all species have a right to exist by virtue of their intrinsic value; as a matter of survival, the
diversity of life is a requisite for optimising the biotic and abiotic conditions for the continuation of life and as
a matter of economic benefit, diversity of nature is the ultimate source of everything, including food, shelter
and other resources. Hence, we must strive to respect the integrity of natural systems and to restore previously
degraded environments.
• Attempt to anticipate and prevent adverse environmental impacts: When making land and resource decisions,
one must adopt a precautionary approach, exercise caution and special concern for natural values and appreciate
the fact that human understanding of nature is incomplete.
• Practice full cost accounting: We have to make sure that environmental and social costs are included in the
process of maintaining the ecosystems and the people concerned need to account for land, resource use, species
depletion and economic decisions.
• Recognise our responsibility to protect the global environment: We must exercise stewardship, reduce
consumption to sustainable levels, avoid importing or exporting ecological stresses and help meet the global
challenge of sustainably supporting the human population.
• Respect the intrinsic value of nature: Environment must be protected for human consumption and enjoyment.
We should not take undue advantage of the environment that we possess today and ruin it or create a worse one
for the future generations; that will lead to our downfall and degradation, as a society.
This is imperative for ecological and societal sustainability as well. In the last century, the planetary population
quadrupled beyond the figure reached by our species in the previous 3 million years or more. It will grow six-fold
in the next half century. This is a major alarm considering the argument that the human impact on the ecosystems
of the planet is obtained by the number of people multiplied by how much energy and raw materials each person
and social group uses and wastes.
There will be a small chunk of people consuming a lot or a lot of people consuming a little. Though the earth’s ability
to restore itself and absorb wastes can be enhanced by careful management, there is a limit. It is crucial to know the
optimal population that the planet can support. Although we have yet to determine these precise confines, there are
clear indicators of what can and cannot be done and what stage human society has scaled today. Unfortunately for
us, the signs are not that heartening.
Sustainable aquaculture development

Aquaculture is currently contributing and will continue to contribute, a major share in boosting global fish production
and in meeting the rising demand for fishery products. A recent session of the FAO Committee on Fisheries (COFI)
stressed the increasingly important and complementary role of aquaculture and inland capture fisheries in fish
production for human nutrition and poverty alleviation in many rural areas.
Aquaculture, just like all other food production practices, is facing challenges for sustainable development. Most aqua-
farmers, like their terrestrial counterparts, are continuously pursuing ways and means of improving their production
practices, so that they are more efficient and cost-effective. Awareness of potential environmental problems has
developed significantly. Efforts are underway to further improve human-capacity, resource-use and environmental
management in aquaculture. COFI emphasised enhancement of inland fish production through farming systems that
integrated aquaculture and agriculture and integrated utilisation of small and medium-size water bodies.
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Integrated aquaculture has a variety of benefits for farmers in addition to the production of fish for consumption or
sale. In Asia, for example, rice farmers use certain species of fish to fight rice pests such as the golden snail. With
rice-fish farming, they boost their rice yields and harvest the fish. Under FAO’s Special Programme for Food Security
(SPFS), farmers in Zambia are introducing small ponds into their home gardens for irrigation and aquaculture. Mud
residing at the bottom of fishponds is also found to be an organic mineral-rich fertilizer. In traditional, exclusive
aquaculture, fish can be bred in open waters, such as lakes, estuaries or coastal bays, where they feed on naturally
available nutrients or in farm ponds, where they can be fed with by-products from the farm. In China, more than
five species of carp are traditionally bred jointly to make the best use of feeds and ponds.
The promotion of sustainable aquaculture development calls for creation and maintenance of ‘enabling environments’,
more specifically those environments, which focus on ensuring uninterrupted human resource development and
capacity building. The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries enlists principles and provisions in support
of sustainable aquaculture development. The Code recognises Special Requirements of Developing Countries and
its Article 5 addresses these specific needs, especially in the areas of financial and technical-assistance, technology-
transfer, training and scientific cooperation.
1.3.4 The Notion of Capital in Sustainable Development

The sustainable development debate is based on the premise that societies require the management of three types of
capital (economic, social and natural), which may be non-substitutable and whose consumption might be irreversible.
Daly (1991), for example, points to the fact that natural capital cannot necessarily be substituted by economic capital.
It is possible that we can find ways to replace some natural resources. However, isn’t it much more likely that we
will never be able to replace eco-system services such as the protection provided by the ozone layer or the climate
stabilising function of the Amazonian forest? In fact, natural capital, social capital and economic capital are often
complementary to each other; they function collectively. A further obstacle to substitutability lies also in the multi-
functionality of many natural resources. Forests, for example, not only provide the raw material for paper (which
can be substituted quite easily), but they also maintain biodiversity, regulate water flow and absorb CO2 (which is
not always substitutable).
Another problem with the deterioration of natural and social capital lies in their partial irreversibility. The loss in
biodiversity, for example, is often definite. The same can be true for cultural diversity. For example, with rapid
spread of globalisation, the rates of dropping of indigenous languages are alarming. Moreover, the depletion of
natural and social capital may have non-linear consequences. Consumption of natural and social capital may have
no observable impact until a certain threshold is reached. A lake can, for example, absorb nutrients for a long time
while actually increasing its productivity. However, once an optimum level of algae is reached, lack of oxygen will
cause the lake’s ecosystem to break down all of a sudden.
Market failure
If the degradation of natural and social capital has such conspicuous consequence, the question naturally arises as
to why action is not taken more systematically to alleviate the same. Cohen and Winn (2007) point to the following
four types of market failures as possible explanations:
• While the benefits of natural or social capital depletion can usually be privatised, the costs are often externalised
(i.e., they are borne not by the party responsible, but by society in general).
• Natural capital is often undervalued by society, since we are not fully conversant with the real cost of depletion
of natural capital.
• Information asymmetry, which is the link between a cause and its effects, is often obscured, making it difficult
for actors to make informed choices.
• Cohen and Winn close with the fourth realisation that contrary to the economic theory, many firms are not
perfect optimisers. They postulate that firms often do not optimise resource allocation because they are caught
in a ‘business as usual’ mentality.
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The business case for sustainable development

The most broadly accepted criterion for corporate sustainability constitutes a firm’s efficient use of natural capital.
This eco-efficiency is usually calculated as the economic value added by a firm in relation to its aggregated ecological
impact. This idea has been popularised by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)
under the following definition, “Eco-efficiency is achieved by the delivery of competitively-priced goods and
services that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life, while progressively reducing ecological impacts and
resource intensity throughout the life-cycle to a level at least in line with the earth’s carrying capacity”, (DeSimone
and Popoff, 1997: 47).
The second criterion for corporate sustainability is similar to the eco-efficiency concept but much less explored so
far; it is called socio-efficiency. Socio-efficiency elucidates the relation between a firm’s value-added as well as social
impact. Whereas, it can be assumed that most corporate impacts on the environment are detrimental and negative
(apart from rare exceptions, such as the planting of trees), this is not true of social impacts. Social impacts might be
positive (e.g., corporate giving, creation of employment) or negative (e.g., work accidents, mobbing of employees,
human rights abuses). Depending on the type of impact, socio-efficiency tries to minimise negative social impacts
or maximise positive social impacts in relation to the value added.
Both eco-efficiency and socio-efficiency are concerned predominantly with augmenting economic sustainability. In
this process, they instrumentalise both natural and social capital, aiming to extract benefits from win-win situations.
However, as Dyllick and Hockerts point out, the business case will not be the lone factor sufficient to materialise
sustainable development. These researchers point to eco-effectiveness, socio-effectiveness, sufficiency and eco-
equity as the four criteria that need to be fulfilled if sustainable development is to be achieved.
1.3.5 Critique of the Concept of Sustainable Development

The concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ gives rise to enormous critique at different levels, which is explained
in the paragraphs below.
Purpose
Various writers have put their finger on the population control agenda that apparently underlies the concept of
sustainable development. Maria Sophia Aguirre writes, “Sustainable development is a policy approach that has gained
quite a lot of popularity in recent years, especially in international circles. By attaching a specific interpretation to
sustainability, population-control policies have become an overriding approach to development, thus becoming the
primary tool used to ‘promote’ economic development in developing countries and to protect the environment.”
Mary Jo Anderson suggests that the real purpose of sustainable development is to contain and limit economic
development in developing countries and in so doing, control population growth. There has been a suggestion that
this is the reason behind low-income agriculture still being considered the focus of most programmes. Joan Veon,
a businesswoman and international reporter, who covered 64 global meetings on sustainable development, posits
that, “Sustainable development has continued to evolve as that of protecting the world’s resources, while its true
agenda is to control the world’s resources. It should be noted that Agenda 21 sets up the global infrastructure needed
to manage, count and control all of the world’s assets.”
Consequences
John Baden views the notion of sustainable development as dangerous because the consequences have unknown
effects. He writes, “In economy like in ecology, the interdependence rule applies. Isolated actions are impossible. A
policy which is not carefully enough thought will carry along various perverse and adverse effects for the ecology
as much as for the economy. Many suggestions to save our environment and to promote a model of ‘sustainable
development’ risk indeed leading to reverse effects.” Moreover, he evokes the bounds of public action, which
are underlined by the public choice theory: the quest by politicians of their own interests, lobby pressure, partial
disclosure, etc.
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He develops his critique by noting the vagueness of the expression, which can cover anything: It is a gateway to
interventionist proceedings which can be against the principle of freedom and without proven efficacy. Against this
notion, he is a proponent of private property to impel the producers and the consumers to save the natural resources.
According to Baden, “the improvement of environment quality depends on the market economy and the existence
of legitimate and protected property rights.” They enable the effective practice of personal responsibility and the
development of mechanisms to protect the environment. The State can, in this context, “create conditions which
encourage the people to save the environment.”
Vagueness of the term

Some criticise the term ‘sustainable development’, stating that the term is too vague. For example, both Jean-Marc
Jancovici and the philosopher Luc Ferry express this view. The latter writes about sustainable development, “I know
that this term is obligatory, but I find it also absurd or rather so vague that it says nothing.” Luc Ferry adds that
the term is trivial by a proof of contradiction, “who would like to be a proponent of an untenable development! Of
course no one! The term is more charming than meaningful. Everything must be done so that it does not turn into
Russian-type administrative planning with ill-effects.”
Basis
Sylvie Brunel, French geographer and specialist of the Third World, in his ‘A qui profite le développement durable
(Who benefits from sustainable development?)’ (2008)’ develops a critique of the foundation of the very concept of
sustainable development, with its binary vision of the world. He proposes that it can be compared to the Christian
vision of Good and Evil, an idealised nature where the human being is an animal like the others or even an alien.
Nature, as Rousseau propounded is better than the human being. It is a parasite, harmful for the nature. However,
the human is the one who protects the biodiversity, where normally only the strong survive.
Moreover, she believes that the ideas of sustainable development can hide a will to protectionism from the developed
country to impede the development of the other countries. For Sylvie Brunel, sustainable development serves as a
pretext for protectionism and she has “… the feeling about sustainable development that it is perfectly helping out
the capitalism.”
The proponents of de-growth reckon that the term ‘sustainable development’ is an oxymoron. According to them,
on a planet where 20% of the population consumes 80% of the natural resources, sustainable development cannot
be possible for this 20%. “According to the origin of the concept of sustainable development, a development which
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, the
right term for the developed countries should be a sustainable de-growth.”
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Summary
• Over ages, man, with his desirable and non-desirable activities, has affected the environment unquestionably
and sometimes irrevocably.
• The concept of environment management is the offspring of this widespread awareness about the human impact
on the environment.
• Environmental management involves the wise use of activity and resources to impact the world.
• Many organisations develop a management plan or system to implement, manage and maintain environmental
goals.
• Technological optimism evident in the west, chiefly from the 1830s onwards and articulated in natural resources
management, weakened somewhat after 1945 since environmental issues became a prime concern in people’s
consciousness (Mitchell, 1997).
• Natural resources managers usually hail from a narrow range of disciplines, characteristically with limited
sociological and environmental proficiency.
• Environmental management is a way to reach out for environmental conservation, which consolidates ecology,
policy-making, planning and social development.
• Environmental management system (EMS) refers to the management of an organisation’s environmental
programmes in a comprehensive, systematic, planned and documented manner.
• Sustainable development embraces the prime, interdependent and indivisible areas of environmental protection,
economic development and social development.
• The Brundtland Commission, formerly the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED),
was convened by the United Nations in 1983.
• A healthy environment is the solid foundation on which the system of a country depends.
• Both eco-efficiency and socio-efficiency are concerned predominantly with augmenting economic
sustainability.
• Sustainable development has continued to evolve as that of protecting the world’s resources while its true agenda
is to control the world’s resources. It should be noted that Agenda 21 sets up the global infrastructure needed
to manage, count and control all of the world’s assets.
References
• Environmental Management. [Pdf] Available at: <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1
97.5646&rep=rep1&type=pdf> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Environmental Management. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/123632/09-
resource-exploration-draft-chapter6.pdf> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Uberoi, N. K. , 2004. Environmental Management. Excel Books India, New Delhi.
• Schaltegger, S., Burritt, R. and Petersen, H., 2003. An Introduction to Corporate Environmental Management:
Striving for Sustainability. Greenleaf Publishing, U.K.
• Principles of Management - Lecture 03. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=I24aWrKFdFQ> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Law 271: Environmental Law and Policy - Lecture 1. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=o2ZJuNcp-d0&list=PLD04A1EB11677737B> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
Recommended Reading
• Asolekar, S. R. and Gopichandran, R., 2005. Preventive Environmental Management. Foundation Books, New
Delhi.
• Agarwal, S. K., 2005. Environmental Management. APH Publishing, New Delhi.
• Barrow, C. J., 1999. Environmental Management: Principles and Practice. Psychology Press, N . Y.
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Self Assessment
1. The concept of environment management is the offspring of this widespread awareness about the human
________ on the environment.
a. being
b. impact
c. behaviour
d. race
2. Environmental management involves the wise use of activity and resources to impact the_________.
a. nation
b. country
c. world
d. state
3. Which of the following was evident, chiefly from the 1830s onwards and articulated in natural resources
management, weakened somewhat after 1945, since environmental issues became a prime concern in people’s
consciousness (Mitchell, 1997)?
a. Scientific research evident in the west
b. Industrial success evident in the east
c. Logical practice evident in the west
d. Technological optimism evident in the west
4. Match the following

A. Embraces the prime, interdependent and indivisible areas of
1. Sustainability environmental protection, economic development and social
development.
B. It should strive to assimilate or process the waste associated with
2. Sustainable development
such activity.
3. Inspire diversified economic

C. It means the capacity to endure.
development
4. Inspire attitudinal and D. Development that augments employment and other benefits derived
behavioural change from a given stock of resources should be prioritised.
a. 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4-B
b. 1-A, 2-C, 3-B, 4-D
c. 1-B, 2-D, 3-C, 4-A
d. 1-D, 2-B, 3-A, 4-C
5. When and who thought that the environmental manager ought to be capable to control both social institutions
as well as suitable technologies, however should execute these with the perception of an artist, understanding
of a poet and, maybe, the ethical purity and willpower of a pious devotee?
a. In 1985, Laurence Sewell (1965: ix)
b. In 1915, Laurence Sewell (1915: ix)
c. In 1975, Laurence Sewell (1975: ix)
d. In 1965, Laurence Sewell (1940: ix)
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6. Which of the following is a way to reach out for environmental conservation, which consolidates ecology, policy
making, planning and social development?
a. Sustainable development
b. Environmental management
c. Sustainable
d. Natural resources management
7. Which of the following statement is false?

a. There is a precise universal definition of environmental management.
b. Environmental management is mostly used as a generic term.
c. Environmental management supports sustainable development.
d. Environmental management encompasses various paradigms of development.
8. What refers to the management of an organisation’s environmental programmes in a comprehensive, systematic,

planned and documented manner?
b. Sustainable Economy
c. Human system
d. Environmental management system (EMS)
9. Which of the following statement is true?

a. An environment serves as a tool to improve environmental performance.
b. An environmental management system (EMS) serves as a tool to improve environmental performance..
c. An important management system (IMS) serves as a tool to improve environmental performance.
d. An environmental management source (EMS) serves as a tool to improve environmental performance.
10. The concept of ‘____________’ gives rise to enormous critique at different levels.
b. Environmental management
c. Human system
d. Healthy environment
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Chapter II
Energy Management
Aim
• introduce energy management
• explain fundamentals of energy management
• explicate fossil fuel use
Objectives
• enlist home energy management
• elucidate energy production and trade
• explain energy balance ecosystem concepts
Learning outcome
• identify the types of fossil fuel energy
• understand the benefits and limitations of fossil fuels
• define competency-based strategies
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2.1 Introduction
‘Energy management’ is a term that has many pronged implications. However, our focus will be directed at saving
energy in businesses, public-sector/government organisations and homes.
Meaning of energy-saving
With respect to energy-saving, energy management is the process of monitoring, controlling and conserving energy
in a building or organisation. Characteristically, it is inclusive of the following steps:
• Metering energy consumption and collecting data.
• Discerning ways and options to save energy and estimating how much energy can be saved by managing to do
all of this.
• Analysing meter data to determine, quantify routine energy waste, and investigate energy savings that you
could make by replacing equipment (e.g., lighting) or by upgrading your building’s insulation are examples of
energy management.
• Taking action to target the opportunities to save energy (i.e., tackling the routine waste and replacing or upgrading
the inefficient equipment).
• You would typically commence with the best opportunities first.
• Tracking progress by analysing meter data to see how well your energy-saving efforts have worked.
2.2 Energy Management

Many people use ‘energy management’ to refer specifically to those energy-saving efforts that focus on making
better use of existing buildings and equipment. Strictly speaking, this limits the scope of energy management to
behavioural aspects of energy-saving, although the use of cheap control equipments, such as timer switches is often
included in the definition as well.
2.2.1 Fundamentals of Energy Management

The term ‘energy management’ does not pertain to saving energy in buildings alone, it is also employed in other
fields. The features of energy management are as follows:
• Energy management is undertaken by energy suppliers (or utility companies) in order to ensure that their power
stations and renewable energy sources generate adequate energy to fulfill demand (the amount of energy that
their customers need).
• Energy management is used to allude to techniques for managing and controlling one’s own level of personal
energy.
• It also has relevance in aviation, as energy management is a skill that aircraft pilots learn in some shape.
2.2.2 Home Energy Management

Most people desire that the home energy-management system should afford description of the amount of energy
being consumed, techniques to make their home energy efficient or tools to manage their energy needs without
compromising on quality.
A good home energy-management system should possess the following qualities:

• Simplicity: Many people want the system to demonstrate daily energy consumption. They want to know how
much energy they will conserve by switching off major home appliances like refrigerators, heating and air-
conditioning systems. A simple and effective device is the thermostat software to automate heating and cooling.
This lowers the bills while maintaining the desired level of comfort.
• Utility-free: Some home energy management systems only work when they can be integrated with power meters
installed by electric utilities. However, there are devices, which can be used without being attached to any meter.
These are plug-in devices which can be used for household and commercial establishments and save as much
as 30% electricity. These devices optimise voltage and current demands thus reducing active power demands
and thereby saving electricity.
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• Rule setting: There are web-based interfaces, which enable control of home energy use. A consumer can allocate
and declare a certain amount of money he wants to pay for electricity. The energy management system manages
the power flow between various appliances and directs power to the appliance, which is doing important functions
at that time. For example, more power is directed to the lighting system during the night and so on.
• Remote control: Controlling home appliances remotely is the latest drift in home energy management. It is
now possible to leave an appliance on and the energy management system will switch it off at the appropriate
time. For example, the washing machine can be loaded before one leaves the house and it will be automatically
switched off. Switching on the AC or heater before one reaches home can be done remotely. Mobile applications
which allow one to switch on and off the appliances from the phone are being designed. Simple measures like
adding insulation, tinting of window glass, using skylight for illumination, CFL bulbs and solar heaters conserve
huge amounts of energy.
Importance of energy management

Energy management is the answer to energy conservation and economical use of money. Keeping in view the global
need to save energy, energy conservation at home is of great importance. This global need affects energy prices,
emissions targets and legislation, all of which lead to several compelling reasons why one should save energy.
Controlling and reducing home energy consumption is important, because it enables the following:
• Reduction in costs: This is gaining importance as energy costs rise.
• Reduction is carbon emissions and environmental damage: This mitigates environmental damage as well as the
cost-related implications of carbon taxes and so on. Organisations can reduce their carbon footprints to promote
a green, sustainable and healthy environment.
• Reduce risks: The more energy is consumed, the greater the risk that energy price increases or supply shortages
could seriously affect the day-to-day working of the household. With energy management, one can condense
this risk by reducing demand for energy and by controlling it to make it more predictable.
The global need to save energy

The term ‘energy management’ has come to the forefront because of a global immediate need to save energy. The
environmental damage that this consumption is doing is tremendous. The main reasons for energy conservation are
as follows: Globally, we need to save energy to achieve the following:
• Reduce the damage to the planet due to human activities. Earth has limited supply of resources and it is important
to make these resources last.
• Reduce our dependence on fossil fuels that are becoming increasingly limited in supply.
2.2.3 Controlling and Reducing Energy Consumption in Organisation

Energy management is the means of controlling and reducing your organisation’s energy consumption. This is of
pivotal importance since it enables organisations to achieve the following:
• Reduce costs: This is becoming increasingly important as energy costs are on the rise.
• Reduce carbon emissions: It is necessary to reduce carbon emissions owing to the environmental damage that they
cause. Another aspect of increased carbon emissions is cost-related implications of carbon taxes. Organisations
look forward to maintaining a minimal carbon footprint in order to promote a green, sustainable image, which
would help that organisation achieve better social acceptance.
• Reduce risks: Energy consumption is directly proportional to risk or rising prices and inversely proportional to
supply. Moreover, if there is risk of increase of energy price or shortage of supply, it could have a negative impact
on profitability. It may even put the future of the business/organisation in jeopardy. With energy management,
you can reduce this risk by reducing your demand for energy and by controlling it in order to make it more
predictable.
Energy management is vital since it will help the company at various points. In the present scenario, it is probable
that there will be an aggressive energy-consumption reduction target in the near future. An understanding of effective
energy management would prove useful in meeting those targets.
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2.2.4 Best Ways to Manage Energy Consumption

There are four integral steps to the energy-management process, which have been discussed below.
Metering your energy consumption and collecting the data

As a rule of thumb, extensive and detailed data is most beneficial. The old school approach to energy-data collection
is to take meter readings once a week or once a month manually. However, this poses difficulty since; it is a less
efficient way of collecting data as compared to data that is made available easily and automatically from the modern
approach. The modern approach to energy-data collection is to install interval metering systems that automatically
measure and record energy consumption at short, regular intervals, such as every 15-minute or half hour.
Detailed interval energy consumption data allows one to see patterns of energy waste that would be impossible to
see otherwise. For example, weekly or monthly meter readings cannot show the consumption of energy at different
times of the day or on different days of the week. In addition, these patterns make it much easier to determine if
energy is being wasted or is not being utilised properly in your building.
Finding and quantifying opportunities to save energy

The detailed meter data will be invaluable for determining and quantifying energy-saving opportunities. The easiest
and most cost-effective energy-saving opportunities typically require little or no capital investment.For example,
many companies and private households possess advanced control systems that could and should, be controlling
HVAC (Heating Ventilation Air conditioning). However, the lack of knowledge of the facilities-management staff
may result in wastage of energy while heating or cooling an empty building.
One of the simplest ways to save a significant amount of energy is to encourage staff to switch off equipments at the
end of each working day. Examining detailed interval energy data is the ideal way to locate routine energy waste.
This can be used to unearth whether the staff and electronic timers are conserving energy. This saves the owner
trouble in terms of personal patrolling. This enables the employer to establish who or what is causing the energy
wastage. In addition, detailed interval data, is crucial in identifying the amount of energy being wasted at different
times. For example, if it is identified that energy is being wasted by equipment left on over the weekends, one can
take the following steps:
• Use interval data to calculate how much energy (in kWh) is being used each weekend.
• Estimate the proportion of the energy that is being wasted (by equipment that should be switched off).
• Calculate an estimate of the total kWh that is wasted each weekend.
• Alternatively, if you are unaware of the proportion of energy that is being wasted by the equipment left on
unnecessarily, one could visit the building one evening to ensure that everything that should be switched off is
switched off.
• Look back at the data for that evening to see how many kW were being used after you switched everything
off.
• Subtract the target kW figure (b) from the typical kW figure for weekends to estimate the potential savings in
kW (power).
• Multiply the kW savings by the number of hours over the weekend to get the total potential kWh energy savings
for a weekend.
Targeting the opportunities to save energy

Finding opportunities to save energy is not the sole answer to energy conservation. For those energy-saving
opportunities that require you to motivate people to save energy, it is important to comprehend how systems work
and how they make the planet a better place to stay in. It may require hard work, but if you can convince people,
saving energy will be achievable without investing anything other than time.
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Tracking your progress at saving energy
Once you have taken action to save energy, it is important to take feedback about the following actions and determine
the efficacy of your actions:
• Energy savings that stem from behavioural changes (e.g., getting people to switch off their computers before going
home) need frequent attention to ensure that they remain effective and achieve their maximum potential.
• If you have invested money in new equipment, you may want to determine whether the energy savings you
predicted have been achieved.
• If you have corrected faulty timers or control-equipment settings, you would need to keep checking back to
ensure that everything is still working as it should be. Simple things like a power cut can easily cause timers to
revert to factory settings, if you are not keeping an eye on your energy-consumption patterns, you can easily
miss such problems.
• If you have been given energy-saving targets, then you will need to provide evidence that you are either meeting
these goals or making progress towards these goals.
2.2.5 Managing Energy Consumption Effectively: An Ongoing Process

Continuous monitoring of data is necessary to ensure that there is no hindrance or decline in energy conservation.
If consumption is not being monitored accurately, it will not work as energy consumption will not work efficiently
and in due course it will lead to an increase in the wastage of energy, and more energy. It is to be expected that the
equipment will break down or lose efficiency and that people will forget the good habits you worked hard on to
encourage in the past.
Therefore, at a minimum, monthly or weekly monitoring of energy data is advisable to ensure that nothing has
gone wrong. It is unfortunate when easy-to-fix faults such as misconfigured timers remain unnoticed for months on
end, resulting in a huge energy bill that could have easily been avoided. Ideally, the energy-management drive is an
ongoing effort to find new opportunities (step 1), to target them (step 2) and to track progress at making ongoing
energy savings (step 3). Managing energy consumption does not have to be a full-time job, but will achieve much
better results, if it is made a part of regular routine
2.3 Fossil Fuel Use

Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural resources through processes, such as anaerobic decomposition of buried
dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years and sometimes
exceeds 650 million years. The fossil fuels include coal, petroleum and natural gas, which contain high percentages
of carbon.
Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon: hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to
nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon
fields alone, associated with oil or in the form of methane clathrates. It is generally accepted that they are formed
from the fossilised remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth’s crust over
millions of years.
2.3.1 Characteristics, Origin, Applications and Effects

Human beings need energy for most of their activities. Energy is needed for domestic, industrial and agriculture use.
This is an industrial process, which can be performed using various sources. These sources can be either renewable or
non-renewable. Renewable energy is the energy that can be reutilised by various and can be renewed will therefore
not run out easily. However, non-renewable energy sources are limited and there is a threat that they will run out,
if they are not used sparingly.
Nowadays many renewable energy sources are available for use, for example, solar and wind energy and water
power. Ironically, we still gain most of our energy from non-renewable energy sources, commonly known as fossil
fuels. The non-renewability of these sources collaterally increased the price of these fuels and it is anticipated that
such rates of fuel will rise to a point where they are no longer economically feasible.
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Fossil fuels comprise deposits of once-living organisms. The organic matter undergoes various transformations
through the ages and takes centuries to form. Fossil fuels principally consist of carbon and hydrogen bonds. There
are three types of fossil fuels, which can all be used for energy provision, coal, oil and natural gas. Coal is a solid
fossil fuel formed over millions of years by decay of land vegetation. When layers are compacted and heated over
time, deposits are turned into coal. Coal is relatively abundant compared to the other two fossil fuels. Analysts predict
that worldwide coal-use will increase as oil supplies become scarcer. Current coal supplies could last for 200 years
or more. Coal is usually found in mines where it is mined with a great deal of difficulty. Since the middle of the
20th century, coal-usage has doubled. Since 1996, its application has been on a steady. Many developing countries
have to depend on coal for their energy needs because it is a more economical alternative to oil and natural gas. The
characteristics of oil and natural gas are as follows:
• Oil: Oil is fossil fuel formed from the remains of marine microorganisms deposited on the sea floor. Over a
span of millions of years, these deposits that lie under rock and sediment turn into oil. This oil can be extracted
by large drilling platforms. Oil is the most widely used fossil fuel. Crude oil consists of many different organic
compounds, which are transformed into products in a refining process. Oil is used for energy for various purposes
like cars, jets, roads and so on. However, oil reserves are not abundant. Many wars have been fought over oil
supplies. A well-known example is the Gulf War of 1991. Oil is mainly found in countries like Russia, Saudi
Arabia, Nigeria, Venezuela, Iraq, Iran and the USA.
• Natural gas: A gaseous fossil fuel, which is multipurpose, abundant and relatively clean when compared to coal
and oil. Like oil, it is formed from the remains of marine microorganisms. It is a relatively new type of energy
source. Until 1999, more coal was used than natural gas. Natural gas has now overtaken coal in developed
countries. However, people are afraid that, like oil, natural gas supplies will run out. It is also estimated by some
scientists that it may happen by the middle or end of the 21st century. Natural gas mainly consists of methane
(CH4). Natural gas is found in highly compressed form in small volumes at large depths in the earth. Like oil,
it is brought to the surface by drilling. Natural gas reserves are more evenly distributed around the globe than
oil supplies.
Global energy consumption by fuel type (2001)
9% Oil
6% Coal
Natural gas
38%
Nuclearpower
Renewables
23%
24%
Fig. 2.1 Global energy consumption by fuel type

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Energy gained from burning fossil fuels is converted to electricity and heat in commercial power plants. When fossil
fuels are burned, carbon and hydrogen react with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
During this reaction, heat is released which further amplifies the reaction. Electricity is generated by transforming
mechanical energy (heat) to electrical energy in a turbine or generator. Though the investment, in terms of time and
money, required to build a power plant is very high, yet the efficiency in converting fuel to energy is very high. It
is common for surplus electricity to be created. Electricity demands vary throughout the year and provision must
meet the peak, i.e., the highest possible demand within a year. If demands are higher than the supply, it will cause
temporary blackouts, as there will be not enough electricity to be supplied throughout the year. An example of this
is India, where this is a common occurrence.
Historically, fossil fuels were available in abundance and were easy to obtain and transport. Today, there is growing
awareness that the supply is running out and that it will take centuries to be replenished. Both sources and sinks of
fossil fuels are limiting in their use. Sources are deep layers in the earth and sinks are, for example, air and water,
which absorb fossil fuel waste products.
However, use of fossil fuels leads to negative environmental repercussion in terms of pollution. Examples are
greenhouse gas accumulation, acidification, air pollution, water pollution, damage to land surface and ground-level
ozone. Sulphur and nitrogen, which are inherent in fossil fuel structures combine with oxygen during the process
of combustion and for noxious gases like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide and so on. When these gases mix with
water, they form acids, which is detrimental to human and animal health. It also causes damage to property. 30%
of all carbon dioxide emissions in the air are attributed to carbon combustion. Natural gas does not release as much
carbon dioxide because of its methane structure. Coal combustion results in the highest number of emissions in the
world. Coal may result in underground fires that are virtually impossible to extinguish. Coal dust can also explode.
The precarious nature of coal mining makes it a dangerous profession. Oil on the other hand, may end up in soil
or water in its raw form, for example, during oil spills or wars. Such oil spills are damaging for marine flora and
fauna.
Even with such potentially detrimental repercussions, fossil fuels continue to be used. They are a preferred source
of energy, since renewable sources of energy have higher generation and maintenance costs. Renewable energy is
very expensive as compared to non-renewable energy and its use can only be sustained if supported by government
grants. Some environmental scientists predict that fossil fuel prices will increase in the coming century because of
their scarcity. This may cause an ensuing transfer to renewable energy sources. According to Bjorn Lomborg, this
situation is inexorable. This is only one of the perspectives on the future of fossil fuel use. Some maintain that fossil
fuels cannot be entirely replaced by renewable sources of energy.
2.3.2 Importance
Fossil fuel is accorded immense importance since its combustion produces significant amounts of energy. The use
of coal as a fuel predates recorded history. Coal was employed to run furnaces for the melting of metal ore. Semi-
solid hydrocarbons from seeps were used as fuel, for waterproofing and embalming.
Commercial exploitation of petroleum as a replacement for animal fat in oil lamps began in the nineteenth century.
Natural gas, once flared-off as an unneeded byproduct of petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable
resource. Heavy crude oil, which is much more viscous than conventional crude oil and tar sands, where bitumen
is found mixed with sand and clay, is considered an important source of fossil fuel. Oil shale and similar materials
are sedimentary rocks containing kerogen, a complex mixture of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which
yield synthetic crude oil when heated (pyrolyzed). These materials are yet to be exploited commercially. These fuels
are employed in internal combustion engines, fossil fuel power stations and other uses.
Prior to the latter half of the eighteenth century, windmills or watermills provided energy required for industry, such
as mills and for other uses such as sawing wood, pumping water and burning wood or peat for domestic heat. The
wide-scale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, to fire steam engines, enabled the Industrial Revolution.
This was accompanied by use of gaslights that required natural gas or coal gas for lighting. The invention of the
internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the demand for gasoline and
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diesel oil, both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation, railways and aircraft, also required fossil fuels.
The other foremost use for fossil fuels is in generating electricity and the petrochemical industry. Tar, a leftover of
petroleum extraction, is used in the construction of roads.
Uses of fossil fuels

‘Fossil fuels’ is the name given to a group of substances believed to have been formed by the decomposition of plant
and animal matter under intense pressure and heat over hundreds of millions of years. The key forms of fossil fuels
are coal, oil and natural gas. According to the Department of Energy, fossil fuels are used for more than 85 percent
of all energy consumption in the U.S.
• Electricity: Fossil fuels, particularly coal, are used in power plants for electricity production.
• Transportation: While there has been some transition toward hybrid and electric vehicles, the vast majority of
vehicles require fossil fuels to operate.
• Heating: Most heating needs are met through fossil fuel-based heating oil and natural gas or indirectly through
fossil fuel-generated electricity.
• Cooling: Like heating, most cooling systems rely directly or indirectly on fossil fuel provided energy.
• Considerations: While fossil fuels are the core source of current energy production, they are considered a
limited, nonrenewable and polluting energy source. These factors will ultimately require the development of
large-scale alternatives.
Fossil fuel energy

The types of fossil fuel energy are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Oil
Oil is a thick, black, viscous liquid that is also called petroleum. It is found deep below the earth’s surface, usually
between layers of rock. Oil mining entails digging of oil well, pumping of oil and the subsequent shipping of oil.
Oil that is pumped out is carried in pipelines and large tanker ships. A refinery changes the oil into products like
gasoline, jet fuel and diesel fuel. It is also burned in factories and power plants to produce electricity. When the oil
is burned, it produces gases that make a turbine turn in order to create electricity.
Natural gas
Natural gas is lighter than air. Its main component is methane, which is a simple chemical compound made up of
carbon and hydrogen atoms. This gas is highly inflammable. Natural gas reserves are found near oil reserves in
the ground. The process of extraction of natural gas is similar to that of oil. Natural gas is obtained by pumping it
from the ground and transporting it through large pipelines. Natural gas is mixed with a chemical in order to give
it a distinct smell like rotten eggs as it is not possible to differentiate between the gas and the environment. This is
done to ensure detection in instances of gas leaks. This odour infused gas is then utilised for industrial and domestic
use. It is also used to generate electricity. Natural gas is burned to produce heat, which boils water, creating steam,
which passes through a turbine to generate electricity.
Coal
Coal comes in several different forms ranging from hard black rocks to soft brown dirt. There are different grades
of coal and a few grades will burn hotter and cleaner than others. Coal is used to create more than half of all the
electricity made in the US. In some states, many coal beds are located near the surface. Coal is extracted by mining.
It is usually transported by trains to power plants where it is burned to produce steam. The steam turns turbines
which produce electricity.
Benefits of fossil fuels

One of the biggest benefits of fossil fuels is their cost. Coal, oil and natural gas are abundant today and are relatively
inexpensive to drill or mine. In fact, coal is the only fossil fuel that is found everywhere in abundance when compared
to other fossil fuels which are not found in most parts of the world. Thus, electricity and fuels for transportation and
heating are available to everyone because their costs are contained.
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Limitations of fossil fuels
The limitations of fossil fuels are listed as follows:
• Non-renewable resource: Fossil fuels are a non-renewable resource. Fossil fuels take millions of years to develop
under extreme conditions. Once they are used, they can no longer be a part of our energy mix.
• Environmental impact: Fossil fuel combustion has a negative environmental impact. Its use has contributed
to global climate change, acid rain and ozone problems. There are new technologies under development that
could help in making fossil fuels much more efficient and cleaner. These technologies could keep fossil fuels
in the energy mix for the future.
• Geographical considerations: Controlling fossil fuel resources is of pivotal importance since these fuels play
an important role in powering our lifestyles and economy. The United States is one of the countries that have
large amounts of deposits of coal, which is one of the main fuels for electricity generation. The biggest supply
of oil is not in the US, but in the Middle East. Any disruptions in that supply or increase in the cost of that
supply could have huge effects on the daily lives of its citizens. Shipping the oil across the ocean can lead to
other risks such as oil spills.
• Supply and demand: The reason fossil fuels are mainly relied on is due to its supply and demand. Coal is
currently an abundant resource and the US government continues efforts to keep a steady supply of oil flowing
to the United States, which has ensured it feasibility for consumers.
India has a very limited supply of fossil fuels and it forms a large part of India’s imports, specially the crude oil. While
the US has considerable deposits of coal and natural gas, most oil is imported. The overwhelming dependence on
foreign oil, as a nation means that it is not in control of the price or amounts available, which can lead to problems
like the energy crisis of the 1970s. During this time, the US foreign sources of oil declined to trade with them for
political reasons. Gasoline was rationed. There were long queues to purchase small quantities of gasoline. Rampant
corruption and black marketing for those products ensued. People with odd and even numbered license plates could
purchase gas only on certain days. Americans became aware of how much they relied on foreign sources of oil.
However, since then, their dependence on foreign oil has increased, not decreased.
2.4 Energy Production and Trade

The transformation of energy in an ecosystem begins first with the input of energy from the sun. The process of
photosynthesis captures energy from the sun. Carbon dioxide is combined with hydrogen (derived from the splitting
of water molecules) to produce carbohydrates (CHO). Energy is stored in the high-energy bonds of adenosine
triphosphate or ATP.
The prophet Isaah said ‘all flesh is grass’, thereby earning him the title of the first ecologist because virtually all
energy available to organisms originates in plants. It is called primary production as it involves the first process of
converting the energy from the sun into other forms of energy. This process is termed photosynthesis. Herbivores
obtain their energy by consuming plants or plant products, carnivores eat herbivores and detritivores consume the
droppings and carcasses of us all.
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Sun
Green Primary
Plants producers
Primary
Herbivores consumers
Secondary
consumers
Carnivores Tertiary
consumers
Quaternary
consumers
Bacteria
and fungi Decomposers
Fig. 2.2 Formation of fossil fuel

Fig. 2.2 portrays a simple food chain in which energy from the sun, captured by plant photosynthesis, flows from
trophic level to trophic level via the food chain. A trophic level is composed of organisms that make a living in the
same way, i.e., they are all primary producers (plants), primary consumers (herbivores) or secondary consumers
(carnivores). Dead tissue and waste products are produced at all levels. Scavengers, detritivores and decomposers then
consume such ‘waste’. Creatures like vultures and microorganisms like bacteria are responsible for this. Consumers
of carcasses and fallen leaves may be other animals, such as crows and beetles, but ultimately microbes complete
the job of decomposition. Not surprisingly, the amount of primary production varies a great deal from place-to-place
due to differences in the amount of solar radiation and the availability of nutrients and water.
Energy transfer through the food chain is inefficient. This means that less energy is available at the herbivore level
than at the primary producer-level, less yet at the carnivore-level and so on. The result is a pyramid of energy, with
important implications for understanding the quantity of life that can be supported.
We usually assume that the food chain comprises green plants, herbivores and so on. These are referred to as grazer
food chains because living plants are directly consumed. In many circumstances, the principal energy input is not
green plants, but dead organic matter. These are called detritus food chains. Examples include the forest floor or a
woodland stream in a forested area, a salt marsh and most importantly, the ocean floor in very deep areas where all
sunlight is extinguished at depths of 1000metres and above. However, the organisation of biological systems is much
more complicated and cannot be represented by a simple ‘chain’. They are difficult to understand as well. There
are many food links and chains in an ecosystem and we refer to all of these linkages as a food web. Food webs can
be extremely complicated, where it appears that ‘everything is connected to everything else’ and it is important to
understand what the most important linkages are in any particular food web.
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2.4.1 Controls on Ecosystem Function
There are two dominant theories of the control of ecosystems. The first, called bottom-up control, states that the
nutrient supply to the primary producers that ultimately controls how ecosystems function. If the nutrient supply is
increased, the resulting increase in the production of autotrophs is propagated through the food web and all of the
other trophic levels will respond to the increased availability of food.
The second theory, called top-down control, states that predation and grazing by higher trophic levels on lower tropic
levels ultimately controls ecosystem function. For example, if you have an increase in predators, that increase will
result in fewer grazers and that decrease in grazers will result, in turn, in more primary producers because fewer of
them are being eaten by the grazers. Thus, the control of population numbers and overall productivity ‘cascades’
from the top levels of the food chain down to the bottom trophic levels.
Both the theories are accurate to some extent in various aspects and they sometimes work in tandem with each other.
Neither of them works with full authority. Well, as is often the case when there is a clear dichotomy to choose from,
the answer lies somewhere in the middle. For example, the ‘top-down’ effect is often very strong at trophic levels
near the top predators, but the control weakens as you move further down the food chain. Similarly, the ‘bottom-up’
effect of adding nutrients usually stimulates primary production, but the stimulation of secondary production further
up the food chain is less strong or is absent.
Thus, we find that both these controls operate in any system at any time and we must understand that both the systems
are important and we should not underestimate the importance of any of them. The relative importance of each
control helps us to predict how an ecosystem will behave or change under different circumstances, for example, in
the face of a changing climate, how the ecosystem will respond and how adaptations would be made accordingly.
2.4.2 The Geography of Ecosystems

There are many different ecosystems rain forests and tundra, coral reefs and ponds, grasslands and deserts. Each
of these locations has a different geography, system, human interference, etc., in them. Climate differences from
place-to-place largely determine the types of ecosystems we see. The dominant vegetation influences the appearance
of terrestrial ecosystems. The word ‘biome’ is used to depict a major vegetation type such as tropical rain forest,
grassland, tundra, etc., extending over a large geographic area. It is never used for aquatic systems, such as ponds
or coral reefs. It always alludes to a vegetation category that is dominant over a very large geographic scale and has
a wider scope than an ecosystem.
2.5 Energy Balance Ecosystem Concepts

The concepts of energy ecosystem are explained in the paragraphs given below.
2.5.1 Ecosystem
An ecosystem comprises all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving, physical components
of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight. All these organisms
along with the nonliving things create a system, which is self-working and self managing. It is all the organisms
in a given area, along with the nonliving (abiotic) factors with which they interact; a biological community and its
physical environment. The entire array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem is called a community. In a
typical ecosystem, plants and other photosynthetic organisms are the producers that provide the food. Ecosystems
can be permanent or temporary. Ecosystems usually form a number of food webs.
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An ecosystem is a functional unit consisting of living flora and fauna in a given area, non-living chemical and
physical factors of their environment linked together through nutrient cycle and energy flow.
Ecosystems can be categorised as follows:
• Natural
Terrestrial ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem
- Lentic, the ecosystem of a lake, pond or swamp
- Lotic, the ecosystem of a river, stream or spring
• Artificial, environments created by humans
Ecosystem services
Ecosystem services are ‘fundamental life-support services upon which human civilisation depends’, and can be
direct or indirect. Examples of direct ecosystem services are pollination, wood and erosion prevention. Indirect
services could be considered climate moderation, nutrient cycles and detoxifying natural substances.The services
and goods an ecosystem provides are often undervalued as many of them are without market value. Some examples
include the following:
• Regulating (climate, floods, nutrient balance water filtration, etc.)
• Provisioning (food, medicine, fur, etc.)
• Cultural (science, spiritual, ceremonial, recreation, aesthetic, etc.)
• Supporting (nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, soil formation, etc.)
What is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem entails the biological community that occurs in some locale and the physical and chemical factors
that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are many examples of ecosystems, a pond, a forest, an
estuary, grassland, etc. The boundaries are not fixed in any objective way, although sometimes they seem obvious, as
with the shoreline of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practical reasons having
to do with the goals of the particular study.
The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the living or biotic components
to the non-living or abiotic components. Energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling are the main processes
that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology. As we learned earlier, when the organisms interact with each other
along with the environmental surroundings in which they occur, it is called an ecosystem. We can study ecology at
the level of the individual, the population, the community and the ecosystem.
Studies of individuals are concerned mostly with physiology, reproduction, development or behaviour. The study
of populations usually focus on habitat, resource needs of individual species, their group behaviour, population
growth and what limits their abundance or causes extinction. Various research projects try to perceive how myriad
organisms interact with each other and work together in either a symbiotic, parasitic or any other relationship. For
example, as predators and their prey or competitors share common needs or resources, etc.
In ecosystem ecology, we study the working system as a complete unit. This means that, rather than worrying mainly
about a particular species, we try to focus on major functional aspects of the system. These functional aspects include
such issues as the amount of energy that is produced by photosynthesis, how energy or materials flow along the
many steps in a food chain or what controls the rate of decomposition of materials or the rate at which nutrients are
recycled in the system.
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Summary
• ‘Energy management’ is a term that has many pronged implications.
• Many people use ‘energy management’ to refer specifically to those energy-saving efforts that focus on making
better use of existing buildings and equipment.
• Energy management is the answer to energy conservation and economical use of money.
• Keeping in view the global need to save energy, energy conservation at home is of great importance.
• The term ‘energy management’ has come to the forefront because of a global immediate need to save energy.
• Energy management is the means of controlling and reducing your organisation’s energy consumption.
• Energy management is vital since it will help the company at various points.
• The old school approach to energy-data collection is to take meter readings once a week or once a month
manually.
• The detailed meter data will be invaluable for determining and quantifying energy-saving opportunities.
• One of the simplest ways to save a significant amount of energy is to encourage staff to switch off equipment
at the end of each working day.
• Continuous monitoring of data is necessary to ensure that there is no hindrance or decline in energy
conservation.
• Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural resources through processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried
dead organisms.
• Human beings need energy for most of their activities. Energy is needed for domestic, industrial and agriculture
use.
• Energy gained from burning fossil fuels is converted to electricity and heat in commercial power plants.
• India has a very limited supply of fossil fuels and it forms a large part of India’s imports, specially the crude
oil.
• The transformation of energy in an ecosystem begins first with the input of energy from the sun.
• An ecosystem comprises all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving, physical
components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight.
• The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the living or biotic components
to the non-living or abiotic components.
References
• Energy Management. [Pdf] Available at: <http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/submitted/etd-05272005-165835/
unrestricted/03chapter3.pdf> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Energy Management at the Nanoscale. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.fisica.unipg.it/~luca.gammaitoni/fisen/
Document/Energy-Management-at-the-Nanoscale.pdf> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Petrecca, G . , 1993. Industrial Energy Management: Principles and Applications. Springer.
• Goswami, D. Y. and Kreith, F., 2007. Energy Management and Conservation Handbook. CRC Press.
• Law 270.6 - Lecture 10 - Demand Side Management: Energy Efficiency. [Video online] Available at: <http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=yW9ezZwnEZo> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Unveiling Energy Management Part 1. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=g91PMuHKQyE> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
Recommended Reading
• Moss, K., 2013. Energy Management in Buildings. Routledge.
• Turner, W. C. and Doty, S., 2007. Energy Management Handbook. Edward Elgar Publishing, U.K.
• Capehart, B. L., Turner, W. C. and Kennedy, W. J, 2002. Guide to Energy Management, 4th ed., CRC Press,
N . Y.
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Self Assessment
1. ‘____________’ is a term that has many pronged implications.
a. Energy management
b. Environment management
c. Resource management
d. Nonrenewable resource
2. Which of the following is the process of monitoring, controlling and conserving energy in a building or
organisation?
a. Environment management
b. Home energy
c. Energy management
d. Reduction in costs
1. Photosynthesis A. It mainly consists of methane (CH4).
2. Oil B. This process captures energy from the sun.

C. It is a solid fossil fuel formed over millions of years by
3. Natural gas
decay of land vegetation.
D. It is a thick, black, viscous liquid that is also called
4. Coal
petroleum.
a. 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-D
b. 1-A, 2-C, 3-D, 4-B
c. 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A
d. 1-B, 2-D, 3-A, 4-C
4. Energy management is the answer to ________________ and economical use of money.

a. energy management
b. energy consumption
c. energy conservation
d. energy generation
5. Which of the following term has come to the forefront because of a global immediate need to save energy?
b. Energy consumption
c. Energy conservation
d. Energy generation
6. Current coal supplies could last for ______ years or more.

a. 50
b. 200
c. 30
d. 100
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a. Energy consumption is the means of controlling and reducing your organisation’s energy consumption.
b. Energy is the means of controlling and reducing your organisation’s energy consumption.
c. Energy management is the means of controlling and reducing your organisation’s energy consumption.
d. Energy management is the means of controlling and raising your organisation’s energy consumption.

a. Fossil fuels comprise deposits of once-living organisms.
b. Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed over millions of years by decay of land vegetation.
c. Human beings need energy for few of their activities.
d. Energy is needed for domestic, industrial and agriculture use.
9. .___________energy is the energy that can be re-utilised by various and can be renewed will therefore not run
out easily.
a. Human
b. Renewable
c. Chemical
d. Mechanical
10. What comprises all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving, physical components
of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight?
b. Nonrenewable Resource
c. An ecosystem
d. Energy consumption
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Chapter III
Environmental Management Systems
Aim
• introduce environmental management system
• explain the key elements of EMS
• explicate ISO standards
Objectives
• enlist the 17 requirements of the ISO 14001:2004 standard
• elucidate the environmental management system
• explain PDCA (plan-do-check-act)
Learning outcome
• identify PDCA, EMAS
• understand environmental auditing
• recognise energy efficiency
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3.1 Introduction
Environmental Management System (EMS) refers to the management of an organisation’s environmental programmes
in a comprehensive, systematic, planned and documented manner. It includes the organisational structure, planning
and resources for developing, implementing and maintaining policy for environmental protection.
An environmental management system (EMS) provides the following:

• Serves as a tool to improve environmental performance.
• Provides a systematic way of managing an organisation’s environmental affairs.
• Is the aspect of the organisation’s overall management structure that addresses immediate and long-term impacts
of its products, services and processes on the environment.
• Gives order and consistency for organisations to address environmental concerns through the allocation of
resources, assignment of responsibility and ongoing evaluation of practices, procedures and processes.
• Focuses on continual improvement of the system.
3.2 Environmental Management System

An EMS follows a ‘plan-do-check-act cycle’ or PDCA. It is the process of first developing an environmental policy,
planning the EMS and then implementing it. The process incorporates checking the system and acting on it. The
model is continuous because an EMS is a process of continual improvement in which an organisation is constantly
reviewing and revising the system. EMS is an important tool for managing the environment effectively and
efficiently. This model can be employed by a plethora of organisations with distinct areas of specialisation.
Key elements of an EMS

The key elements of an EMS are as follows:
• Policy statement: A statement of the organisation’s commitment to the environment.
• Identification of significant environmental impacts: Environmental attributes of products, activities and services
and their effects on the environment.
• Development of objectives and targets: Environmental goals for the organisation.
• Implementation: Plans to meet objectives and targets.
• Training: Instructions to ensure that employees are aware and capable of fulfilling their environmental
responsibilities.
• Management review.
Integration of the existing environmental management activities into the EMS

An EMS is flexible and necessitates organisations to ‘retool’ their existing activities. An EMS establishes a
management framework by which an organisation’s impact on the environment can be systematically identified and
reduced. For example, many organisations including counties and municipalities have active and effective pollution-
prevention activities underway. These activities are an important tool to manage the ecosystems and prevent them
from decaying. These could be incorporated into the overall EMS.
3.3 ISO Standards

Various ISO standards are explained in the paragraphs given below.
ISO, ISO 14000 and ISO 14001

ISO stands for the International Organisation for Standardisation, located in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is a non-
governmental organisation, which was established in 1947. The organisation mainly functions to develop voluntary
technical standards that aim at making development, manufacture and supply of goods and services more efficient,
safe and clean. ISO is a very vital tool in ensuring the effectiveness of hygiene and cleanliness. ISO 14000 refers
to a set of voluntary standards and guidance documents to help organisations address environmental issues. These
include standards for environmental management systems, environmental and EMS auditing, environmental labelling,
performance-evaluation and life-cycle assessment.
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In September 1996, the International Organisation for Standardisation published the first edition of ISO 14001,
the environmental management systems standard. This is an international voluntary standard elucidating specific
requirements for an EMS. ISO 14001 is a specification standard to which an organisation may receive certification
or registration. ISO 14001 is considered the foundation document of the entire series. A second edition of ISO 14001
was published in 2004, updating the standard. In ISO 14001, many updates were made to make sure that nobody
would get away with the loopholes, which were prevalent in the old system.
Questions may arise when implementing an EMS following the ISO 14001 standard. The US body that provides input
into the standard’s development is the US TAG (Technical Advisory Group) to the TC 207 (Technical Committee).
This same body has established a formal process to respond to questions that may arise regarding clarification of
the ISO 14001 (the standard). These responses reflect the interpretation of the standard as it was intended during
the drafting of the standards and may be found in the ‘Clarification of Intent of ISO 14001’. These standards are
maintained with the help of these avenues.
The development of ISO standards

All ISO standards are generated through a voluntary, consensus-based approach. ISO has many member countries
across the globe. Each member country develops its position on the standards and these positions are then negotiated
with other member countries. Draft versions of the standards are sent out for formal written comment and each country
casts an official vote on the drafts at the appropriate stage of the process. Within each country, myriad organisations
can participate in the process. Industries, government (federal and state) and interested parties, like various non-
government organisations, become a part of the system. For example, EPA and some states participated in the
development of the ISO 14001 standard and are now evaluating its usefulness through a variety of pilot projects.
The 17 requirements of the ISO 14001:2004 standard

The 17 requirements of the ISO 14001:2004 standard are as follows:
• Environmental policy: Develop a statement of the organisation’s commitment to the environment.
• Environmental aspects and impacts: Identify environmental attributes of products, activities and services and
their effects on the environment.
• Legal and other requirements: Identify and ensure access to relevant laws and regulations.
• Objectives and targets and environmental management programme: Set environmental goals for the organisation
and plan actions to achieve objectives and targets.
• Structure and responsibility: Establish roles and responsibilities within the organisation.
• Training, awareness and competence: Ensure that employees are aware and capable of their environmental
responsibilities.
• Communication: Develop processes for internal and external communication on environmental management
issues.
• EMS documentation: Maintain information about the EMS and related documents.
• Document control: Ensure effective management of procedures and other documents.
• Operational control: Identify, plan and manage the organisation’s operations and activities in line with the policy,
objectives and targets and significant aspects.
• Emergency preparedness and response: Develop procedures for preventing and responding to potential
emergencies.
• Monitoring and measuring: Monitor key activities and track performance including periodic compliance
evaluation.
• Evaluation of compliance: Develop procedure to periodically evaluate compliance with legal and other
requirements.
• Non-conformance and corrective and preventive action: Identify and correct problems and prevent
recurrences.
• Records: Keep adequate records of EMS performance.
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• EMS audit: Periodically verify that the EMS is effective and achieving objectives and targets.
• Management review: Review the EMS.
Legislation and standards

The Environmental Liability Directive [ELD] 2004/35/EC is an instrument of paramount importance that business
needs to comply with and must be included in EMS. It came into force across Europe during 2009 and became a
law on 1 March, 2009 converting the various national Pollution Prevention Guidelines (PPGs), such as the UK
PPG11, PPG18 and PPG21 into requirements. Failure to comply with these requirements could result in penalty in
the form of fines and more significantly reformation/reinstatement costs, which can run into many millions of Euro
or Dollars. Within this directive is a requirement to mitigate the effects of events such as spills and firewater (the
latter is the runoff from fires). The directive makes it clear that it is the site owner’s responsibility to contain spills
and firewater onsite by using any form of containment apparatus, such as sealing the drains.
ISO 14000 definition

The ISO 14000 is a standard for environmental management systems that is applicable to any business, regardless
of size, location or income. The aim of the standard is to reduce the environmental footprint of a business and to
decrease pollution and waste that ensues business processes. The most recent version of ISO 14001 was released
in 2004 by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), which has a representation from committees
all over the world.
The major objective of the ISO 14000 series of norms is “to promote more effective and efficient environmental
management in organisations and to provide useful and usable tools, ones that are cost-effective, system-based,
flexible and reflect the best organisations and the best organisational practices available for gathering, interpreting
and communicating environmentally relevant information.” The intended result is the enhancement of environmental
performance. It works as a source of guidance for introducing and adopting environmental management systems
based on the ideal universal practices, in the same way that the ISO 9000 series on quality management systems,
which is now widely applied, represents a tool for technology transfer of the best available quality management
practices.
The ISO 14000 environmental management standards exist to help organisations minimise their operations’ negative
effects upon the environment. In structure, it is similar to ISO 9000 quality management and both can be implemented
synchronously. In order for an organisation to be awarded an ISO 14001 certificate, it must be externally audited by an
audit body that has been accredited by an accreditation body. In the UK, this is the UKAS. Certification auditors need
to be accredited by the International Registrar of Certification Auditors. The certification body has to be accredited
by the ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board in the USA or the National Accreditation Board in Ireland.
• ISO 14001 environmental management systems: Requirements with guidance for use.
• ISO 14004 environmental management systems: General guidelines on principles, systems and support
techniques
• ISO 14015 environmental assessment of sites and organisations
• ISO 14020 series (14020 to 14025): Environmental labels and declarations
• ISO 14031 environmental performance evaluation: Guidelines
• ISO 14040 series (14040 to 14049): Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) discusses pre-production planning and
environment goal setting
• ISO 14050 terms and definitions
• ISO 14062 discusses making improvements to environmental impact goals.
• ISO 14063 environmental communication: Guidelines and examples
• ISO 19011, which specifies one audit protocol for both 14000 and 9000 series standards together
This replaces ISO 14011 meta-evaluation (how to determine if your intended regulatory tools worked). ISO 19011
is now the only recommended way to determine this.
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ISO 14001 definition

ISO 14001 defines an environmental audit, as “ISO 14001 is the environmental standard against which organisations
are assessed. It specifies the requirements for an EMS, which provides a framework for an organisation to control
the environmental impacts of its activities, products and services.”
Three types of audit

According to Mattsson and Olsson, there are three types of audits as follows:
• Liability audit
• Management audit
• Functional audit (sometimes called an activity or issues audit)
Liability audits assess compliance with legal obligations. Management audits verify that an environmental
management strategy meets its stated objectives. An activity audit may investigate a specific area, such as energy
or water-use.
EMAS description
EMAS is generally a site-based registration system with due consideration provided to off-site activities that may
have a bearing upon the products and services of the primary site. Within the UK, an extension to the scheme has
been agreed upon for local government operations, who may also register their Environmental Management Systems
to the EMAS regulations.
EMAS requires an existing environmental policy within the organisation, fully supported by senior management
and outlining the policies of the company, not only to the staff but also to the public and other stakeholders. The
policy needs to clarify compliance with environmental regulations that may affect the organisation and stress a
commitment to continued improvement. Emphasis has been placed on policy as this provides direction for the
remaining management system.
Those companies who have witnessed ISO9000 assessments are aware that the policy is frequently discussed
during assessment; many staff members are asked if they understand or are aware of the policy. Any problems
associated with the policy are seldom serious. The Environmental Policy is different. It forms initial foundation
for the management system and is more stringently reviewed than the similar ISO9000 Policy. The statement must
be publicised in non-technical language, so that it can be understood by majority of its readers. It should relate to
the sites within the organisation encompassed by the management system, it should provide an overview of the
company’s activities on the site and a description of those activities. A clear picture of the company’s operations is
presented by the authorities to the lawmakers.
In addition to a summary of the process, the statement requires quantifiable data on current emissions and
environmental effects emanating from the site, waste generated, raw materials utilised, energy and water resources
consumed and any other environmental aspect that may relate to operations on the site. The preparatory review is a
part of an EMAS assessment. This is not the case for BS7750. The environmental review must be comprehensive
in consideration of input processes and output at the site. This control process is fashioned to identify all relevant
environmental aspects that may arise from existence on the site. These may relate to current operations, they may
relate to future, perhaps even unplanned future activities and they will certainly relate to the activities performed
on site in the past (i.e., contamination of land). These processes are very important in order to ensure that the rules
and regulations are enforced.
The initial or preparatory review will also include a wide-ranging consideration of the legislation, which may affect
the site, whether it is currently being complied with and perhaps even, whether copies of the legislation are available.
Many of the environmental assessments that have been undertaken highlighted that companies are often unaware
of the legislations that impinge upon them. Thus, they often do not meet the requirements of such legislations.
Enforcing these legislations is critical for protecting the environment and other related processes.
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The company can declare its primary environmental objectives that have the propensity to have maximum
environmental impact. In order to gain most benefits, these will become the primary areas of consideration
within the improvement process and the company’s environmental programme. The programme will incorporate
plans to achieve specific goals or targets along the route to a specific goal and describe the means to reach those
objectives such that they are real and achievable. The Environmental Management System provides further detail
on the environmental programme. The EMS establishes procedures, work instructions and controls to ensure that
implementation of the policy and achievement of the targets can become a reality. Communication is a vital factor,
enabling people in the organisation to be aware of their responsibilities and of the objectives of the scheme and
able to contribute to its success.
3.4 The Environmental Management System

As with ISO9000, the Environmental Management System requires a planned comprehensive periodic audit to ensure
that it is effective in operation, is meeting specified goals and the system continues to perform in accordance with
the relevant regulations and standards. The audits are designed to provide additional information in order to exercise
effective management of the system, provide information on practices, which differ from the current procedures
or offer an opportunity for improvement. Under EMAS, the minimum frequency for an audit is at least once every
three years. The companies can have an audit more frequently if they are willing to do so.
Most companies produce routine annual reports and accounts that entail details of activities of the organisation
over the previous year and its plans for the future. EMAS generally expects a similar system for the company’s
environmental performance. It expects a periodic statement, which incorporates performance during the previous
period, a set of current performance data and notice of any particular plans for the future that may have an effect
upon the environmental performance of the organisation, whether detrimental or beneficial. The peculiarity with
EMAS is that the policy statement, the programme, the management system and audit cycles are reviewed and
validated by an external accredited EMAS verifier. The verifier not only provides a registration service, but is also
required to confirm and perhaps even sign the company’s periodic environmental statements.
3.4.1 PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act)

It is an iterative four-step problem-solving process typically used in business process improvement. It is also known
as the Deming cycle, Shewhart cycle, Deming wheel or plan do-study-act.
Meaning-The PDCA cycle

The PDCA cycle involves the following aspects which are described in the paragraphs below.
Plan
PDCA cycle establishes the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expected
output. By making the expected output the focus, it differs from other techniques as the completeness and accuracy
of the specification is part of the improvement.
Do
PDCA cycle implements the new processes on a small-scale if possible.
Check
PDCA cycle measures the new processes and compares the results against the expected results to ascertain any
differences.
Act
PDCA cycle analyses the differences in order to determine their cause. Each will be part of either one or more of
the P-D-C-A steps. Determine where changes must be applied so that they also engender improvement. When a
check through these four steps does not result in the need to improve, the scope is refined. PDCA is applied to this
nascent scope and the cycle is repeated, until there is a plan that involves improvement.
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PDCA
PDCA was made popular by Dr. W. Edwards Deming, who is considered father of modern quality control by many;
however, he always referred to it as the ‘Shewhart cycle’. Later in Deming’s career, he modified PDCA to ‘Plan,
Do, Study, Act’ (PDSA) to elucidate his recommendations in a better manner.
The concept of PDCA is based on the scientific method that was developed from the work of Francis Bacon (Novum
Organum, 1620). The scientific method can be written as ‘hypothesis’, ‘experiment’, ‘evaluation’ or plan, do and
check. Shewhart delineates manufacture under ‘control’ under statistical control as a three-step process of specification,
production and inspection. He also specifically relates this to the scientific method of hypothesis, experiment and
evaluation. Shewhart says the statistician “must help to change the demand (for goods) by showing how to close
up the tolerance range and to improve the quality of goods.” Clearly, Shewhart intended the analyst to take actions
based on the conclusions of the evaluation. Deming noticed, during his lectures in Japan in the early 1950’s, that
the Japanese participants shortened the steps to the now traditional plan, do, check and act. Deming preferred plan,
do, study and act because ‘study’ has connotations in English closer to Shewhart’s intent than ‘check’.
A fundamental principle of the scientific method and PDSA is the iteration that once a hypothesis is confirmed
(or negated), executing the cycle will extend the knowledge further. Repeating the PDSA cycle can bring us closer
to the goal, which is usually a perfect operation and output. In Six Sigma programmes, the PDSA cycle is called
‘define measure, analyse, improve, control’ (DMAIC). The iterative nature of the cycle must be explicitly added to
the DMAIC procedure. This procedure also forms an important feature in the management of energy systems.
PDSA should be repeatedly implemented in spirals of increasing knowledge of the system that converge on the
ultimate goal, each cycle closer than the previous. One can envision an open coil spring, with each loop being one
cycle of the scientific method PDSA and each complete cycle indicating an increase in our knowledge of the system
under study. This approach is based on the belief that our knowledge and skills are limited but improving. Especially
at the start of a project, key information may not be known. The PDSA scientific method provides feedback to justify
our guesses (hypotheses) and increase our knowledge. Rather than enter ‘analysis paralysis’ to get it perfect the first
time, it is better to be approximately right than exactly wrong. There is a greater probability of being right this way.
With improved knowledge, we may choose to refine or alter the goal (ideal state). Certainly, the PDSA approach
can bring us closer to whatever goal we choose.
Rate of change, i.e., rate of improvement, is a key competitive factor in today’s world. PDSA allows for major
‘jumps’ in performance (‘breakthroughs’ often desired in a Western approach), as well as Kaizen (frequent small
improvements associated with an Eastern approach). The PDSA approach is normally a cumbersome process, which
entails detailed efforts from the people involved. In the United States, as a PDSA approach is usually associated with
a sizable project involving numerous people’s time, thus managers want to see large ‘breakthrough’ improvements
to justify the effort expended. However, scientific method and PDSA apply to all sorts of projects and improvement
activities.
The power of Deming’s concept lies in its apparent simplicity. The concept of feedback in the scientific method, in
the abstract sense, is today firmly rooted in education. This concept is easy to adapt when compared to other concepts.
While apparently easy to comprehend, it is often difficult to accomplish on an on-going basis due to the intellectual
difficulty of judging one’s proposals (hypotheses) based on measured results. Many people have an emotional
fear of being proved ‘wrong’, even by objective measurements. To avoid such comparisons, we may instead cite
complacency, distractions, loss of focus, lack of commitment, re-assigned priorities, lack of resources, etc.
3.4.2 Energy Efficiency

In a slightly different context, EMS can also refer to a system in an organisation to achieve energy efficiency through
well laid out procedures and methods and to ensure continual improvement, which will spread awareness of energy
efficiency throughout an entire organisation.
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Automated control of building energy
The term Energy Management System can also refer to a computer system, which is designed specifically for
automated control and monitoring of the heating, ventilation and lighting needs of a building or group of buildings,
such as university campuses, office buildings or factories. Most of these Energy Management Systems also facilitate
reading of electricity, gas and water meters. The data obtained from these can then be employed to produce trend-
analysis and annual consumption forecasts.
The word environment refers to a vast area. The protection of the environment is vital for sustainable human
development. Relevant factors of the environment include food, water, energy, natural resources, toxic substances,
etc. Energy is one of the most important factors of the environment. Energy management is critical to our future
economic prosperity and environmental well-being. Energy is essential for the functioning of most of the industrialised
world as well as developing and under-developed nations. Yet, at the same time energy production and consumption
causes degradation of the environment of the industrialised world. Developing countries are also not bereft of
problems of a similar kind.
Energy management is one of the most critical issues for the future as so much of the world is dependent upon it.
Thus, we need to comprehend the traditional sources of energy and their quality, availability and environmental
effects, as well as the potential alternatives for energy and the effects of these upon the natural environment and
modern industrial economies. Over the past two hundred years, the use of primary energy sources in manufacturing
or processing has evolved from simply using locally available resources, such as waterpower, firewood or coal.
The transition from coal to a petroleum-based fuel economy took place during the twentieth century. With changes
to the oil market in the year 2000, which caught media attention around the world, there is further interest in the
ongoing transition to renewable energy sources. Managing energy is now a basic feature in the global economy
and environment. Fossil fuels in the form of oil, natural gas and coal comprise approximately 80% of the world’s
energy use. We now face a world where the environmental impacts of combusting fossil fuels, such as coal and oil
are identified as unsustainable in the long-term. The need to turn to an increasing use of sustainable and renewable
energy sources is clearly agreed.
3.4.3 EMAS
The EU Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) is a management tool for companies and other organisations
to evaluate reports and improve their environmental performance. The scheme has been available for participation
of companies since 1995. It was originally restricted to companies in industrial sectors. This system has considerably
increased the efficiency of the systems involved and has made the process more transparent. Since 2001, EMAS
has been open to all economic sectors including both public and private services.
In 2009, EMAS regulation was revised and modified for the second time. Regulation (EC) No 1221/2009 of the
European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 on the voluntary participation by organisations in
a community eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS) was published on 22 December, 2009 and entered into
force on 11 January, 2010.
3.4.4 Eco-Management and Audit Scheme

The Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) is the EU voluntary instrument, which acknowledge organisations
that improve their environmental performance on a continuous-basis.
An increasing number of companies are taking up this project to be a part of their system. More than 4,100 registered
organisations are legally compliant, run an environmental management system and report on their environmental
performance through the publication of independently verified environmental statements. They are recognised by the
EMAS logo, which guarantees the reliability of the information provided. Certified organisations include industrial
companies, small and medium enterprises, services, third sector organisations, administrations and international
organisations (including the European Commission and the European Parliament themselves).
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Requirements
The following are some requirements, which must be fulfilled by organisations in order to obtain the registration
of EMAS:
• The organisation must have a policy related to the environment
• There must be an onsite review of the policy
• There must be clear objectives of the organisation regarding environment, on the basis of the policy and review
discussed above
• Audit of the matter related to the environment
• A clear statement by the organisation regarding the environment
3.5 Environmental Auditing

Environmental audits are intended to quantify environmental performance and environmental position. In this way,
they perform an analogous (similar) function to financial audits. An environmental audit report ideally contains a
statement of environmental performance and environmental position and may aim to define steps to be taken to
sustain or improve indicators of such performance and position.
However, access to manage this system is limited. Interested parties need to go through a process of evaluation to
become eligible to enforce this system. Environmental auditors can obtain certification through a written exam and an
acceptance of the Environmental Auditor Association code of ethics. Depending on the nature of the audit, there are
several different designations to choose from CECAB (Canadian Environmental Certification Approvals Board).
Environmental auditing is a management tool to evaluate environment management systems systematically and
objectively. It has the following objectives:
• Waste prevention and reduction
• Assessing compliance with regulatory requirements
• Placing environmental information in the public domain
Compliance with regulatory norms, through an adoption of clean technologies and improvement in management
practices for prevention and control of pollution, is not only mandatory, but also has wide acceptance among the
industrial community. Charter on Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection (CREP) also calls for
commitment and voluntary initiatives of industry for responsible care of the environment, which will help in building
a partnership for pollution control.
There are a few ambiguities in this system. Industries use these ambiguities to their own advantage. It is a fact that
enforcement agencies are often not fully equipped in terms of labour and other infrastructure to identify violation
of pollution control norms by industries. As there is high probability that enforcement agencies may monitor only
limited number of industries spread over in different areas in the entire state, the government intends to introduce
a new scheme called ‘Environmental Auditing Scheme’. Thus, to make sure that there are no loopholes in the
system, technically qualified professionals (Auditors) become a link between industries, enforcement agencies and
association of industries in this scheme. This scheme works in tandem with added vital elements of accountability
and transparency.
The scheme intends to carry out the following action plan:

• Identification of highly polluting industries in different sectors.
• Development of Standard Operating Procedures/Protocols in different sectors to assist the industry in developing
self-audit programmes at individual facilities for evaluating their compliance with the environmental requirements
under the environmental laws and regulations for monitoring the pollution.
• Developing training modules to train regulators, industrial and environmental auditors and imparting training
to the stakeholders (auditors/industries/regulators).
• Identification and accreditation of the environmental auditors.
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• Development of MIS system to process the environmental auditing reports.
• Support and guidance to industries to mitigate the pollution.
3.5.1 Impact Assessment and Environmental Auditing

Environmental impact assessment is the mandatory assessment of compliance of planned activities, such as
planning documents, programmes and projects, with environmental protection requirements and with the principles
of sustainable development, with the aim of determining the optimum solution. It becomes an important tool in
managing and understanding the effects of the organisation on the environment.
On the other hand, environmental audit is the assessment of the compliance of environmental administration and
performance of an operating business with environmental protection requirements, with sound environmental
practice in general and with the principles of sustainable development. Environmental auditing is mandatory only
in cases stipulated by law.
Environmental audits are being used as a tool and an aid to test the effectiveness of environmental efforts at the local-
level. These audits should be carried out with transparency and honesty and the results should be made public. An
environmental audit is a systematic, independent internal review to check whether the results of environmental work
tally with the targets. An environmental audit also focuses on the effectiveness of the methods used to achieve goals.
To be more precise, the work of an environmental audit is to examine documents and reports to determine whether
there are any deviations between targets and results. This is done by interviewing key people in the organisation.
An environmental audit will confirm whether the environmental targets have been attained.
The concept of environmental auditing is closely related to the following monitoring, norms and standards:
Environmental Monitoring Environmental Norms Environmental Standards

Environmental monitoring is Environmental norms are Environmental standards are
the systematic observation of reference figures or use rates documents setting rules,
the state of the environment of natural resources per guidelines and numeric
and of the factors influencing production unit established for values defined by the
it. Its main purposes are to the quality of the environment, involved parties and
forecast changes to the state the volume of waste or per regulating activities or
of the environment and to production unit. results of activities, which
provide initial data for planning either have or are likely to
documents, programmes and have impact on the state of
projects. The procedure of the environment.
environmental monitoring shall
be established by law.
Table 3.1 Environmental auditing norms and standards
These audits are conducted at regular intervals by various personnel who are involved in the process. During a
typical environmental audit, a team of qualified inspectors, either employees of the organisation being audited or
contractor personnel, conducts a comprehensive examination of a plant or other facilities to determine whether it
is complying with environmental laws and regulations. Employing checklists and audit protocols and relying on
professional judgement and evaluations of site-specific conditions, the team systematically verifies compliance with
applicable requirements. The team may also evaluate the effectiveness of current systems to manage compliance
and assess the environmental risks associated with facility’s operations.

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Summary
• Environmental Management System (EMS) refers to the management of an organisation’s environmental
programmes in a comprehensive, systematic, planned and documented manner.
• An EMS follows a ‘plan-do-check-act cycle’ or PDCA.
• EMS is an important tool for managing the environment effectively and efficiently.
• An EMS is flexible and necessitates organisations to ‘retool’ their existing activities.
• ISO stands for the International Organisation for Standardisation, located in Geneva, Switzerland.
• ISO is a non-governmental organisation, which was established in 1947.
• In September 1996, the International Organisation for Standardisation published the first edition of ISO 14001,
the environmental management systems standard.
• All ISO standards are generated through a voluntary, consensus-based approach. ISO has many member countries
across the globe.
• The ISO 14000 is a standard for environmental management systems that is applicable to any business, regardless
of size, location or income.
• ISO 14001 defines an environmental audit, as “ISO 14001 is the environmental standard against which
organisations are assessed.”
• EMAS is generally a site-based registration system with due consideration provided to off-site activities that
may have a bearing upon the products and services of the primary site.
• Environmental audits are intended to quantify environmental performance and environmental position.
• Environmental auditing is a management tool to evaluate environment management systems systematically
and objectively.
• Environmental audits are being used as a tool and an aid to test the effectiveness of environmental efforts at
the local-level.
References
• Environmental Management Systems. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.in.gov/idem/files/small_bus_chap11.
pdf> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Environmental Management System. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.bnl.gov/ewms/ser/99ser/2ch.pdf> [Accessed
16 December 2013].
• Sheldon, C . and Yoxon, M. 2012. Environmental Management Systems: A Step-by-Step Guide to Implementation
and Maintenance. Routledge.
• Tinsley, S., 2012. Environmental Management Systems: Understanding Organizational Drivers and Barriers.
CRC Press.
• Environmental Management System (EMS) – English. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=2iRDr9oC_4E> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• What is an Environmental Management System? (EMS). [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=0szFbdntQvM> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
Recommended Reading
• Hill, C., 2006. Environmental Management Systems: A Tool to Help Water Utilities Manage More Effectively.
American Water Works Association.
• Haider, S. I., 2010. Environmental Management System ISO 14001: 2004: Handbook of Transition with CD-
ROM. CRC Press.
• Marguglio, B., 1991. Environmental Management Systems. CRC Press, N . Y.
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Self Assessment
1. What refers to the management of an organisation’s environmental programmes in a comprehensive, systematic,
planned and documented manner?
b. Environmental Management System (EMS)
c. Resource management
d. ‘Plan-do-check-act cycle’ or PDCA
2. What is the process of first developing an environmental policy, planning the EMS and then implementing it?
a. EMS
b. ISO
c. ELD
d. PDCA
1. An EMS A. Is a non-governmental organisation.
2. ISO B. Follows a ‘plan-do-check-act cycle’ or PDCA.

C. It came into force across Europe during 2009 and
3. PDCA
became a law on 1 March 2009
4. The Environmental Liability D. It is an iterative four-step problem-solving process
Directive typically used in business process improvement.
a. 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B
b. 1-A, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D
c. 1-B, 2-A, 3-D, 4-C
d. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
4. When was ISO established?

a. 1947
b. 1957
c. 1943
d. 1962
5. When did the International Organisation for Standardisation publish the first edition of ISO 14001, the
environmental management systems standard?
a. September 1916
b. September 1967
c. September 1996
d. September 1998
6. __________audits assess compliance with legal obligations.

a. Management
b. Functional
c. Environment
d. Liability
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7. Which of the following is also known as the Deming cycle?

a. EMS
b. PDCA
c. EMAS
d. ISO
8. _____________ audits verify that an Environmental Management Strategy meets its stated objectives.
a. Management
b. Functional
c. Environment
d. Liability
9. __________management is critical to our future economic prosperity and environmental well-being.

a. Environment
b. Energy
c. Deming
d. Functional

a. Management is critical to our future economic prosperity and environmental well-being.
b. Energy management is not important to our future economic prosperity and environmental well-being.
c. PDCA is critical to our future economic prosperity and environmental well-being.
d. Energy management is critical to our future economic prosperity and environmental well-being.
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Chapter IV
Environmental Laws
Aim
• introduce environmental law
• explain patent laws
• explicate pollution and waste management
Objectives
• enlist the composition of board
• elucidate the air (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981
• explain the water (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974
Learning outcome
• identify costs of pollution to human health and tourism industry
• understand pollution from mining
• define air pollution
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4.1 Introduction
Environmental law is a complex and interlocking body of treaties, conventions, statutes, regulations and common
law that very broadly, operate to regulate the interaction of humanity and the rest of the biophysical or natural
environment toward the purpose of reducing the impacts of human activity, both on the natural environment and
on humanity itself. It is indispensible and would have damaging repercussions, if broken. Environmental law
encompasses the following major areas:
• Pollution control and remediation
• Resource conservation and management
Laws dealing with pollution are often media-limited, i.e., pertain only to a single environmental medium, such as
air, water (whether surface water, groundwater or oceans), soil, etc. These control both emissions of pollutants into
the medium, as well as the liability for exceeding permitted emissions and responsibility for cleanup. The rules and
regulations are binding and are rapidly gaining importance in India and across the world.
Laws regarding resource conservation and management generally focus on a single resource like natural resources
(forests, mineral deposits or animal species) or more intangible resources (scenic areas or sites of high archaeological
value). They also provide guidelines for and limitations on the conservation, disturbance and use of those resources.
If these resources are not managed properly, there can be extensive damage to society as a whole. These areas are not
mutually exclusive, for example, laws governing water pollution in lakes and rivers may conserve the recreational
value of such water bodies. Furthermore, many laws that are not exclusively ‘environmental’ nonetheless include
significant environmental components and integrate environmental policy decisions. Municipal, state and national
laws regarding development, land use and infrastructure are examples of the sort. These laws need to be updated to
make sure that everybody makes a collective effort to manage the environment and the systems around it.
In the Constitution of India, it is clearly stated that it is the duty of the state to “protect and improve the environment
and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country.” It imposes a duty on every citizen to protect and improve the
natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife. Reference to the environment has also been made
in the Directive Principles of State Policy as well as the Fundamental Rights. The Department of Environment was
established in India in 1980 to ensure a healthy environment for the country. This later became the Ministry of
Environment and Forests in 1985.
The constitutional provisions are supported by a number of laws, acts, rules and notifications. The Environment
Protection Act of 1986(EPA) came into force soon after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is considered an umbrella
legislation as it fills many gaps in the existing laws. Thereafter, a large number of laws came into existence as
problems began arising, e.g., Handling and Management of Hazardous Waste Rules in 1989.
4.2 Patent Laws

The patent system in India is administered under the superintendence of the Controller-General of Patents, Designs,
Trademarks and Geographical Indications. The Office of the Controller-General functions under the Department of
Industrial Policy and Promotion, Ministry of Commerce and Industry. There are four patent offices in India. The Head
Office is located at Kolkata and other patent offices are located at Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. The Controller General
delegates his powers to the Sr. Joint Controller, Joint Controllers, Deputy Controllers and Assistant Controllers.
Examiners of patents in each office discharge their duties according to the direction of the Controllers. Hierarchy
of Officers in Patent office is as follows:
• Controller-General of Patents, Designs, Trademarks & GI
• Examiners of Patents & Designs
• Assistant Controller of Patents & Designs
• Deputy Controller of Patents & Designs
• Joint Controller of Patents & Designs
• Senior Joint Controller of Patents & Designs
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Patentable inventions
A patent can be granted for an invention, which may be related to any process or product. The word Invention has
been defined under the Patents Act 1970 as, “An invention means a new product or process involving an inventive
step and capable of industrial application [S. 2(1) (j)].” ‘New invention’ is defined as any invention or technology
which has not been anticipated by publication in any document or used in the country or elsewhere in the world
before the date of filing of patent application with complete specification, i.e., the subject matter has not fallen in
public domain or that it does not form part of the state of the art. Capable of industrial application, in relation to an
invention, means that the invention is capable of being made or used in an industry [S.2 (1) (ac)]. Therefore, the
criteria for an invention to be patentable are as follows:
• An invention must be novel
• Has an inventive step
• Is capable of industrial application
To be patentable, an invention should fall within the scope of patentable subject matter as defined by the patent statute.
The invention must relate to a machine, article or substance produced by manufacture or the process of manufacture
of an article. A patent may also be obtained for an improvement of an article or of a process of manufacture. With
regard to medicine or drug and certain classes of chemicals, no patent is granted for the product itself, even if new,
only the process of manufacturing the substance is patentable. Product patents for drugs and food materials are now
available in India. If any substance falls outside the scope of patentable subject matter, it cannot be patentable.
4.3 Pollution and Waste Management

Pollution and waste management aims to facilitate and develop programmes, projects, co-operative management and
policy mechanisms, measures and decision-support systems to ensure integrated pollution and waste management.
Pollution and waste management also aims to achieve the following:
• Ensures efficient and effective provision of staff for the new structure and development of personnel.
• Collects analyses and disseminates relevant and current information regarding pollution and waste
management.
• Promotes programmes on pollution and waste management that gives effect to integrated pollution and waste
management
• Promotes public participation in environmental governance and decision-making with respect to integrated
pollution and waste management
• Provides efficient and effective support to all clients and ensure co-operative governance to achieve integrated
pollution and waste management
• Develops and implements pollution and waste management legislation, policies, norms, standards and guidelines
and ensures compliance with relevant environmental legislation.
4.3.1 Pollution and Small Islands

Pacific island countries, like the rest of the world, face serious problems regarding disposal of wastes and pollution.
Although organic and most metal wastes can be recycled, this is practised in a limited way in most rural areas.
Increased urbanisation and a growing population have accelerated problems regarding the collection and disposal
of both solid and liquid wastes. Every year the import of packaged consumer goods accentuates the amount of non-
biodegradable waste. Pollution from industrial waste and sewage and disposal of toxic chemicals are significant
contributors to marine pollution and coastal degradation. In spite of these laws, there are infinite instances where
these laws are not followed and there is a degradation of the resources.
Manmade chemicals, many of them very toxic, can be difficult to recycle and expensive to destroy. Most wastes,
hazardous or not are dumped together at the nearest available government-owned land. In Fiji, Tonga and Vanuatu,
for example, the public dumps are in mangrove forests and the Department of Health dusts them regularly with
pesticides and rat poison. The widespread use of toxic agricultural chemicals, that seeps in to in rivers and groundwater
sources can pose as a health hazards to human population. The effect of such chemicals is long-term. Groundwater
contamination is common in fresh water sources adjoining agricultural areas.
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Pollution from wastes has serious implications for the small island states. These problems fall into the following
three categories:
• Aesthetics
• Human health
• Environmental degradation
4.3.2 Costs of Pollution to the Tourism Industry

As tourism is a pivotal source of livelihood for the Pacific islands, its ambient beauty is of great economic importance.
It forms a major revenue source for many countries like Maldives, the West Indies, etc. Yet in most of the Pacific
islands and at other centres, tourists are confronted with litter; wrappers and aluminium cans line the roads, fast
food plastic packaging is heaped on the edges of scenic overviews, disposable diapers drift through the clear waters
or tangle in the branches of corals. Municipal dumps, often close to major urban centres, desecrate the otherwise
beautiful environment.
4.3.3 Costs of Pollution to Human Health

Human health is endangered by litter indirectly. There are many diseases, which are a result of this litter. Mosquitoes
that carry dengue fever breed in water trapped in cans, old tyres, jars and plastic containers. Dengue epidemics are
common in the Pacific islands. A study in New Caledonia, for example, found the epicentre for a recent outbreak of
dengue in a squatter city where litter was abundant. There are 23 different strains of dengue; most of them debilitate
the victim for a period ranging from several weeks to several months. One variety causes internal haemorrhaging
and can be deadly. In 1998, an epidemic of dengue spread across the South Pacific. Fiji spent millions of dollars
combating the disease. More than 6,500 people required hospitalisation.
Improper disposal of waste is a leading cause of water contamination. Sewage contamination of water is common in
all countries of the region and few streams and even many ground water supplies are safe for human consumption
without treatment. Diarrhoea, often water borne was the third most common cause for hospitalisation in the world.
In Kiribati, diarrhoea and other water-related diseases were the number one cause of death (WHO 1984). In Ebey
Lagoon, in the Marshall Islands, where pollution levels have reached 25,000 times higher than WHO safe levels,
epidemics of gastroenteritis were almost impossible to control (Keju and Johnson, 1982). Cholera, which caused
diarrhoea and dehydration, killed 18 people in Kiribati in 1977 and initiated renewed efforts at improving sanitation
and water supplies (Kiribati UNCED 1992).
Droughts and subsequent floods amplify water-related health problems. Many diseases spread, creating havoc in
the lives of people. Leptospirosis and amoebic dysentery both increased following the prolonged droughts in 1987.
Leptospirosis is transmitted by contamination of water supplies by rat or dog urine. Amoebic dysentery is transmitted
by sewage-contaminated water. In New Caledonia and French Polynesia, leptospirosis increased from 9 cases in
1987 to 87 in 1988 and 158 in 1989. It fell again in 1991, parallel with the incidence of Amoeboensis. In French
Polynesia, leptospirosis hospitalised 100 out of every 100,000 people in 1992. This compares to 0.4/100,000 cases
in France.
4.3.4 Environmental Costs of Pollution

Environmental degradation from pollution indirectly affects human health through reduction of food security, loss
of drinking water supplies and loss of economic opportunity. It entails loss of crops, food grains because of insects
that are borne out of degradation.
Major industries flourishing in the small island states are agriculture, tourism, forestry, mining and fisheries. All of
these generate waste, some a by-product of the activity, some a necessary part of the product stream. By-product
wastes are generally the result of poorly managed operations and include siltation (from mining and land clearing
during agricultural of forestry activities), oil pollution (used oil from machinery and from accidental spills), poisons
(from pest control) and miscellaneous plastic trash (old fishing gear, plastic sheeting, drums and bags). Production
wastes include organic wastes from food processing and chemical wastes (from oil palm refineries, mining processes,
wood treatment, etc.)
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Hazardous chemicals and nutrient pollution comprise the larger pollutants in the system. They are hazardous and may
cause irreparable water pollution. Such pollutants enter the marine environment via effluents, dumps, storm runoff,
sewage and wind-blown dust. These cause environmental degradation to inshore estuarine and marine environments.
This is especially damaging to coastal marine nursery areas like sea grass beds, coral reefs and mangrove forests.
While many of these effluents cause local environmental degradation, siltation, oil pollution, poisons and plastic
trash contribute to extensive, damage to inshore marine environments.
Pollution in oceans is also possible through natural ways. Ocean currents form eddies around the mountains and
it is in these oceanic vortices that many sea creatures proliferate in their planktonic stages. The lagoons of atolls
and bays of high islands are also key areas for planktonic development. Air-blown dust, smoke and fresh water
run-off from the islands carry oil-soluble manufactured toxins from gardens, food processing areas, kitchen sinks
and municipal dumps onto the surface layer of the sea. The sea surface micro-layer is a vital nursery for the vast
majority of all marine organisms and because of its special characteristics, is easily polluted by synthetic chemicals.
Although these pollutants are not regular, it adds up to the total pollution creating a bigger problem, which is more
relevant than ever before.
Almost all the multitudes of marine species of fish, plants and invertebrates shed their eggs into the seawater.
These float and so almost all sea creatures spend the first few hours of life close to the micro-layer boundary at the
sea surface. Under normal conditions, this layer is enriched by a very thin layer of natural oils, slowly digested by
special marine bacteria. The nutrient-enriched surface layer of the sea is thus the largest single nursery environment
of the planet. If this layer does not retain its natural form, it becomes difficult for these creatures to reproduce. Tests
have demonstrated that this critical habitat is polluted by heavy metals, agricultural poisons and the breakdown
of petroleum products. Bioassays demonstrate that these toxins can and do kill the eggs and larval stages of fish
and invertebrates. Scientists are concerned that this problem may be contributing to the global decline in marine
communities and fish populations.
4.3.5 Pollution from Mining

Mining is a non-renewable activity and environmental management is essentially a process of removing the minerals
with minimal harm to the environment and maximum profit to society. The four kinds of mining are as follows:
• Mineral extraction (nickel, gold, silver, copper, iron, uranium and titanium)
• Coal mining
• Construction mining (for fill, building stone and cement)
• Oil and gas extraction
Each activity has its own environmental impact during extraction, processing and transport. There are many major
mineral mining centres around the world and all of them engender various items including petroleum and natural
gas, mostly from off-shore wells. Mining in these countries results in inevitable localised environmental damage.
Regulations attempt, to mitigate damage from mine tailings, processing fumes and siltation of streams and rivers
with varying degrees of success. In some areas, for example, minerals are taken by strip-mining in mountainous
areas. As the terrain becomes rugged, the practical difficulties in preventing massive siltation of waterways also
rocket. Therefore, it is increasingly important to make sure that there is minimal environmental damage through
these mining activities. Prior to the 1980s, there were few, if any, environmental precautions taken with mining
activities. Siltation of waterways and coastal areas as a result was common. Even after regulations were enacted,
the practicalities of mine operation in rugged terrains often precluded effective environmental protection. This
led to damage in the ecosystem in those areas. For example, siltation settlement ponds at the OK Tedi gold mine
in Papua New Guinea were destroyed by an earthquake, but the mine was allowed to operate anyway. Sediments
polluted the Fly River damaging coastal gardens and fisheries. Local land owners successfully sued mine owners
and forced construction of new settlement ponds, but the success of these will be tested by future earthquakes and
torrential rains.
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4.4 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act was enacted by Parliament in 1981with an objective to prevention,
control and abatement of air pollution. Under Section 19 of this Act, the whole of National Capital Territory of
Delhi has been declared as air pollution control area by the Central Government. Under this section, government
approved fuels are to be used in the air pollution control area. The important provisions of the Air (Prevention &
Control of Pollution) Act are discussed below.
Section 21(1)
This section deals with persons establishing or operating any industrial unit in National Capital Territory of Delhi
without obtaining prior consent of the DPCC. The consent application will be disposed off within 4 months of
receipt of the consent application. However, DPCC may either grant consent or reject the application within 4
months for reasons to be recorded in writing. It may also revoke previous, consent to the industry before expiry
of the same after giving a reasonable opportunity of being heard. Any consent requires the compliance with the
following conditions:
• Control equipment of such specification as the State Board may approve.
• Control equipment referred above shall be kept at all times in good running condition.
• Chimney, wherever necessary, of such specifications as state boards may approve.
• Any other such conditions as the state board may specify.
Section 22
No person operating any industrial plant, in any air pollution control area shall discharge or cause or permit to be
discharged the emission of any air pollution in excess of the standards laid down by the state board.
Section 22(A)
State Board can also approach the court to stop any person from doing air pollution.
Sections 24(i) and 26(i)

DPCC officer has powers to inspect any premises in performance of their duties, take samples, examine records,
documents, etc., or performing any other duty entrusted to him by the board. Every person operating any equipment
is bound to provide all assistance to the person who is inspecting. When samples are taken, officials can collect the
samples after informing the person of the industry. Any analysis of the samples done in the air lab can be produced
as evidence in a court.
Section 31
Any person aggrieved by an order made by the state board under this act may, within 30 days from the date on
which order is communicated to him, prefer an appeal to the authorised authority who in the case of Delhi is the
Joint Secretary, Ministry of Environment & Forest. The state board can give directions to any person or office or
authority in writing and such person or officer or authority is bound to comply with such directions, which includes
the following:
• The closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process.
• Stoppage or regulation of electricity, water or any other services.
Section 37
Any person failing to comply with the provisions of Section 21 or Section 22 or directions issued under Section
31(A) can be imprisoned from 1-1/2 years to 6 years, with fine or with a fine up to Rs.5000/- per day. If violation
continues beyond one year imprisonment can be increased up to 7 years with fine.
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Section 39
Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or any order or directions issued there under, for which
no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this act, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may
extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees or with both and in case of continuing
contravention with an additional fine which may extend to Rs.5000/- for every day during which such contravention
continues after conviction for the first such contravention.
Objectives of the Act

The Act is designed to prevent and control air pollution. It is applicable all over India. The Act gives powers to the
boards for ensuring that there are proper systems for prevention of air pollution.
Air pollutant
Air Pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance, including noise, present in atmosphere in such
concentration as may tend to be injurious to human beings, living creatures or plants or property or environment
[Section 2(a)]. Air Pollution means presence of air pollutants in the air. [Section 2(b)] Thus, it covers noise pollution
also. Emission has been defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance, coming out of chimney, duct or fuel or
any other outlet [Section 2(j)]. Chimney is any structure with an opening or outlet from or through which any air
pollutant may be emitted [Section 2(h)].
Control equipment
Control equipment means any apparatus, device, equipment or system to control the quality and manner of emission
of any air pollutant. It includes any device used for securing the efficient operation of any industrial plant [Section
2(i)].
Industrial plant
Industrial plant means any plant used for any industrial or trade purpose and emitting any air pollutant into the
atmosphere [Section 2(k)]. Thus, even equipment used for trade or business is covered, if it emits air pollutant.
Air pollution control area

State Government, after consultation with State Board, by notification, can declare any area as air pollution control
area. Such areas can be added, deleted or altered by notification. State Government can prohibit burning of any
material (other than fuel) in such area; if it is likely to cause air pollution. It can also order the following:
• Only approved fuel should be used in such area.
• Only approved appliance should be used for burning of any fuel or for generating or consuming any fume, gas
or particulate matter. Such approval of fuel or appliance can be given by State Board [Section 19 of Air Act].
Standards regarding vehicles

State Government, after consulting State Board, may give necessary instructions to the registering authorities under
Motor Vehicles Act in connection with maintenance of standards for emission of air pollutants. Such authority is
bound to act on such instructions [Section 20].
Prior permission necessary for setting up of any industry

No person can establish any industry in air pollution control area without previous consent of the State Board.
Application should be in a prescribed form, accompanied by necessary fees. A person already operating industry
in the control area has to apply for the permission with the necessary fees to the state board within three months.
After making necessary enquiries, the board may grant the consent subject to certain conditions or the consent may
be refused. The consent can be subject to conditions. Such permission or refusal should be within four months. The
State Board can cancel this consent, if the person fails to fulfil the conditions, only after giving the opportunity to
the person of being heard.
Restraint on emitting air pollutants

Person operating any industrial plant shall not allow emission of air pollutants in excess of the standards laid down
by State Board [Section 22 of Act]. State Board can apply to court (Judicial Magistrate or Metropolitan Magistrate)
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for restraining persons from causing air pollution. The court can give the order as it deems fit. Court can order a
person restraining him from discharging air pollutants. Court can authorise Board to implement the said direction
[section 22A of Act].
Responsibility of occupier to inform, if there is excess pollution

Where in any area, the emission of air pollutants is in excess or the standards laid down by State Board (or is likely
to increase), the person in charge of the premises, shall inform the fact to State Board or agencies or authorities
necessary. The Board shall take necessary remedial measures to mitigate the emission of such air pollutants. The
expenses incurred for mitigating the emission can be recovered from the person concerned [Section 23 of Act].
Approved laboratories
State Government can establish approved State Air Laboratories. It can also appoint persons with prescribed
qualifications as Government Analysts. State Board can also appoint persons with prescribed qualifications as Board
Analysts for analysis of samples.
Authorities
The Act envisages Central Board as well as State Pollution Control Boards in each State. [In Union Territories,
Environment Control Committees have been formed, which also have Chairman and Secretary].
Composition of central board

It is the same board constituted under water (prevention and control) of pollution act 1974. A full-time chairman
having knowledge relating to environment pollution (appointed by centre) up to 5 officials to represent central
govt. Up to 5 officials as representing state boards with up to 2 to represent local authorities, up to 3 non-officials
to represent fisheries, agriculture, industry, etc. Up to two persons to represent the corporate sector (by centre) are
needed. A full time member secretary, who is equipped with qualifications and experience in science, engineering,
management, etc., is also required.
The composition of board (detailed) is as follows:

• A Chairman, being a person, having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of matters relating to
environmental protection, to be nominated by the State Government: Provided that the Chairman may be either
whole-time or part-time as the State Government may think fit.
• Such number of officials, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be nominated by the
State Government to represent that government.
• Such number of persons, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be nominated by the State
Government from amongst the members of the local authorities functioning within the State.
• Such number of non-officials, not exceeding three, as the State Government may think fit, to be nominated by
the State Government to represent the interest of agriculture, fishery or industry or trade or labour or any other
interest, which in the opinion of that government, ought to be represented.
• Two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned, controlled or managed by the State Government,
to be nominated by that Government
• A full-time member-secretary having such qualifications, knowledge and experience of scientific, engineering
or management aspects of pollution control as may be prescribed, to be appointed by the State Governments;
provided that the State Government shall ensure that not less than two of the members are persons having special
knowledge or practical experience in, respect of matters relating to the improvement of the quality of air or the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution. Every State Board constituted under this Act shall be a body
corporate with the name specified by the State Government in the notification issued under sub-section (1),
having perpetual succession and a common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire
and dispose of property and to contract and may by the said name sue or be sued.
An occupier
Any person who has control over the affairs of the factory or the premises and includes in relation to any substance,
the person in possession of the substance.
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Chimney
Sec. 2 (h) includes any structure with an opening or outlet from or through which any air pollution may be
emitted.
Approved fuel
Sec. 2 (d) includes any fuel approved by the state board for the purposes of this Act.
Approved appliance
Any equipment or gadget used for the burning of any combustible material or for generating or consuming any
fume, gas or particular matter and approved by the state board for the purpose of this Act.
The following are the powers and functions of central board (sec. 16, part III):
• Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality of air and prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution.
• Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or abatement of air
pollution.
• Coordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them.
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor investigations and research
relating to problems of air pollution and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution.
• Perform such of the function of any State Board as may be specified in an order made under Sub-section (2)
of Section 18.
• Plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the prevention, control
and abatement of air pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central Board may specify.
• Organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention, control or abatement of
air pollution.
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and the measures devised
for its effective prevention, control or abatement and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution.
• Lay down standards for the quality of air, (i) collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating
to air pollution, other functions as necessary.
Powers to entry to collect information:

Any person empowered by a State Board in this behalf shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such
assistance as he considers necessary, any place:
• For the purpose of performing any of the functions of the State Board entrusted to him.
• For the purpose of determining whether and if so in what manner, any such functions are to be performed or
whether any provisions of this Act or the rules made there under or any notice, order, direction or authorisation
served, made, given or granted under this Act is being or has been complied with.
Penalties
If any factory violates provisions of Section 21(running a factory not permitted), Sec. 22(providing information
required under the act), the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than
two years but which may extend to seven years and with fine.
Powers to take samples

A State Board or any officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power to take, for the purpose of analysis,
samples of air or emission from any chimney, flue or duct or any other outlet in such manner as may be prescribed.
The result of any analysis of a sample of emission taken under the above provision shall not be admissible in evidence
in any legal proceeding unless the provisions regarding procedure of taking sample is followed.
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The following is the procedure while taking sample (Sec. 26):

• Serve on the occupier or his agent, a notice, then and there, in such form as may be prescribed, of his intention
to have it so analysed.
• In the presence of the occupier or his agent, collect a sample of emission for analysis.
• Cause the sample to be placed in a container or containers which shall be marked and sealed and shall also be
signed both by the person taking the sample and the occupier or his agent.
• Send, without delay, the container to the laboratory established or recognised by the state board under Section
17 or if a request in that behalf is made by the occupier or his agent when the notice is served on him under
clause (a), to the laboratory established or specified under sub-section (1) of Section 28.
Analysis of findings
Where a sample of emission has been sent for analysis to the laboratory established or recognised by the State Board,
the Board Analyst appointed under sub-section (2) of Section 29 shall analyse the sample and submit a report in
the prescribed form of such analysis in triplicate to the State Board. On receipt of the report under sub-section (1),
one copy of the report shall be sent by the State Board to the occupier or his agent referred to in section 26, another
copy shall be preserved for production before the court in case any legal proceedings are taken against him and the
other copy shall be kept by the State Board.
Meetings of the board

For the purposes of this Act, a Board shall meet at least once in every three months and shall observe such rules of
procedure in regard to the transaction of business at its meetings as may be prescribed provided that it, in the opinion
of the Chairman, any business of an urgent nature is to be transacted, he may convene a meeting of the Board at
such time as he thinks fit for the aforesaid purpose.
Board may constitute a committee

A Board may constitute as many committees consisting wholly of members or partly of members and partly of other
persons and for such purpose or purposes as it may think fit. A committee constituted under this section shall meet
at such time and at such place and shall observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of business at
its meetings, as may be prescribed.
Board may associate persons/bodies for its work

A Board may associate with itself in such manner and for such purposes, as may be prescribed, any person whose
assistance or advice it may desire to obtain in performing any of its functions under this Act. A person associated
with the Board under sub-section (1) for any purpose shall have a right to take part in the discussions of the Board
relevant to that purpose, but shall have a right to vote in a meeting of the Board and shall not be a member of the
Board for any other purpose.
Appeals against the state board

Any person aggrieved by an order made by the State Board under this Act may, within thirty days from the date on
which the order is communicated to him, prefer an appeal to such authority (hereinafter referred to as the Appellate
Authority, 3-member body constituted) as the State government may think fit to constitute.
4.5 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

The Water Act was enacted by Parliament Act, 1974 to provide for the prevention of control of water pollution and
the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water. As on day, it is applicable in all the states of India. This
act, unless the context otherwise requires, includes the following terms:
• Occupier
• Outlet
• Pollution
• Trade effluent
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The relevant provisions of this are given as below:
• Section 19: The entire National Capital Territory of Delhi has been declared as water pollution prevention
control area.
• Section 21: Officials of DPCC can take samples of the water effluent from any industry stream or well or sewage
sample for the purpose of analysis.
• Section 23: Officials of the state boards can enter any premises for the purpose of examining any plant, record,
register, etc., or any of the functions of the Board entrusted to him.
• Section 24: No person shall discharge any poisonous, noxious or any polluting matter into any stream, or well
or sewer or on land.
• Section 25: No person shall without the previous consent to establish perform the following actions:
Establish or take any step to establish any industry, operation or process or any treatment and disposal
system for any extension or addition thereto, which is likely to discharge sewage or trade effluent into a
stream or well or sewer or on land.
Or
Bring into use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of sewage.
Or
Begin to make any new discharge of sewage.
Under this section, the state board may grant consent to the industry after satisfying itself on pollution control
measures taken by the unit or refuse such consent for reasons to be recorded in writing.
• Section 27: A state board may from time to time review any condition imposed by it on the person under Sections
25 and 26 and may vary or revoke that condition.
• Section 28: Any person aggrieved by the order made by the State Board under Section 25, 26 or section 27 may
within thirty days from the date on which the order is communicated to him, prefer an appeal to such authority
(referred to as the appellate authority) as the State Government may think fit to constitute (in case of NCT of
Delhi Appellate authority under this section is Financial Commissioner, Delhi Administration).
• Section 33: The State Board can direct any person who is likely to cause or has caused pollution of water in
street or well to desist from taking such action as is likely to cause its pollution or to remove such matters as
specified by the Board through court.
• Section 33A: DPCC can issue any directions to any person, officer or authority, and such person, officer or authority
shall be bound to comply with such directions. The directions include the power to direct as follows:
The closure, prohibition of any industry.
Stoppage or regulations of supply of electricity, water or any other services.
• Section 43: Whoever contravenes the provisions of Section 24 shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term
which shall not be less than one year and six months, but which may extend to six years with fine.
• Section 45: If any who has been convicted of any offence under Section 24 or Section 25 or Section 26 is again
found guilty of an offence involving a contravention of the same proviso shall be on the second and on every
subsequent conviction be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not less than two years, but
which may extend to seven years with fine.
• Section 45A: Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this act or fails to comply with any order or direction
given under this Act for which no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this Act, shall be punishable with
imprisonment which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees or with
both.
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Summary
• Environmental law encompasses two major areas.
• Laws dealing with pollution are often media-limited, i.e., pertain only to a single environmental medium such
as air, water (whether surface water, groundwater or oceans), soil, etc.
• In the Constitution of India, it is clearly stated that it is the duty of the state to “protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country.”
• The Department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to ensure a healthy environment for the
country.
• The Environment Protection Act of 1986(EPA) came into force soon after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is
considered an umbrella legislation as it fills many gaps in the existing laws.
• The patent system in India is administered under the superintendence of the Controller-General of Patents,
Designs, Trademarks and Geographical Indications.
• Pacific island countries, like the rest of the world, face serious problems regarding disposal of wastes and
pollution.
• Human health is endangered by litter indirectly.
• Improper disposal of waste is a leading cause of water contamination.
• The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act was enacted by Parliament in 1981with an objective to prevention,
control and abatement of air pollution.
• Air Pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance, including noise, present in atmosphere in such
concentration as may tend to be injurious to human beings, living creatures or plants or property or environment
[Section 2(a)].
• A Board may constitute as many committees consisting wholly of members or partly of members and partly of
other persons and for such purpose or purposes as it may think fit.
• The Water Act was enacted by Parliament Act, 1974 purpose to provide for the prevention of control of water
pollution and the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water.
• The entire National Capital Territory of Delhi has been declared as water pollution prevention control area.
References
• Environmental Law and Regulations: From End-of-Pipe to Pollution Prevention. [Pdf] Available at: <http://
www.epa.gov/oppt/greenengineering/pubs/ch3intro.pdf> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Environment and Politics in India. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.asienhaus.de/public/archiv/Chap4.pdf>
[Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Ferrey, S . , 2010. Environmental Law: Examples & Explanations. Aspen Publishers Online, N.Y.
• Naseem, M., 2011. Environmental Law in India. Kluwer Law International.
watch?v=Atn9FWUy-zI> [Accessed 16 December 2013].
• Environmental Law Lecture. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QCt1si_aRFs>
Recommended Reading
• Mustafa, M., 2011. Environmental Law in Malaysia. Kluwer Law International, U.K.
• Senger, D . S., 2007. Environmental Law: With Cd-Rom. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
• Rubiano, D. R., 2011. Environmental Law in Colombia. Kluwer Law International.
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Self Assessment
1. _________dealing with pollution are often media-limited, i.e., pertain only to a single environmental medium,
such as air, water (whether surface water, groundwater or oceans), soil, etc.
a. Issues
b. Laws
c. Challenges
d. Management
2. Which of the following act came into force soon after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is considered an umbrella
legislation as it fills many gaps in the existing laws?
a. The Environment Defence Act of 1966(EDA)
b. The Environment Protection Act of 1986(EPA)
c. The Environment Safety Act of 1978(ESA)
d. The Environment Act of 1981(EA)

A. It means any apparatus, device, equipment or system to control
1. Air pollution
the quality and manner of emission of any air pollutant.
2. Control equipment B. It has been defined under the Patents Act, 1970.
3. Industrial plant C. It means presence of air pollutants in the air.
D. Means any plant used for any industrial or trade purpose and
4. Invention
emitting any air pollutant into the atmosphere [section 2(k)].
a. 1-D, 2-B, 3-A, 4-C
b. 1-A, 2-C, 3-B, 4-D
c. 1-B, 2-D, 3-C, 4-A
d. 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4-B

a. Human health is endangered by litter indirectly.
b. Human health is endangered by litter directly.
c. Human health is endangered by confusion indirectly.
d. Human health is protected by litter indirectly.
5. ___________from industrial waste and sewage and disposal of toxic chemicals are significant contributors to
marine pollution and coastal degradation.
a. Population
b. Recycling
c. Pollution
d. Chemicals

a. Leptospirosis is transmitted by contamination of water supplies by rat or dog urine.
b. Amoebic dysentery is transmitted by sewage-contaminated water.
c. Dengue epidemics are common in the Pacific islands.
d. Proper disposal of waste is a leading cause of water contamination.
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7. The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act was enacted by Parliament in _______with an objective to
prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
a. 1981
b. 1982
c. 1980
d. 1987
8. What means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance, including noise, present in atmosphere in such concentration
as may tend to be injurious to human beings, living creatures or plants or property or environment [Section
2(a)]?
a. Air pollutant
b. Air pollution
c. Control equipment
d. Industrial plant
9. Which of the following is any structure with an opening or outlet form or through which any air pollutant may
be emitted [section 2(h)]?
a. Vent
b. Chimney
c. Pipe
d. Open outlet
10. What of the following has been defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance, coming out of chimney, duct
or fuel or any other outlet [section 2(j)]?
a. Air
b. Pollution
c. Emission
d. Gaseous substance
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Chapter V
Water, Forest and Biodiversity Management
Aim
• introduce water, forest and biodiversity management
• explain water management
• explicate irrigation development and potential in India
Objectives
• enlist types of dams
• elucidate dams and their roles
• explain forest management
Learning outcome
• identify forest products and their trade
• understand biodiversity management
• describe the role of biodiversity in international trade
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5.1 Introduction
Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. Uses of water span agricultural,
industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. All these human activities require fresh water. Life
would cease to exist without water. Salt water constitutes 97% of water on earth. Two-thirds of the remaining fresh
3% fresh water comprises frozen glaciers and polar ice caps. The residual share of unfrozen freshwater is mainly
found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above the ground or in the air.
5.2 Water Management

Though fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world’s supply of clean, fresh water is on a steady decline. With
an incidental rise in population is there a greater demand for fresh water, which heightens the problem of shortage
of fresh water. The demand for water already surpasses its supply in many parts of the world. The awareness of
the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged. This awareness came
only after more than half the world’s wetlands were lost along with their valuable environmental services, with
industrial development in the 20th century. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster
than marine or land ecosystems.
Importance of water management in crop production

Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops. Life cannot sustain without water.
Plants need it in large quantities continuously during their life. It profoundly influences photosynthesis, respiration,
absorption, translocation and utilisation of mineral nutrients and cell division besides some other processes. Both its
shortage and excess affects the growth and development of plants directly and consequently, its yield and quality.
Rainfall is the cheapest source of natural water supply for crop plants. In India, however, rainfall is notoriously
capricious, causing floods and droughts alternately. The irrigation system also depends heavily on rainwater, thus
creating more droughts and floods whenever rainfall is uneven. Its frequency distribution and amount are not in
accordance with the needs of the crops. Artificial water supply through irrigation on one occasion and removal
of excess water through drainage on another occasion, therefore, become imperative if the crops are to be raised
successfully. Water management in India, thus, comprises irrigation, drainage or both, depending considerably on
environmental conditions, soil, crops and climate. It is a situation-oriented entity. Thus, water conservation is very
important in India.
Water affects the performance of crops not only directly, but also indirectly by influencing the availability of other
nutrients, the timing of cultural operations, etc. Water and other production inputs interact with one another. In
proper combinations, crop yields can be boosted manifold under irrigated agriculture. Water is a costly input when
canals supply it. Moreover, very few canals actually supply water in India. The construction of dams and reservoirs,
the conveyance of water from storage points to the fields, the operation and the maintenance of canal systems all
involve huge expenses. The misuse of water leads to problems of water-logging, salt-imbalance, etc., thus rendering
agricultural lands unproductive. Hence, a proper understanding (among people from myriad occupations) of the
relationship among soils, crops, climate and water-resources for maximum crop production is very important in
India.
Water resources
Taking the total geographical area of the country at 328 million hectares and the average annual rainfall at about
112 cm, the total annual precipitation in the country is estimated at about 3,700,000 million cubic metres. The
southwesterly monsoon contributes over 80 per cent to the total precipitation in the country. The easterly winds
can be attributed for most of the remaining amount. The Central Water and Power Commission, New Delhi, has
estimated that of the total annual precipitation amounting to 8,00,000 million cubic metres, about 5,100,000 million
cubic metres seeps into the ground, about 1,700,000 million cubic metres flows into the rivers and the remaining
amount of about 1,200,000 million cubic metres evaporates back into the atmosphere. The water, flowing on the
surface and that seeping into the ground, forms the following two major sources of water for irrigating crops.
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Surface-water resources
India is a land where many rivers flow in abundance. A large number of rivers of distinct sizes and lengths form a
network all over the country. The rivers in the north, which originate from the Himalayas, are snow-fed and thus,
have less seasonal fluctuations in their flow than the rivers in the other parts of the country. Rivers of the central and
southern parts of the country are entirely dependent on the monsoon. The rivers flow to their full capacity during
the rainy season (July to September) and their flow dwindles with the approach of the summer. Post-monsoon river
flow is heightened in the month of June.
This surface-flowing water needs to be trapped in ponds, tanks, lakes or artificial reservoirs when it is available in
abundance, so that, it can be efficiently used for irrigation during dry periods to facilitate irrigation. Of the annual
surface flow of 1,700,000 million cubic metres, only about 666,000 million cubic metres can be utilised for the
purpose of irrigation, owing to the physiographical limitations.
Ground-water sources
Substantial supplies are also available from ground-water sources. Large amounts of rainwater seeps into the ground.
Of the 800,000 million cubic metres of rainwater that seeps into the ground annually, about 430,000 million cubic
meters of it is absorbed by the surface layers of the earth’s crust and thus, can be utilised directly by vegetation in
the process of evapo-transpiration and growth. The residual 370,000 million cubic metres of rainwater percolates
deep into the porous strata of the earth’s crust, representing the gross annual enrichment of the underground water.
This ground water is tapped by digging or drilling wells and is lifted by using mechanical devices for irrigating the
crops. This process is aided by the government to ensure that farmers have sufficient supply of water that meets
their irrigation needs and accrue more harvests per year.
A precise quantitative inventory regarding ground water reserves is unavailable in India. Organisations, such as the
Geographical Survey of India, the Central Ground Water Board and the State Tube-wells and the Ground Water
Boards are engaged in this task. It has been estimated by the Central Ground Water Board that the total ground water
reserves approximately amount to 55,000,000 million cubic metres out of which 425,740 million cubic metres have
been assessed as the annual recharge from rain and canal seepage.
The task force on Ground-Water Reserves of the Planning Commission has also endorsed these estimates. All recharge
to the ground water is not available for withdrawal, since part of it is lost as sub-surface flow. After accounting
from these losses, the gross available ground-water recharge is about 269,960 million cubic metres per annum. A
part of this recharge (2,460 million cubic metres) is in the saline regions of the country and is unsuitable for use in
agriculture owing to its poor quality. The net recharge available for ground water development in India, therefore, is
of the magnitude of about 267,500 million cubic metres per annum. The Working Group of the Planning Commission
Task Force Ground-Water Reserves estimates that the usable ground-water potential would be only 75 to 80 per cent
of the net ground-water recharge available and recommended a figure of 203,600 million cubic metres per annum
as the long-term potential for ground-water development in India.
5.2.1 Irrigation Development and Potential in India

Irrigation has been practised in India since time immemorial. Wells and tanks, known today as ‘minor irrigation
works’, were constructed in the past by several rulers for public welfare. Significant development irrigation, however,
can be said to have commenced from 1850 onwards, with large-scale or major irrigation projects. These activities
gained momentum after independence in 1947. Today, India has about 34 million hectares of land under irrigation,
which amounts to about one-fifth of the total cultivated area. Major irrigation projects, irrigating more than 0.10
million hectares, have been constructed in India.
With utilisation of water resources, both from the surface flow and from the groundwater recharge, the Second
Irrigation Commission has calculated that the ultimate area that can be irrigated is approximately 82 million hectares
in the country. Until the end of the Fourth Plan, it was proposed that about 45 % of the surface utilisable flow and
about 20 % of the usable ground will be utilised to irrigate about 34 million hectares. The commission will try to
increase this amount as much as possible for the benefit of the country and to manage to have more agriculture in
India.
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The programmes for modifying weather, the desalinisation of seawater and the National Water Grid, if enforced,
will further increase the potential for irrigation manifold. Surface water for irrigation is obtained from flowing
rivers and from tanks, ponds, lakes or artificial reservoirs. The flow of rivers is directly diverted into canals or high
dams are built across the river to form first large canals for irrigation. The future development of irrigation aims
at impounding the surplus flows of rivers by constructing dams for use of water during the dry periods. There are
many plans in place to build these dams for increasing the water supply.
Water from all these sources is conveyed to the fields through lined or unlined canals, distributaries and minor channels
through the final structure called outlets. This entire conveyance system, up to the outlet, is built by the Irrigation
Departments. From the outlet, water flows into small watercourses, which are constructed, owned and managed by
a group of farmers. During its transport, there are considerable losses through seepage, percolation and evaporation.
The commission is trying to construct closed canals to reduce this loss. From a typical water-distribution system,
the losses in the main canal vary from 10 to 15 % and in the water-courses from 15 to 30 %. Thus, the total losses
from the source till the water reaches the farmers’ fields may amount to 40-60 %.
Ground water is tapped by digging shallow and large-diameter percolation wells or drilling deep tube-wells and lifting
it to the surface. Shallow wells derive their water supply from the surrounding area through seepage, percolation,
high-water table, etc. Deep wells depend for their water on aquifers, which may have their source at some distance.
River valleys, canal-irrigated areas, low-lying places, natural vegetation and trees growing luxuriantly are indications
of the presence of ground-water resources. The rate at which water can be pumped out from a well depends upon
the recharging rate which, in turn, depends upon the permeability of the surrounding area in the case of shallow
wells and on the thickness and the magnitude of aquifers.
Utilisation of water resources

The scientific utilisation of water resources for crop production involves consideration of the suitability of land and
water for irrigation and then planning crops and water-management practices that commensurate with them. These
factors are very important in managing the flow of water into the system and in taking maximum advantage from
the available resources. Water-management practices include irrigation and drainage. Irrigation comprises three
fundamentals as follows:
• How much water should be drained?
• How to drain water?
• How rapidly should the water be drained?
5.2.2 Soil-Water System

Soil-water system is explained in detail below.
Availability of water for crop plants

Soil is a heterogeneous mass and consists of three phases, viz., solid phase, liquid phase and gaseous phase. Mineral
matter, consisting of sand, silt and clay and organic matter, forms the solid phase, which serves as a framework
(matrix) with numerous pores of different shapes and sizes holding air and water in various proportions. Soil is a
porous medium and serves as a water reservoir or bank. Water is deposited in this bank by rain or irrigation and
plants withdraw it during their growth. The soil quality is important in retention of water. In desert areas, for example,
there is no retention of water in the soil and therefore, plants cannot grow there easily. Some varieties of cacti may
exist in these regions.
Water is retained by a soil particle in the form of a thin film around it and in the numerous small pores of the soil
matrix with forces like surface tension capillarity, cohesion and adhesion. Salts present in soil water accentuate these
forces by way of osmotic pressure. Plants, therefore, need to exert at least an equal amount of force for extracting
water from the soil mass for their growth.
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Immediately after rain or irrigation, water infiltrates into the soil and continues to move downwards into the soil
mass to deeper layers. This downward movement is because of the gravitational force. The downward movement
of water practically ceases after a certain time (normally after 48 to 72 hours). The water retained in the soil under
this situation is termed ‘field capacity’ which forms the upper limit of the available soil moisture for crop plants.
In other words, any further addition of water will not be retained by the soil, but will be lost through deep percolation
beyond the roots of a crop, thus making it unavailable for the growth of its plants. After the wetting of the soil, as
evaporation and transpiration continue, the soil water goes on diminishing till a point is reached when plants are
unable to extract it. The moisture content at this stage is termed ‘permanent wilting-point’ and this sets the lower
limit of the availability of soil water. In other words, any moisture below this point will not support plant growth.
The range of soil water between the field capacity and the permanent wilting-point is termed ‘available soil water
for crop growth’. The available soil water-holding capacity increases mainly with the fineness of texture and the
content of organic matter.
Availability of soil water for crop growth

Two classical hypotheses have been put forth for the relative availability of soil water in the available range:
• Water availability and consequently, the crop growth are equal and uniform over the entire range from the field
capacity to the permanent wilting-point. This holds good generally, for perennial species, such as orchard and
tree crops whose dense root mass permeates the soil matrix thoroughly.
• Water availability and crop growth proceed uniformly from the field capacity to a certain critical point beyond
which crop growth decreases rapidly until the permanent wilting-point is reached. This view holds good for
most of the seasonal field crops maturing up to the seed stage.
5.2.3 Water Management in Developing Countries

Water management in developing countries is explained in the paragraphs below.
The community’s current water-related strategies and activities

The social sector has been identified as a priority for Community Development Policy. The management of water
resources is an important element of this sector. The guidelines adopted in 1998 form the basis of Community
activities. They have been used to define the orientations contained in this communication. They establish a holistic
and strategic approach for water management and use. Water management is considered an inter-sectoral question
as it has an important role to play in all areas of development: health, food security, transport, trade, etc. Regional
cooperation is of particular importance since water is often a trans-boundary resource. Water management is therefore
considered one of the most important aspects for the future of the world.
Future guidelines
It is essential to integrate water management into all development policies. With a view to achieving the goals in
this field, the Commission has laid the foundation for a number of ideas, which are summarised below.
Raising the policy profile

More attention must be paid to the fragility of water resources and a more resolute political approach encompassing
all the areas linked to water management, such as environmental sustainability, pollution, etc., must be adopted. If
this is followed through, there will be a rise in scarcity of water and the problem will intensify. Six development
priorities of the Community are the overarching framework for these activities. Within these priorities, the Commission
identifies the following three objectives:
• Ensuring supply to every human being, especially the poorest, of sufficient drinking water of good quality and
adequate means of waste disposal.
• Sustainable and equitable trans-boundary water resource management.
• Cross-sectoral coordination to ensure fair and appropriate distribution of water between users of different
kinds.
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Implementation of an integrated approach to water management

The commission identifies five activities required to achieve integrated management of water resources, namely:
• Awareness and participation: Users must be aware of the importance of water as a resource and their
responsibilities in relation to sound management of this precious resource. Ownership is a key factor in the
success of the policies and the participation of actors at all levels is thus essential.
• Institution capacity building: The success of activities is contingent upon capacity, resources and expertise of
the institutions concerned. Support must be provided for the institutions responsible for water management.
• Demand-based management: It is not adequate to manage only water distribution; supply must also be managed.
The challenge entails reduction of demand while increasing output through initiatives, such as reuse of water,
protecting water resources, etc.
• Expanding knowledge-base: Necessary knowledge and information are essential for drawing up effective
policies.
• Coordination: Coordination among donors (community, member states, the United Nations, NGOs, etc.) must
be strengthened.
5.2.4 Water-related Action for its Different Uses

This approach must encompass all uses of water. The Commission highlights the priority actions in the following
fields:
• Secure water supply and adequate sanitation for all: Emphasis is placed on the importance of sanitation.
• Use of water in agriculture for food and production to ensure food security: The Commission highlights the
importance of saving water and promoting healthy agricultural practices to avoid contamination of water
sources.
• Protecting and restoring water resources and ecosystems to contribute to the long-term sustainability of water
use.
• Water as a source of energy and resource for industry: Rational water use must be ensured and pollution must
be reduced and avoided.
• Management of water-related risks and of coastal areas: Risks relating to floods, droughts, etc., must be prevented
through the establishment of warning systems and rapid response capacity systems.
All sources of public and private financing must be mobilised to implement these actions.
Key global challenges

The international community must tackle some significant questions that are becoming increasingly critical as water
resources become scarce. The three major challenges are as follows:
• Trans-boundary water management for conflict prevention
• Implications of climate change
• The impact of the globalisation of trade on water management
Given that water resources are increasingly limited, the possibilities of conflicts over trans-boundary water
management are on the rise. Support must be provided for measures aimed at improving regional cooperation on the
management of trans-boundary water resources. Developing countries are particularly vulnerable to the problems
linked to climate change, such as floods and droughts. Assistance in the form of research and capacity building that
enables them to prevent and react to growing problems is necessary. The fact that they lack enough resources to
manage with limited infrastructure hampers their efforts to conserve water more efficiently.
With regard to trade, the liberalisation of international trade could have a positive impact on developing countries.
Imports of water-intensive food crops may prove to be a practical and cost-effective approach to ensuring food
security. However, it is essential not to compromise a country’s long-term prospects of overall food security or
have a negative impact on farmers who grow food crops in developing countries. A strategic partnership must be
established at the international level in order to achieve objectives and resolve problems. This process should be
followed by developing countries and encompass civil society. This will ensure some stability in the system and
lesser fights between countries over water.
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5.2.5 Water Reservoirs
A reservoir is an artificial lake employed to store water. Reservoirs may be created in river valleys by the construction
of a dam or may be built by excavation in the ground or by conventional construction techniques such as brickwork
or cast concrete. The term ‘reservoir’ may also be used to describe underground reservoirs, such as an oil or water
well. A dam is constructed mainly to preserve water for further usage. A dam constructed in a valley relies on the
natural topography to afford the basin area of the reservoir.
Dams are typically located at a narrow part of a valley downstream of a natural basin. The valley sides act as
natural walls with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to provide strength and the lowest practical cost
of construction. Building a dam has its own ramifications though. In many reservoir construction projects, people
have to be moved and re-located, historical artifacts have to be shifted or rare environments need to be relocated.
Examples include the temples of Abu Simbel (which was moved before the construction of the Aswan Dam to create
Lake Nasser from the Nile in Egypt) and the re-location of the village of Capel Celyn during the construction of
Llyn Celyn. Construction of a reservoir in a valley will usually necessitate the diversion of the river during part of
the construction often through a temporary tunnel or by-pass channel.
5.2.6 Uses
The uses of water reservoirs are dealt with in the paragraphs below.
Direct water supply

The water stored in dams is utilised for many purposes. Many dammed river reservoirs and most bank-side
reservoirs are used to provide the raw water feed to a water treatment plant, which delivers drinking water through
water mains. The reservoir does not simply hold water until it is needed; it can also be the first part of the water
treatment process. The time the water is held for before it is released is known as the retention time. These design
features allow particles, silt to settle down and makes time for natural biological treatment using algae, bacteria and
zooplankton that naturally live within the water. The stored water essentially contains impurities, which cannot be
cleaned naturally. Natural processes in temperate climate lakes produce temperature stratification in the water body
which tends to partition some elements, such as manganese and phosphorus into deep, cold anoxic water during
the summer months. In autumn and winter, the lake becomes fully mixed again. During drought conditions, it is
sometimes necessary to draw down the cold bottom water and such elevated levels of manganese in particular can
cause problems in water treatment plants.
Hydroelectricity
Water has many more benefits when it is stored in the dams. One huge benefit is its propensity to generate electricity.
A reservoir generating hydroelectric power has turbines connected to the retained water body by large-diameter
pipes. These generating sets may be at the base of the dam or some distance away. Some reservoirs generating
hydro-electricity use pumped recharge in which a high-level reservoir is filled with water using high performance
electric pumps at times when electricity demand is low. They then use this stored water to generate electricity by
releasing the stored water into a low-level reservoir when electricity demand is high. Such systems are called pump
storage schemes. This benefit is very important as electricity is one of the most important aspects in today’s life and
many Indian states are losing money as they lack enough electricity to meet their needs.
Controlling watercourses
Reservoirs can be used in a number of ways to control how water flows through downstream waterways.
Downstream water supply

Water may be released from an upland reservoir so that it can be utilised for drinking lower down the system,
sometimes hundreds of miles further down downstream.
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Irrigation
Water in an irrigation reservoir may be released into networks of canals for use in farmlands or secondary water
systems. These canals can be open or closed. Irrigation may also be supported by reservoirs, which maintain river
flows allowing water to be harvested for irrigation lower down the river.
Flood control
Flood control reservoirs collect water during times of very high rainfall and then release it slowly over the course
of the following weeks or months. This is done with meticulous planning and experience. Some of these reservoirs
are constructed across the river line with the onward flow controlled by an orifice plate. When river flow exceeds
the capacity of the orifice plate, water collects behind the dam, but as soon as the flow rate reduces, the water behind
the dam slowly releases until the reservoir is empty again.
In some cases, such reservoirs only function a few times in a decade and the land behind the reservoir may be
developed as community or recreational land. This primarily transforms in to agricultural land. Such land cannot
be employed for industrial use. New generations of balancing dams are being developed to combat the climatic
consequences of climate change. They are called ‘flood detention reservoirs’. However, they possess a risk of clay
core drying out and reduction in structural stability, because these reservoirs remain dry for long periods. Recent
developments include the use of composite core fill made from recycled materials as an alternative to clay. Thus,
modern technology amplifies the efficiency of water management.
Canals
Where a natural watercourse’s water is not available to be diverted into a canal, a reservoir may be built to guarantee
the water level in the canal, for example, where a canal climbs to cross a range of hills through locks. The water
may be stored here to maintain surplus supply and/or to ensure excess space in case of floods.
Recreation
Water may be released from a reservoir to artificially create or supplement white-water conditions for kayaking and
other white-water sports. On salmonid rivers, special releases (in Britain called freshets) are made to encourage
natural migration behaviours in fish and to provide a variety of fishing conditions for anglers.
5.2.7 Environmental Impact

Environmental impact has been explained in the paragraphs below.
Whole life environmental impact

All reservoirs will have a monetary cost/benefit assessment made before construction to see if the project is worth
proceeding with. However, such analysis can often omit the environmental impacts of dams and the reservoirs that
they contain. Often, the dam wrecks the ecosystem that has formed in that particular region. Some impacts, such as
greenhouse gas production associated with concrete manufacture are relatively easy to estimate. Other impacts on
the natural environment and social and cultural effects can be more difficult to assess and to weigh in the balance,
but identification and quantification of these issues are now commonly required in major construction projects in
the developed world.
Climate change
Depending upon the circumstances, a reservoir built for hydro-electricity generation can either reduce or increase
the net production of greenhouse gases. An increase can occur, if plant material in the flooded areas decays in an
anaerobic environment releasing methane and carbon dioxide. This apparently counter intuitive position arises
because much carbon is released as methane, which is approximately eight times more potent as a greenhouse gas
than carbon dioxide. This increase can be dangerous for the environment and hence it should be avoided as much
as possible.
A study for the National Institute for Research in the Amazon evinced that hydroelectric reservoirs release a large
pulse of carbon dioxide from above-water decay of trees left standing in the reservoirs, especially during the first
decade after closing. This elevates the global warming impact of the dams to levels much higher than would occur
by generating the same power from fossil fuels. According to the World Commission on Dams Report (Dams and
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Development), when the reservoir is relatively large and no prior clearing of the forest in the flooded area was
undertaken, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir could be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired
thermal generation plant. For instance, in 1990, the impoundment behind the Balbina Dam in Brazil (closed in 1987)
had over 20 times the impact on global warming than generating the same power from fossil fuels would, due to
the large area flooded per unit of electricity generated.
A decrease can occur if the dam is employed in place of traditional power generation, since electricity produced
from hydroelectric generation does not give rise to any fuel gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion (including
sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide and carbon monoxide from coal). The Tucurui dam in Brazil (closed in 1984) had only
0.4 times the impact on global warming than would generate the same power from fossil fuels.
5.3 Dams and Their Roles

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of
retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or
prevent the water’s flow into specific land regions.
5.3.1 Types of Dams

Based on the size , dams are classified in to five types. International standards define large dams as higher than
15–20 metres and major dams as over 150–250 metres in height. An auxiliary dam is constructed to confine the
reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a
reservoir for increased efficiency.
• An auxiliary dam: It is constructed in a low area or saddle through which the reservoir water would otherwise
escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby
land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee,
which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect the adjacent land from flooding.
• An overflow dam: It is designed to be over-topped. A weir is a type of small overflow dam that is often used
within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be
used for flow measurement.
• Check dam: It is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing
dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation
of sediment.
• Dry dam: It is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to
flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.
• Diversionary dam: It is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural
course.
5.3.2 Based on Structure

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as timber dams, arch dams, gravity dams, embankment
dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.
• Timber dams: Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas
due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times by humans because of their relatively short
lifespan and limited height, timber dams must be constantly kept wet in order to maintain their water retention
properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical
to build are those where either timber is plentiful and cement is costly or difficult to transport or where a low
head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue.
• Arch dams: An arch dam is a type of dam that is curved and generally built with concrete. The arch dam is
a structure that is designed to curve upstream so that the force of the water against it, known as hydrostatic
pressure, presses against the arch, compressing and strengthening the structure as it pushes into its foundation
or abutments. An arch dam is most suitable for narrow gorges or canyons with steep walls of stable rock to
support the structure and stresses. As they are thinner than any other dam type, they require smaller amounts of
construction material, thereby making them economical and practical in remote areas.
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• Gravity dams: A gravity dam is constructed from concrete or masonry or sometimes both. It is called a gravity
dam because gravity holds it down to the ground stopping the water in the reservoir pushing it over. Gravity
dams use their own weight to resist opposing forces and as such require a hard bedrock foundation. A cross-
section (or slice) through a gravity dam will usually look roughly triangular. Gravity dams are suited to sites
with either wide or narrow valleys, but they do need to be built on sound rock formation.
• Embankment dams: These are made from compacted earth and are of two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill
dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, similar to gravity dams made from
concrete. Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone.
The earth utilised for this often contains a large percentage of large particles, hence we use the term rock-fill.
Earth-fill dams, also called earthen, rolled-earth or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment
of well-compacted earth.
5.3.3 Purposes of Dams

Purposes of dams are as follows:
Function Example
Hydroelectric power is a major source of electricity in the world.
Many countries possess rivers with adequate water flow that can be
dammed for power generation purposes. For example, the Itaipu on
Power generation
the Parana River in South America generated 14 GW and supplied
93% of the energy consumed by Paraguay and 20% of that consumed
by Brazil as of 2005.
Many urban areas of the world are supplied with water abstracted
from rivers that are confined behind low dams. Examples include
London with water from the River Thames and Chester with water
Water supply
taken from the River Dee. Other major sources include deep upland
reservoirs contained by high dams across deep valleys such as the
Claerwen series of dams and reservoirs.
Dams are often used to control and stabilise water flow, often for
agricultural purposes and irrigation. Others such as the Berg Strait
Stabilise water flow/irrigation
dam can help to stabilise or restore the water levels of inland lakes
and seas, e.g., the Aral Sea.
Dams such as the Blackwater dam of Webster, New Hampshire and
Flood prevention
the Delta Works are created for the purpose.
Dams (often called dykes or levees in this context) are used
to prevent ingress of water to an area that would otherwise be
Land reclamation
submerged, allowing its reclamation for human use. Example:
Hoover Dam, Arizona, USA,etc.
A typically small dam is used to divert water for irrigation, power
generation or other uses, with usually no other function. Occasionally,
these are used to divert water to another drainage or reservoir to
Water diversion
increase the flow there and improve water use in that particular area,
e.g., the Imperial Dam diverts Colorado River in the southwestern
United States.
Dams create deep reservoirs and can vary the flow of water
downstream. This can in return affect upstream and downstream
navigation by altering the river’s depth. Deeper water increases or
creates freedom of movement for water vessels. Large dams can
Navigation
serve this purpose but most often weirs and locks are used. Example:
Bonneville Lock and Dam comprise several run-of-the-river dam
structures that together complete a span of the Columbia River
between the US states of Oregon and Washington at River Mile.
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Dams built for any of the above purposes may find themselves
displaced by time of their original uses. Nevertheless, the local
community may have come to enjoy the reservoir for recreational and
Recreation and aquatic beauty aesthetic reasons. Often the reservoir will be placid, surrounded by
greenery and convey a natural sense of rest and relaxation to visitors.
Example: KRS (Krishna Raja Sagara, India) dam is best example of a
dam that is an ideal tourist destination.
Table 5.1 Purpose of dams
5.4 Forest Management

Forest management is the branch of forestry concerned with the overall administrative, economic, legal and social
aspects and with the essentially scientific and technical aspects, especially silviculture, protection and forest regulation.
This includes management for aesthetics, fish, recreation, urban values, water, wilderness, wildlife, wood products,
forest-genetic resources and other forest resource values. Management can be based on conservation, economics
or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber-extraction, planting and replanting of various species, cutting
roads and pathways through forests and preventing fire. Forests give hope of further life. If the forests are depleted,
the world will not be able to survive.
Public input and awareness

There has been increased public awareness of natural resource policy, including forest management. Public concern
regarding forest management may have shifted from the extraction of timber to the preservation of additional forest
resources including wildlife and old growth forests, protecting biodiversity, watershed management and recreation.
Increased environmental awareness may contribute to an increased public mistrust of forest management professionals
and will lead to proper management of forests everywhere.
Wildlife considerations
The abundance and diversity of birds, mammals, amphibians and other wildlife is affected by strategies and the
various types of forest management.
Forest management in India-bringing a network back to life

In India, forests are a main source of livelihood and income for some 315 million people, i.e., nearly one-third
of the country’s total population. The majority is very poor and for a long time they were deprived of their rights
and fair access to these natural resources. As traders and the government heavily exploited forests, their situation
increasingly degraded. Animosity between local communities and the nation’s forestry department was constant.
This was because the government did not allow local communities to cut trees for their consumption. Then, in 1988,
a new policy made it possible for India’s forests to be managed by the government and the people together. The
result was the introduction of the Joint Forest Management programme in 1990.
Under the programme, villages organise committees that work with government foresters to prevent or halt forest
degradation in exchange for rights to non-timber forest products and a share of revenues from timber harvesting.
After its initial success in West Bengal, Joint Forest Management programme has spread to 27 of India’s 29 states.
It involves more than 63,600 village committees. This growth is a reflection of its resounding success.
The Ford Foundation initially supported Joint Forest Management in two states and later assisted the efforts of 25
non-governmental organisations to start a network for information exchange and policy advocacy. By the end of
1996, the network had grown to more than 150 members, ranging from nongovernmental, research and academic
institutions to a few forestry agencies. This was a big achievement, considering the kind of people involved in the
process. However, this Delhi-centred network faltered, when pressed to respond to the demands of new members
from all over the country. In addition, the network had neither effective links to grass-root institutions nor regular
channels to forestry policy-making processes.
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5.5 Forest Products and Their Trade

The forest products sector is estimated to contribute about one percent of the world’s gross domestic product and to
account for three percent of international merchandise trade. The annual turnover of round wood, sawn wood, panels,
pulp and paper exceeds US$200 billion. Although the values of non-wood forest products and the environmental
services of forests are difficult to estimate in economic terms, they are critical to the livelihoods of an estimated
600 million people in the developing world alone.
This means that a large part of the Indian population depends on forests as a means of livelihood. The emerging
markets for environmental services including the development of carbon trading under the Kyoto Protocol of the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) may have a considerable impact on patterns
of trade in forest products and on forest management, making forestry more profitable as an environmentally sound
and economically viable land-use option.
The total amount of round wood felled globally has declined slightly, since the beginning of the 1990s, as an outcome
of decreased production in tropical areas and in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Approximately
80 percent of wood harvested from tropical forests is consumed as fuel-wood, while in temperate and boreal areas
fuel-wood production has been declining. In Europe, bio-energy is gaining importance. On the other hand, wood is
facing stiff competition in some of its key markets such as construction, decking, windows, mouldings or furniture
from a wide range of other materials, such as steel, plastics or aluminium. International trade flows continue to be
geared towards markets in the United States, Canada, Japan and Europe. However, major markets, such as China
and India play an increasingly important role in the dynamics of world trade. There are huge imports to India of
wood and allied products.
In the past, the international trade regime, primarily pursued by the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and regional
trade agreements, focused its attention on tariffs and other formal trade measures. While those trade measures are
generally decreasing in importance worldwide, trade and forest policy makers are increasingly concentrating on
non-tariff measures to increase market access for forest products and services and to improve sustainable forest
management. This move could backfire though, as it could actually increase the demand of wooden products. As
steps to liberalise trade generally continue, the international debate in various regions for a mutually supportive
relationship between trade in forest products and services and environment-related social issues will continue to
influence patterns of forestry trade worldwide. Consequently, the international and regional trade policy debates,
within and outside formal flora and institutions, are increasingly influenced by multilateral environmental agreements
such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
These institutions help in maintaining forests around the globe.
Forest Management Certification and product labelling play an important role in accommodating environmental
and social concerns in forestry. The increasing demand for certified forest products and the emerging markets for
environmental services support further development of international certification schemes and national initiatives
in this regard. While forest products certification is a market-based instrument, its relationship with national and
international policy-making and policy implementation has become more prominent because of considerable political
attention and promotion of this instrument by important institutions and constituencies in the government and civil
society. The so-called ‘phased approach to forest products certification’, currently debated in the International Tropical
Timber Council (ITTC) and other flora, shows the strong support of governments in the promotion of certification
initiatives to achieve policy targets.
While the debate on international trade in forest products and services and the development and dynamics of the
world market draw most of the international attention, domestic trade continues to play the most important role.
A relatively small number of analyses focus on the impact and interaction between domestic trade and forest
management. This is particularly true in developing countries and in countries with economies in transition. In order
to support sustainable forest management, the rehabilitation of degraded forestland and the establishment of forest
resources at the community level, environmental and social services of forests need careful consideration. It is the
interface between trade and forest management that serves as the indicator for positive or negative influences and
dynamics between them.
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The contribution of forests towards poverty reduction is often under-estimated. Recent analyses of the contribution
of forests to poverty reduction note their broader significance for local livelihoods and estimate that hundreds of
millions of people depend on forests for subsistence production and environmental services like watersheds, soil
erosion control, microclimate, biodiversity and cultural services.
It is estimated that 60 million highly forest-dependent people live in the rainforests of Latin America, Southeast Asia
and Africa. An additional 350 million people are directly dependent on forest resources for subsistence or income
and 1.2 billion people in developing countries use trees on farms to generate food and cash. Loss of forest resources
is believed to affect 90 % of the 1.2 billion people who live in extreme poverty directly. Against this background,
trade in forest products and services is vital for economic growth as well as for safeguarding sustainable livelihoods
in rural areas throughout the developing world.
5.6 Biodiversity Management

The variety of life on earth or its biological diversity is commonly alluded to as biodiversity. The number of species
of plants, animals and microorganisms, the enormous diversity of genes in these species, the different ecosystems
on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral reefs are all part of a biologically diverse Earth. Appropriate
conservation and sustainable development strategies attempt to recognise this as being integral to any approach.
Almost all cultures have in some way or form recognised the importance that nature and its biological diversity has
had upon them and the need to maintain it. Yet, power, greed and politics have affected the precarious balance.
5.7 Role of Biodiversity in International Trade

Trade-related work under the Convention on Biological Diversity captures different aspects of the complex
relationship between international trade and the objectives and provisions of the convention. The production of
value-added goods and services derived from the biological diverse environment, which are traded in domestic and
international markets (biotrade), may generate incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
Accordingly, a number of thematic programmes of work under the convention call for increased marketing of
products derived from sustainable use. As an outcome of these initiatives, The Secretariat of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (SCBD) is cooperating closely with the Biotrade Initiative of the United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) to advance biotrade promotion.
The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the Convention’s governing body that meets every two years, or as needed,
to review progress in the implementation of the Convention, to adopt programmes of work, to achieve its objectives,
and provide policy guidance. It adopted a provisional framework of goals and targets to enhance the evaluation
of achievements and progress in the implementation of the strategic plan of the convention. Target 4.3 of this
framework calls for no species of wild flora and fauna to be endangered by international trade. The Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is the key partner in implementing
this target and both conventions are cooperating closely to implement this target, including a liaison of biodiversity-
related conventions.
While the Convention on Biological Diversity does not require measures that are directly related to international
trade, there is an intricate relationship between many of its provisions as well as those of its Biosafety Protocol
and the multilateral rules and provisions of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). For instance, the Parties to
the Convention have emphasised the interrelationship between the convention and the provisions of the WTO’s
Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) and the need to further explore
this interrelationship. Similarly, the parties have underlined the relationship between the Biosafety Protocol and
the provisions of the WTO Agreements on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) and Application of Sanitary and
Phytosanitary Measures (SPS).
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Summary
• Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans.
• Life would cease to exist without water.
• Salt water constitutes 97% of water on Earth.
• Though fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world’s supply of clean, fresh water is on a steady
decline.
• Rainfall is the cheapest source of natural water supply for crop plants.
• India is a land where many rivers flow in abundance.
• Substantial supplies are also available from ground-water sources.
• Irrigation has been practised in India since time immemorial.
• Soil is a heterogeneous mass and consists of three phases, viz., solid phase, liquid phase and gaseous phase.
• The social sector has been identified as a priority for Community Development Policy.
• Developing countries are particularly vulnerable to the problems linked to climate change such as floods and
droughts.
• A reservoir is an artificial lake employed to store water.
• Flood control reservoirs collect water during times of very high rainfall and then release it slowly over the
course of the following weeks or months.
• A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams.
• Forest management is the branch of forestry concerned with the overall administrative, economic, legal and
social aspects and with the essentially scientific and technical aspects, especially silviculture, protection and
forest regulation.
• The forest products sector is estimated to contribute about one percent of the world’s gross domestic product
and to account for three percent of international merchandise trade.
• The variety of life on Earth or its biological diversity is commonly alluded to as biodiversity.
References
• Biodiversity. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/05_Biodiversity.pdf> [Accessed 17
December 2013].
• Conservation across Landscapes India’s Approaches to Biodiversity Governance. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.
undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/EnE/conservation-across-landscapes.pdf> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Junk, W. J . , 2010. Amazonian Floodplain Forests: Ecophysiology, Biodiversity and Sustainable Management.
Springer.
• Bruijnzeel, L. A., Scatena, F. N. and Hamilton, L. S., 2010. Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Science for
Conservation and Management. Cambridge University Press, U.K.
• Lecture 2 by Oliver Hillel (Part 3 of 3): Biodiversity management after 2010: What can education do?. [Video
online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eRrkIL4WkJk> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Biodiversity and Land Management Lecture - Part I. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=QBxEOA483C4> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
Recommended Reading
• Bebarta, K. C., 2002. Planning for Forest Resources and Biodiversity Management: Principles, Organization
and Methodology. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.
• Wittmer, H. and Gundimeda, H., 2012. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity in Local and Regional
Policy and Management. Routledge.
• Silk, N. and Ciruna, C., 2005. A Practitioner’s Guide to Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. Island
Press.
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Self Assessment
1. Water resources are __________ of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans.
a. uses
b. sources
c. means
d. supply
2. Though fresh water is a __________ resource, yet the world’s supply of clean, fresh water is on a steady
decline.
a. renewable
b. non-renewable
c. main
d. polluted
1. Check dam A. It is a dam designed to control flooding.
B. It is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and

2. Dry dam
control soil erosion.
C. It is a type of dam that is curved and generally built with

3. Timber dams
concrete.
D. These dams were widely used in the early part of the

4. Arch dams industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and
speed of construction.
a. 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B
b. 1-A, 2-C, 3-B, 4-D
c. 1-B, 2-A, 3-D, 4-C
d. 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A
4. What is an artificial lake employed to store water called?

a. A dam
b. A canal
c. A reservoir
d. Irrigation
5. __________has been practised in India since time immemorial.

a. Erosion
b. Irrigation
c. Reservoir
d. Utilisation
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6. What is a heterogeneous mass and consists of three phases, viz. solid phase, liquid phase and gaseous phase?
a. Soil
b. Mineral
c. Water
d. Irrigation

a. Salt water constitutes 97% of water on earth.
b. Life would originate to exist without water.
c. Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops.
d. Plants need it in large quantities continuously during their life.
8. A __________ is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams.

a. dam
b. reservoir
c. hydroelectric
d. orifice plate

a. Water has little benefits when it is stored in the dams.
b. Water has hardly any benefits when it is stored in the dams.
c. Water has many more losses when it is stored in the dams.
d. Water has many more benefits when it is stored in the dams.
10. Forest Management Certification and product __________ play an important role in accommodating
environmental and social concerns in forestry.
a. management
b. knowledge
c. labelling
d. value
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Chapter VI
Disaster Management
Aim
• introduce disaster management
• explain typology disaster management
• explicate emergency management
Objectives
• explain organisational structure and institutional arrangements for emergency management in the state
• elucidate planning process
• explicate trigger mechanism
Learning outcome
• identify the financial arrangements
• understand paradigm shift towards prevention and reduction
• recognise ushering in a new culture of disaster management
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6.1 Introduction
Disasters have been visiting every part of the globe at one time or the other. The world is becoming increasingly
vulnerable to various disasters. From earthquakes to floods and famines, mankind is even more threatened by the
forces of nature. Disasters can strike at any time, at any place. The traditional perception has been limited to the
idea of ‘calamity relief’, which is seen essentially as a non-plan item of expenditure. However, Disasters can have
devastating effects on the economy they cause huge human and economic losses, and can significantly set back
development efforts. Two recent disasters, the Orissa Cyclone and the Gujarat Earthquake are cases in point. With
the kind of economic losses and developmental setbacks that the country has been suffering year-after-year, the
development process needs to be sensitive towards disaster prevention and mitigation aspects. There is thus the
need to look at disasters from a development perspective as well.
6.2 Disaster Management

The word Disaster is from a French word ‘Desastre’ meaning bad or evil star. However, this is a very narrow
conception of disaster and in our context; any disaster means a situation in which there is a sudden disruption of
normalcy within society causing widespread damage to life and property.
Typology of disaster
A disaster can be either natural [rain, flood, cyclone, storm, landslides, earthquake, volcanoes, etc.] or manmade
[war including biological, arson, sabotage, riots, accident (train, air, ship, etc.), industrial accidents, fires (forest
fires), bomb explosions, nuclear explosions and ecological disasters]. The discussion here is confined to the natural
disasters. Pre-independence, droughts and famines were the biggest killers in India. The situation has changed due
to a combination of factors like irrigation development and food security measures. Floods, cyclones, droughts,
landslides, avalanches and earthquakes are some of the major natural disasters that repeatedly and increasingly
affect the country.
Vulnerability
Vulnerability is defined as the extent to which a community, structure, service, or geographic area is likely to be
damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity
to hazardous terrain or a disaster-prone area. In 1989, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed the
decade 1999-2000 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). At the world conference
on natural disaster reduction in the city of Yokohama, Japan in 1994, deep concern was expressed at the continuing
human suffering and disruption of development due to natural disasters and a Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action
for a Safe World was developed. This was a definitive step in disaster mitigation and preparedness planning.
It is not possible to do away with the devastation due to natural hazards completely. However, destruction from
natural hazards can be minimised by the presence of well-functioning warning systems, combined with preparedness
on the part of the vulnerable community. Disaster management may be seen as a part of good governance.
6.3 Basic Concepts of Emergency Management

The basic concept suggests that the same management strategies can be applied to all emergencies. Emergencies
do not just appear one day, rather they exist throughout time and have a life-cycle of occurrence, and hence the
management strategy should match the phases of an emergency in order to mitigate, prepare, respond and recover
from its effect. There are four phases in emergency management: mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.
The four phases are visualised as having a circular relationship to each other (Emergency Management Cycle). The
activities in one phase may overlap those in the previous one.
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Pre-Emergency
Redevelopment
Preparedness
Preventio
Emergency
Mitigation
Redevelopment
Post-Emergency
Fig. 6.1 Emergency management cycle

(Source: http://www.spc.tn.gov.in/tenthplan/CH_17.PDF)
6.3.1 Mitigation
Mitigation refers to activities which actually eliminate or reduce the vulnerability or chance of occurrence or the
effects of a disaster. Mitigation phase begins with conducting hazard identification and vulnerability analysis which
are essential to the planning of all other phases. Hazard identification and vulnerability analysis is a two-step process.
First, the hazard is identified which has the potential of affecting the population. Secondly, how people, property
and structures will be affected by the disastrous event.
6.3.2 Preparedness
Preparedness is a state of being ready to react promptly and effectively in the event of an emergency. Being prepared
means that, a plan of action exists for an emergency, so that it is clear as to what to do before the emergency occurs.
Preparedness measures to be undertaken depends upon the analysis of hazard severity and vulnerability, which is
also the basis for deciding mitigation strategy. In some cases, such as a flood or hurricane, an early warning gives
several hours to act. However, often no prior warning of an impending emergency, such as with earthquakes,
tornadoes, explosions, or major fires is possible. Preparedness for any emergency, especially those, which strike
without notice, requires a plan. It is essential to identify the resources available, and ways to utilise them. It must
also be reasonably certain that the plan will work in an emergency situation.
Preparedness plan
The purpose of a plan is to provide a systematic way of responding to an emergency situation. The following aspects
should be taken into consideration in the development of emergency preparedness plan:
• Identification of possible emergency situations which may occur in an area.
• Deployment of officer in charge in case of emergency.
• Developing a strategy for activities likely to be undertaken and resources which could be of use.
• Identifying government bodies responsible to respond in case of emergency.
• Establishment of Emergency Operation Centre (EOC) or Control Room to carry on emergency operations
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6.3.3 Response
Response activities occur during and immediately following a disaster. They are designed to provide emergency
assistance to victims of the event and reduce the likelihood of secondary damage. The five basic stages of response
to an emergency or disaster are as follows:
• Notification/warning
• Immediate public safety
• Property security
• Public welfare
• Restoration
The length of each stage depends upon the emergency situation.
Notification/warning
Notification/warning is the first stage of response. Warning should be issued to two specific groups as follows:
• The general public
• Departments, individuals, or agencies who must respond to the emergency
In most emergency situations, the general public can be informed through radio and television; however, those in
the immediate danger area should be informed by more direct means using public address systems.
Those departments, individuals or agencies, which must be alerted, should be informed according to the emergency
preparedness plan. The alert could be done by two-way radio, telephone, messenger or local television and radio
bulletins. The people who are expected to respond must be given enough information, so that they know what to do.
Practically no warning can be given for an earthquake as there exists no scientific method to predict its occurrence.
However, some of the conventional ways of earthquake prediction have been practised since ancient times, the most
relevant being the erratic behaviour of animals just before an earthquake and it can be considered as an indicator
of earthquake.
Immediate public safety

Immediate public safety deals primarily with providing emergency medical services, search and rescue and evacuation
from the disaster area. The primary concern is for safety of the people and treatment of those who are injured.
Property security
This stage deals primarily with the protection of property in the community. Primarily local police carry out the
actions in this stage. The police should see that property is safe and looting or vandalism does not occur. The fire
department aids in prevention of further damage to surrounding property. The public works/highways department/
local urban or rural bodies may also play an important part by providing manpower, removing debris or providing
street barricades.
Public welfare
Public welfare consists of two main operations, caring for the people after the emergency and assessing damage.
This stage is where it is most important that all the service agencies work closely. During the public welfare stage the
prime concern is about mass care for injured, shelter for the homeless, food and clothing for those in need. During
this stage, assessment of the damage is necessary in order to obtain state or national support.
Restoration
Restoration involves actions that repair the necessities of life, which means restoring utility service and the removal
of debris from the disaster scene.
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6.3.4 Recovery
Recovery is the final phase of the emergency management cycle. Recovery continues until all systems return to
normal, or near normal. Short-term recovery returns vital life support systems to minimum operating standards. It
grows out of the response effort. During the response phase, emergency repairs to buildings are made as protective
measures against further damage or injury. Short-term recovery is the restoration of vital services and facilities to
minimum standards of operation and safety. Severely damaged buildings are scheduled to be replaced or removed,
water and sewer repairs are made, electricity and telephone services returned to normal.
Long-term recovery
Long-term recovery may continue for a number of years, as the community slowly returns to pre-emergency or
better conditions. Long-term recovery may include the complete redevelopment of damaged areas. During short-
term recovery, buildings are repaired and people’s immediate needs are taken care of and assistance programmes
are put into effect. There is no clear-cut distinction when long-term recovery begins. They are not two distinctly
different phases of recovery. Long-term recovery is simply those recovery efforts, which are still in operation long
after the disaster and includes everything from complete redevelopment of the disaster area to mitigation efforts
to prevent a similar disaster on an on-going basis for years after the emergency. The recovery phase of emergency
management is just as vital as the mitigation, preparedness, and response phases. A key element in the recovery
phase is to develop and implement ways to reduce community’s vulnerability to a repeat of a similar emergency
and also continued liaison with the State Headquarters and the Central Government for assistance.
Redevelopment as mitigation
After a major disaster, certain areas may be completely levelled and new buildings must be designed to take their
place. Redevelopment refers to the complete replacement of structures, and not just structure repair. Redevelopment
provides the opportunity to reduce the chances that similar structural damage will occur again. The redevelopment
officials (public and private) must think of ways to rebuild the damaged structures, so that the next time the same
hazard strikes, the impact is greatly reduced. Engineers should evaluate, if the building codes respond to a particular
hazard. Planners should evaluate whether the damaged area should be re-zoned for lower density uses. Residents of
a disaster-affected area should be asked for their preference for resettlement in the same area or other. The loss of
human life and property from a disaster can be substantially reduced by timely issue of warning to the community
likely to be affected from the disaster. Similarly, providing a quick response immediately after the disaster can
substantially reduce the suffering of the affected people.
6.4 Organisational Structure and Institutional Arrangements for Emergency Management

in the State
The organisational structure and institutional arrangements for emergency management in the state are discussed
in the paragraphs below.
State Emergency Management Planning Committee (SEMPC)

A state emergency management plan must be prepared for each kind of disaster and the details of the organisational
structure for emergency management activities should be made known. Responsibility of concerned agencies
for the execution of rescue, relief and recovery operations and standard operating procedure for each should be
made available. A state emergency management planning committee (SEMPC) should be constituted with all the
stakeholders as members.
State Crisis Group (SCG)

The setting up of a State Crisis Group (SCG) will enable quick decision-making, operational direction and coordination
of the issue of warning and execution of rescue, relief and recovery operations. The responsibilities of the SCG
would include the following:
• On spot decision-making
• Control and coordination of response and recovery activities
• Resource mobilisation and replenishment
• Monitoring of overall response and recovery activities
• Preparation of reports for submission to State Government through Relief Commissioner
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State Emergency Manager (SEM)

Different government agencies and the NGOs are supposed to operate within the overall direction and coordination
of the Commissioner of Revenue Administration/Relief Commissioner, who may be designated as the State
Emergency Manager (SEM). The individual government agencies and the NGOs will perform the assigned jobs,
but the State Emergency Manager will appropriately augment their resources by drawing upon resources from other
government agencies and the local communities. The chief secretary or commissioner of revenue administration can
also assign additional responsibilities and functions to different government agencies to meet the requirements of
the situation. During the time of emergency, the chief secretary or the commissioner of revenue administration who
is the State Emergency Manager (SEM) would act as the focal point for control and coordination of all activities.
His responsibilities would be as follows:
• Get in touch with the local Army/Navy/Air force units for assistance in rescue, evacuation and relief.
• Requisition resources, materials and equipment from all departments/organisations of the government and also
from private sector.
• Direct industry to activate their onsite and offsite disaster management plan.
• Set up site operations centre in the affected area with desk arrangements.
• Arrange establishment of transit and/or relief camps, feeding centres and cattle camps.
• Send Preliminary Information Report and Action Taken Report to the Government.
• Arrange immediate evacuation whenever necessary.
State Emergency Control Room (SECR)

The need for directing the operations at the affected site, the need for coordination at the district headquarters and
the need for interaction with the State Government to meet the conflicting demands at the time of disaster is the
responsibility of the Relief Commissioner and his team. A well-equipped State Emergency Control Room (SECR)
in terms of manpower and equipment should be established to help the Relief Commissioner and his team and to
perform the following functions:
• Collection and compilation of information from the affected area
• Documenting information flow
• Decision-making regarding resource management
• Allocation of task to different resource organisation
• Supply of information to State Government
The SECR may have senior representatives in the capacity of Desk Officers from the following key resource
agencies:
• Search, Rescue & Evacuation desk-Police and Fire Services
• Logistics & Welfare desk
• Medical desk
• Infrastructure desk
The Desk Officers should maintain constant contact with the State Crisis Group members and the other district
heads to ensure quick decision-making.
Activities of State Emergency Control Room (SECR)

The activities of state emergency control room are discussed in the paragraphs given below.
Normal times
The responsibilities during the normal times will include:
• Ensure all warning and communication systems, instruments are in working condition.
• Collect information on a routine-basis from the State departments on the vulnerability of areas to disasters.
• Liaise with SEMPC.
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• Develop status reports of preparedness and mitigation activities in the State.
• Ensure appropriate implementation of State Emergency Management Plan.
• Maintain data bank with regular updating.
Evaluation and updation of State Emergency Management Plan is the responsibility of SEMPC. However, SEMPC
would keep an account of the amendments and accordingly review its response strategy. SECR will be responsible
for activating the trigger mechanism in the event of receipt of a warning or occurrence of a disaster.
Activities on occurrence of emergency

Issue warning/alert: On the basis of message received from the forecasting agencies, warning has to be issued for the
general public and the departments which play a vital role during emergencies. Issue of correct and timely warning
would be one of the prime responsibilities of SECR. For effective dissemination of warning SECR should have a
well planned line of communication. The relief commissioner would be the authoritative body to issue warning.
Formulation of warning message should consider the target group for which it is issued.
Post-emergency activities
After an emergency the main responsibility of a SECR would be:
• Evaluation of relief and rehabilitation activities in order to assess the nature of state intervention and support,
suitability of the organisation structure, institutional arrangements, adequacy of operating procedures, monitoring
mechanisms, information tools, equipment and communication system.
• Post-emergency impact studies for long-term preventive and mitigation efforts to be taken.
Communication room (main message room)

The police wireless system should continue to be in contact with the SECR. In every district the police have a
well-established wireless communication system; therefore, under any emergency the communication resources
available with the police may be utilised. During disaster, SECR would be connected to Site Operations Centre and
the facilities at various Desks.
Emergency Support Functions (ESFs)

Emergency Support Functions (ESFs) are how emergency management accomplishes many of the tasks of responding
to an emergency.
List of emergency support functions

The main emergency support functions are as follows:
• ESF No. 1 – Communication
• ESF No. 2 – Public Health and Sanitation
• ESF No. 3 – Power
• ESF No. 4 – Transport
• ESF No. 5 – Donation
• ESF No. 6 – Search and Rescue
• ESF No. 7 – Public Works and Engineering
• ESF No. 8 – Food
• ESF No. 9 – Information and Planning
• ESF No. 10 – Relief Supplies
• ESF No. 11 – Drinking water
• ESF No. 12 – Shelter
• ESF No. 13 – Media
• ESF No. 14 – Help lines
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6.5 Planning Process

The Planning process for disaster management is based on the principle that response and level of preparedness
required are dependent on the extent of vulnerability and the level of capacity to deal with situations. Disasters may
be graded at four-levels as follows:
• L1: District-level disasters within the capabilities of the district administration to deal with.
• L2: State-level disasters within the capabilities of State Government to deal with.
• L3: National-level disasters requiring major intervention of the Central Government.
• L0: No disaster situations. This is the level at which surveillance, preparedness and mitigation activities must
be focussed on.
6.6 Trigger Mechanism

Trigger mechanism is a quick response mechanism, which would spontaneously set the vehicle of management into
motion on the road to disaster mitigation process. The trigger mechanism has been envisaged as a preparedness plan,
whereby the receipt of a single of an impending disaster would simultaneously energise and activate the mechanism
for response and mitigation without loss of crucial time. This would entail all the participating managers to know
in advance the task assigned to them and the manner of response. Identification of available resources, including
manpower, material and equipment and adequate delegation of financial and administrative powers are prerequisites
to successful operation of the trigger mechanism.
As and when a disaster takes place, be it natural or man-made, the managers struggle to mitigate its effects on human
lives and material losses. The immediate response in all disasters has more or less the same parameters. These are to
provide rescue and relief and save the precious human life. Thus, the emergency response of the disaster managers
is a factor independent of the types of intensity of the disasters.
As and when the disasters strike or take place, the managers are required to swing in action without losing time.
Generally, in such situations, the managers start organising, planning and activating the mitigation process. On the
other hand, the event had already taken place and the need of that hour is to start the mitigation process and virtually
no time can be spared at that stage for the activities like organising and planning. Time is the essence of the immediate
relief and rescue operations to save human lives and mitigate human miseries for the next 48 to 72 hours. Thereafter,
actually what is required to be done is a part of long-term rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes.
The trigger mechanism in fact is a preparedness plan in which all the participating managers, and actors know in
advance the task assigned to them and the manner in which they have to be prepared themselves to respond. In
fact the trigger mechanism is in essence the Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) in which the implementation
of the efforts on ground is well laid down. Generally, the activities which include evacuation, search and rescue,
temporary shelter, food, drinking water, clothing, health and sanitation, communications, accessibility, and public
information which are very important components of disaster management, would follow on the activation of the
Trigger Mechanism.
All these major activities which are common in all types of disasters will require sub-division and preparation of
sub-action plans by each specified authority. They will be required to list all requirements and their availability
within the prescribed response-time. Separate SOPs need to be in place for each frontline agency like Police, Fire-
Service, PWD, Highways, Health Departments, etc.
The Trigger Mechanism requires the disaster managers to achieve the following:
• Evolve an effective signal/warning mechanism.
• Identify activities and their levels.
• Identify sub-activities under each activity/level of activity.
• Specify authorities for each level of activity and sub-activity.
• Determine the response time for each activity.
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• Work out individual plans of each specified authority to achieve the activation as per the response time.
• Have quick response teams for each specified authority.
• Have alternative plans and contingency measures.
• Provide appropriate administrative and financial delegations to make the response mechanism functionally
viable.
• Undergo preparedness drills.
6.7 Paradigm Shift Towards Prevention and Reduction

Recognising the rapidly rising worldwide toll of human and economic losses due to natural disasters, the UN General
Assembly in 1989 took a decision to launch a far-reaching global undertaking during the nineties to save human
lives and reduce the impact of natural disasters. With this aim in mind, the decade 1990-2000 was declared as the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
The objective of the IDNDR was to reduce, through concerted international action, especially in developing countries,
the loss of life, property damage and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters, such as earthquakes,
floods, cyclones, landslides, locust infestations, drought and desertification and other calamities of natural origin.
By the year 2000, as per the plan of the IDNDR, all countries should have the following:
• Comprehensive national assessments of risks from natural hazards, with these assessments taking into account
their impact on developmental plans.
• Mitigation plans at national and/or local levels, involving long-term prevention and preparedness and community
awareness.
• Ready access to global, regional, national and local warning systems and widespread dissemination of such
warnings.
Prevention, mitigation and preparedness strategy

The prevention, mitigation and preparedness strategy can be achieved as follows:
• Development of a culture of prevention as an essential component of an integrated approach to disaster-
reduction.
• Prepare and maintain in a state of readiness ‘Preparedness and Response Plans’ at National, State and District
levels.
• Adoption of a policy of self reliance in each vulnerable area.
• Education and training in disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness for enhancement of capabilities at
all levels.
• Identification and strengthening of existing centres of excellence in order to improve disaster prevention,
reduction and mitigation capabilities.
6.8 Ushering in a New Culture of Disaster Management

A new culture of disaster management can be ushered in through the approaches which are described in the following
paragraphs.
Culture of preparedness
Hitherto, the approach towards coping with the effects of natural disasters has been post-disaster management
involving many problems, such as law and order, evacuation and warnings, communications, search and rescue,
fire-fighting, medical and psychiatric assistance, provision of relief and sheltering, etc. After the initial trauma of
the occurrence of the natural disaster is over within the first few days or weeks, the phase of reconstruction and
economic, social and psychological rehabilitation is taken up by the people themselves and by the government
authorities. Soon thereafter, the occurrence of the disaster is relegated to historic memory till the next one occurs
either in the same area or in some other part of the country.
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It is not possible to do away with the devastation of natural hazards completely. However, experience has shown
that destruction from natural hazards can be minimised by the presence of a well-functioning warning system,
combined with preparedness on the part of the vulnerable community. Warning systems and preparedness measures
reduce and modify the scale of disasters. A community that is prepared to face disasters receives and understands
warnings of impending hazards and has taken precautionary and mitigatory measures will be able to cope better
and resume their normal life sooner.
Culture of prevention
One of the many lessons learnt by victims of various natural disasters is that the aftermath of a disaster can be even
worse than the disaster event itself. Thus, there is a need to acknowledge the necessity for efforts towards disaster
prevention. However, people are often surprised by the concept of reducing disasters. How, it is often asked, can a
natural disaster such as an earthquake or a cyclone be reduced or prevented?
Natural occurrences such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones, etc., simply cannot be avoided altogether, they are a part
of the environment we live in. What can be done, however, is to take preventive measures at various levels of society
in order to make the impact of such natural hazards as harmless as possible for people and people’s properties. The
impact of a natural hazard can be reduced; its worst effects can be prevented.
Early warning
Building codes do not exist against storm surge inundation. Prescribed means today to save life and properties
against storm surge inundation is to evacuate people to safer places as quickly as possible on receipt of warnings.
Coordinated early warning systems against tropical cyclone are now in existence around the globe and it is possible
to warn the affected population at least 24 to 36 hours in advance about the danger from a tropical cyclone. By taking
advantage of early warning systems, it is now possible by prepared and knowledgeable communities to minimise
the loss of lives and properties.
Development planning
There is a need to integrate development plans and regulations with disaster-mitigation. The construction of roads,
railways lines, bridges, etc., should be according to the topography and geology of that area in terms of risk and
vulnerability. All development projects (engineering and non-engineering) including irrigation and industrial projects
should be targeted towards disaster-mitigation.
Environmental protection, afforestation programmes, pollution control, construction of earthquake-resistance

structures should have priority for implementation. What is important is to introduce a culture of prevention in
disaster managers and all communities, at all levels: action to save lives must be taken before disaster strikes. For
instance, most of the deaths and casualties in an earthquake are caused not by the earthquake itself, but due to the
collapse of buildings and concrete structures. Hence, earthquake proof features need to be planned and incorporated
at the structural design itself. Retrofitting of existing structures will also mitigate the effects of an earthquake.
Such preventive measures are essential also in a state like Tamil Nadu considering that much of the state has been
upgraded to Zone III in the revised seismic Zonation map of India, on par with Latur in Maharashtra. The building
control regulations need to be revised accordingly.
6.9 Financial Arrangements

The policy arrangements for meeting relief expenditure related to natural disasters are, by and large, based on the
recommendations of successive Finance Commissions. The two main windows presently open for meeting such
expenditures are the Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) and National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF). The Calamity
Relief Fund is used for meeting the expenditure for providing immediate relief to the victims of cyclone, drought,
earthquake, fire, flood and hailstorm. Expenditure on restoration of damaged capital works should ordinarily be
met from the normal budgetary heads, except when it is to be incurred as part of providing immediate relief, such
as restoration of drinking water sources or provision of shelters, etc., or restoration of communication links for
facilitating relief operations. The amount of annual contribution to the CRF of each State for each of the financial
years 2000-01 to 2004-05 is as indicated by the Finance Commission. Of the total contribution indicated, the
Government of India contributes 75 percent of the total yearly allocation in the form of a non-plan grant, and the
balance amount is contributed by the State Government concerned. A total of Rs.11, 007.59 crores was provided
for the Calamity Relief Fund from 2000-05.
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Pursuant to the recommendations of the Eleventh Finance Commission, apart from the CRF, a National Calamity
Contingency Fund (NCCF) Scheme came into force with effect from the financial year 2000-01 and would be
operative till the end of the financial year 2004-05. NCCF is intended to cover natural calamities like cyclone,
drought, earthquake, fire, flood and hailstorm, which are considered to be of severe nature requiring expenditure
by the State Government in excess of the balances available in its own Calamity Relief Fund. The assistance from
NCCF is available only for immediate relief and rehabilitation. Any reconstruction of assets or restoration of damaged
capital should be financed through re-allocation of plan funds.
The initial corpus of the National Fund is Rs.500 crores, provided by the Government of India. This fund is required
to be recouped by levy of special surcharge for a limited period on central taxes. Assistance provided by the Centre
to the States from the National Fund is to be financed by the levy of a special surcharge on the central taxes for a
limited period. A list of items and norms of expenditure for assistance chargeable to CRF/NCCF in the wake of
natural calamities is prescribed in detail from time-to-time.
There are a number of important ongoing schemes that specifically help reduce disaster vulnerability. Some of
these are Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP), Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Desert
Development Programme (DDP), Flood Control Programmes, National Afforestation & Eco-development Programme
(NA&ED), Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP), Crop Insurance, Sampurn Grameen Rozgar
Yojana (SGRY), Food for Work, etc.
The High Power Committee (HPC) constituted by GOI on Disaster Management which submitted its report in October
2001 recommended that at least 10 percent of plan funds at the national, state and district levels be earmarked and
apportioned for schemes which specifically address areas, such as prevention, reduction, preparedness and mitigation
of disasters.
The Eleventh Finance Commission too paid detailed attention to the issue of disaster management and, in its chapter
on calamity relief, came out with a number of recommendations, of which the following have a direct bearing on
the Plan:
• Expenditure on restoration of infrastructure and other capital assets, except those that are intrinsically connected
with relief operations and connectivity with the affected area and population, should be met from the plan funds
on priority basis.
• Medium and long-term measures should be devised by the concerned Ministries of the Government of India,
the State Governments and the Planning Commission to reduce, and if possible, eliminate, the occurrences of
these calamities by undertaking developmental works.
• The Planning Commission, in consultation with the State Governments and concerned Ministries, should be
able to identify works of a capital nature to prevent the recurrence of specific calamities. These works may be
funded under the Plan.
In order to move towards safer development, development projects should be sensitive towards disaster mitigation.
With the kind of economic losses and developmental setbacks that the country has been suffering year-after-year,
it makes good economic sense to spend a little extra today in a planned way on steps and components that can help
in prevention and mitigation of disasters, than be forced to spend many multiples more later on restoration and
rehabilitation. The design of development projects and the process of development should take the aspect of disaster
reduction and mitigation within its ambit; otherwise, the development ceases to be sustainable and eventually causes
more hardship and loss to the nation.
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Summary
• Disasters have been visiting every part of the globe at one time or the other.
• Disasters can strike at any time, at any place.
• The word Disaster is from a French word ‘Desastre’ meaning bad or evil star.
• Any disaster means a situation in which there is a sudden disruption of normalcy within society causing
widespread damage to life and property.
• Vulnerability is defined as the extent to which a community, structure, service, or geographic area is likely to be
damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity
to hazardous terrain or a disaster-prone area.
• In 1989, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed the decade 1999-2000 as the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
• Emergencies do not just appear one day, rather they exist throughout time and have a life-cycle of occurrence,
and hence the management strategy should match the phases of an emergency in order to mitigate, prepare,
respond and recover from its effect.
• There are four phases in Emergency Management, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.
• After a major disaster, certain areas may be completely levelled and new buildings must be designed to take
their place.
• The relief commissioner would be the authoritative body to issue warning.
• The planning process for disaster management is based on the principle that response and level of preparedness
required are dependent on the extent of vulnerability and the level of capacity to deal with situations.
• Trigger mechanism is a quick response mechanism, which would spontaneously set the vehicle of management
into motion on the road to disaster mitigation process.
• One of the many lessons learnt by victims of various natural disasters is that the aftermath of a disaster can be
even worse than the disaster event itself.
• The policy arrangements for meeting relief expenditure related to natural disasters are, by and large, based on
the recommendations of successive Finance Commissions.
• The Calamity Relief Fund is used for meeting the expenditure for providing immediate relief to the victims of
cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood and hailstorm.
References
• Disaster Management. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.spc.tn.gov.in/tenthplan/CH_17.PDF> [Accessed 17
December 2013].
• Disaster Management: Policies, Protocols and Preparedness.[Pdf] Available at<http://shodhganga.inflibnet.
ac.in/bitstream/10603/3411/10/10_chapter%202.pdf> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Coppola, D . P. , 2010. Introduction to International Disaster Management. Elsevier.
• Gupta, H . K, 2003. Disaster Management. Universities Press, India.
• EAHA Day 1 Session 1: Introduction to Disasters Lecture. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=aNrDMYBDDlk> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Public lecture video (2.17.2012): Planning and preparing for the Local-Level Disaster Response. [Video online]
Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jREjO9RJbQ> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
Recommended Reading
• Pinkowski, J., 2008. Disaster Management Handbook. CRC Press.
• Singh, S. K., Singh, S., 1998. Disaster management. Mittal Publications.
• Collins, L. R., 2002. Disaster Management and Preparedness. CRC Press.
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Self Assessment
1. The word Disaster is from a French word ‘__________’ meaning bad or evil star.
a. Desastre
b. Disaster
c. Desast
d. Disast
2. When did the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed the decade 1999-2000 as the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)?
a. 1999
b. 1978
c. 1989
d. 1969
A. It is a state of being ready to react promptly and

1. Mitigation
effectively in the event of an emergency.
2. Preparedness B. It is the final phase of the emergency management cycle.
C. It refers to activities which actually eliminate or reduce

3. Response the vulnerability or chance of occurrence or the effects of
a disaster.
D. These activities occur during and immediately following
4. Recovery
a disaster.
a. 1-A, 2-D, 3-B, 4-C
b. 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A
c. 1-B, 2-C, 3-A, 4-D
d. 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4-B
4. ___________involves actions that repair the necessities of life, which means restoring utility service and the
removal of debris from the disaster scene.
a. Public welfare
b. Notification/warning
c. Immediate public safety
d. Restoration
5. What is the first stage of response?

a. Immediate public safety
b. Notification/warning
c. Property security
d. Public welfare
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6. ___________ and updation of State Emergency Management Plan is the responsibility of SEMPC.
a. Trigger
b. Emergency
c. Planning
d. Evaluation
7. What refers to the complete replacement of structures, and not just structure repair?
a. Planners
b. Recovery
c. Redevelopment
d. Restoration
8. ____________ is a quick response mechanism, which would spontaneously set the vehicle of management into
motion on the road to disaster mitigation process.
a. Planning process
b. Trigger Mechanism
c. Emergency Support Functions
d. Evaluation

a. The police wireless system should continue to be in contact with the SECR.
b. The police system should stop to be in contact with the SECR.
c. The police wireless system should discontinue being in contact with the SECR.
d. The police should continue to be in contact with the people.

a. Disasters have been visiting every part of the globe at one time or the other.
b. Disasters can’t strike at any time, at any place.
c. A disaster can be either natural or manmade.
d. Pre-Independence, droughts and famines were the biggest killers in India.
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Chapter VII
The Legal and Regulatory Framework for Environmental Protection in India
Aim
• introduce legal and regulatory framework for environmental protection
• explain legislations for environmental protection in India
• explicate water (prevention and control of pollution) act
Objectives
• enlist environment (protection) act, 1986 (EPA)
• elucidate hazardous wastes
• explicate international agreements on environmental issues
Learning outcome
• identify convention on biological diversity, 1992 and UN convention on desertification, 1994
• understand an assessment of the legal and regulatory framework for environmental protection in India
• describe UN framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC), 1992
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7.1 Introduction
Over the years, together with spreading of environmental consciousness, there has been a change in the traditionally-
held perception that there is a trade-off between environmental quality and economic growth as people have come
to believe that the two are necessarily complementary. The current focus on environment is not new. Environmental
considerations have been an integral part of the Indian culture. The need for conservation and sustainable use of
natural resources has been expressed in Indian scriptures, more than three thousand years old and is reflected in the
constitutional, legislative and policy framework as also in the international commitments of the country.
Even before India’s independence in 1947, several environmental legislations existed, but the real impetus for bringing
about a well-developed framework came only after the UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm,
1972). Under the influence of this declaration, the National Council for Environmental Policy and Planning within the
Department of Science and Technology was set up in 1972. This Council later evolved into a full-fledged Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MoEF) in 1985 which today is the apex administrative body in the country for regulating
and ensuring environmental protection. After the Stockholm Conference, in 1976, constitutional sanction was given
to environmental concerns through the 42nd Amendment, which incorporated them into the Directive Principles of
State Policy and Fundamental Rights and Duties.
An extensive network of environmental legislation has grown in the country, since the 1970s. The MoEF and the
pollution control boards (CPCB, i.e., Central Pollution Control Board and SPCBs, i.e., State Pollution Control
Boards) together form the regulatory and administrative core of the sector.
A policy framework has also been developed to complement the legislative provisions. The Policy Statement
for Abatement of Pollution and the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and
Development were brought out by the MoEF in 1992, to develop and promote initiatives for the protection and
improvement of the environment. The EAP (Environmental Action Programme) was formulated in 1993 with the
objective of improving environmental services and integrating environmental considerations in to development
programmes. Other measures have also been taken by the government to protect and preserve the environment. This
chapter attempts to highlight only legislative initiatives towards the protection of the environment.
7.2 Legislation for Environmental Protection in India

The legislations for environmental protection in India are explained in the paragraphs given below.
7.2.1 Water
Water quality standards especially those for drinking water are set by the Indian Council of Medical Research. These
bear close resemblance to WHO standards. The discharge of industrial effluents is regulated by the Indian Standard
Codes and recently, water quality standards for coastal water marine outfalls have also been specified. In addition to
the general standards, certain specific standards have been developed for effluent discharges from industries, such
as iron and steel, aluminium, pulp and paper, oil refineries, petrochemicals and thermal power plants. Legislations
to control water pollution are listed below.
Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1974

This Act represented India’s first attempts to comprehensively deal with environmental issues. The Act prohibits the
discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond a given standard, and lays down penalties for non-compliance. The
Act was amended in 1988 to conform closely to the provisions of the EPA, 1986. It set up the CPCB (Central Pollution
Control Board) which lays down standards for the prevention and control of water pollution. At the State level, the
SPCBs (State Pollution Control Board) function under the direction of the CPCB and the state government.
Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1977

This Act provides for a levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by industries and local authorities. It aims
at augmenting the resources of the central and state boards for prevention and control of water pollution. Following
this Act, the water (prevention and control of pollution) cess rules were formulated in 1978 for defining standards
and indications for the kind of and location of meters that every consumer of water is required to install.
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7.2.2 Air
Legislations to control air pollution are listed below.
Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981

To counter the problems associated with air pollution, ambient air quality standards were established, under the
1981 Act. The Act provides means for the control and abatement of air pollution. The Act seeks to combat air
pollution by prohibiting the use of polluting fuels and substances, as well as by regulating appliances that give rise
to air pollution. Under the Act, establishing or operating of any industrial plant in the pollution control area requires
consent from state boards. The boards are also expected to test the air in air pollution control areas, inspect pollution
control equipment, and manufacturing processes.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for major pollutants were notified by the CPCB in April 1994.
These are deemed to be levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of safety, to protect public health,
vegetation and property (CPCB 1995 cited in Gupta, 1999). The NAAQS prescribes specific standards for industrial,
residential, rural and other sensitive areas. Industry-specific emission standards have also been developed for iron and
steel plants, cement plants, fertilizer plants, oil refineries and the aluminium industry. The ambient quality standards
prescribed in India are similar to those prevailing in many developed and developing countries.
To empower the central and state pollution boards to meet grave emergencies, the Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Amendment Act, 1987, was enacted. The boards were authorised to take immediate measures to tackle such
emergencies and recover the expenses incurred from the offenders. The power to cancel consent for non-fulfillment
of the conditions prescribed has also been emphasised in the Air Act Amendment.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules formulated in 1982, defined the procedures for conducting
meetings of the boards, the powers of the presiding officers, decision-making, the quorum; manner in which the
records of the meeting were to be set, etc. They also prescribed the manner and the purpose of seeking assistance
from specialists and the fee to be paid to them.
Complementing the above Acts is the Atomic Energy Act of 1982, which was introduced to deal with radioactive
waste. In 1988, the Motor Vehicles Act was enacted to regulate vehicular traffic, besides ensuring proper packaging,
labelling and transportation of the hazardous wastes. Various aspects of vehicular pollution have also been notified
under the EPA of 1986. Mass emission standards were notified in 1990, which were made more stringent in 1996.
In 2000, these standards were revised yet again and for the first time separate obligations for vehicle owners,
manufacturers and enforcing agencies were stipulated. In addition, fairly stringent Euro I and II emission norms
were notified by the Supreme Court on April 29, 1999 for the city of Delhi. The notification made it mandatory for
car manufacturers to conform to the Euro I and Euro II norms by May 1999 and April 2000, respectively, for new
noncommercial vehicle sold in Delhi.
7.2.3 Forests and Wildlife

The legislations to protect forests and wildlife are listed below.
The wildlife (protection) Act, 1972, amendment 1991

The WPA (Wildlife Protection Act), 1972, provides for protection to listed species of flora and fauna and establishes a
network of ecologically-important protected areas. The WPA empowers the central and state governments to declare
any area a wildlife sanctuary, national park or closed area. There is a blanket ban on carrying out any industrial
activity inside these protected areas. It provides for authorities to administer and implement the Act; regulate the
hunting of wild animals; protect specified plants, sanctuaries, national parks and closed areas; restrict trade or
commerce in wild animals or animal articles; and miscellaneous matters. The Act prohibits hunting of animals
except with permission of authorised officer when an animal has become dangerous to human life or property or
disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery (WWF-India, 1999). The near-total prohibition on hunting was made
more effective by the Amendment Act of 1991.
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The forest (conservation) Act, 1980

This Act was adopted to protect and conserve forests. The Act restricts the powers of the state in respect of de-
reservation of forests and use of forestland for non-forest purposes (the term ‘non-forest purpose’ includes clearing any
forestland for cultivation of cash crops, plantation crops, horticulture or any purpose other than re-afforestation).
7.2.4 General
The legislations to protect environment in general are listed below.
Environment (protection) Act, 1986 (EPA)

This Act is an umbrella legislation designed to provide a framework for the coordination of central and state authorities
established under the Water (Prevention and Control) Act, 1974 and Air (Prevention and Control) Act, 1981. Under
this Act, the central government is empowered to take measures necessary to protect and improve the quality of the
environment by setting standards for emissions and discharges; regulating the location of industries; management
of hazardous wastes, and protection of public health and welfare.
From time to time, the central government issues notifications under the EPA for the protection of ecologically-
sensitive areas or issues guidelines for matters under the EPA. Some notifications issued under this Act are:
• Doon Valley Notification (1989), which prohibits the setting up of an industry in which the daily consumption
of coal/fuel is more than 24 MT (million tonnes) per day in the Doon Valley.
• Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (1991), which regulates activities along coastal stretches. As per this
notification, dumping ash or any other waste in the CRZ is prohibited. The thermal power plants (only foreshore
facilities for transport of raw materials, facilities for intake of cooling water and outfall for discharge of treated
waste water/cooling water) require clearance from the MoEF.
• Dhanu Taluka Notification (1991), under which the district of Dhanu Taluka has been declared an ecologically
fragile region and setting up power plants in its vicinity is prohibited.
• Revdanda Creek Notification (1989), which prohibits setting up industries in the belt around the Revdanda
Creek as per the rules laid down in the notification.
• The Environmental Impact Assessment of Development Projects Notification, (1994 and as amended in 1997).
As per this notification:
All projects listed under Schedule I require environmental clearance from the MoEF.
Projects under the delicenced category of the New Industrial Policy also require clearance from the
MoEF.
All developmental projects whether or not under the Schedule I, if located in fragile regions must obtain
MoEF clearance.
Industrial projects with investments above Rs 500 million must obtain MoEF clearance and are further
required to obtain a LOI (Letter Of Intent) from the Ministry of Industry, and an NOC (No Objection
Certificate) from the SPCB and the State Forest Department if the location involves forestland. Once the
NOC is obtained, the LOI is converted into an industrial licence by the state authority.
The notification also stipulated procedural requirements for the establishment and operation of new power
plants. As per this notification, two-stage clearance for site-specific projects, such as pithead thermal power
plants and valley projects is required. Site clearance is given in the first stage and final environmental clearance
in the second. A public hearing has been made mandatory for projects covered by this notification. This is
an important step in providing transparency and a greater role to local communities.
• Ash Content Notification (1997), required the use of beneficiated coal with ash content not exceeding 34% with
effect from June 2001, (the date later was extended to June 2002). This applies to all thermal plants located
beyond one thousand kilometres from the pithead and any thermal plant located in an urban area or, sensitive
area irrespective of the distance from the pithead except any pithead power plant.
• Taj Trapezium Notification (1998), provided that no power plant could be set up within the geographical limit
of the Taj Trapezium assigned by the Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority.
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• Disposal of Fly Ash Notification (1999), the main objective of which is to conserve the topsoil, protect the
environment and prevent the dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged from lignite-based power plants. The
salient feature of this notification is that no person within a radius of 50 km from a coal-or lignite-based power
plant shall manufacture clay bricks or tiles without mixing at least 25% of ash with soil on a weight-to-weight
basis. For the thermal power plants, the utilisation of the fly ash would be as follows:
Every coal or lignite-based power plant shall make available ash for at least ten years from the date of
publication of the above notification without any payment or any other consideration, for the purpose of
manufacturing ash-based products, such as cement, concrete blocks, bricks, panels or any other material or
for construction of roads, embankments, dams, dykes or for any other construction activity.
Every coal or lignite based thermal power plant commissioned subject to environmental clearance conditions
stipulating the submission of an action plan for full-utilisation of fly ash shall, within a period of nine years
from the publication of this notification, phase out the dumping and disposal of fly ash on land in accordance
with the plan.
Rules for the manufacture, use, import, export and storage of hazardous microorganisms/genetically engineered
organisms or cell
Rules for the manufacture, use, import, export and storage of hazardous microorganisms/genetically engineered
organisms or cell were introduced in 1989 with the view to protect the environment, nature and health in connection
with gene technology and micro-organisms, under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986. The government in 1991
further decided to institute a national label scheme for environmentally-friendly products called the ‘ECOMARK’.
The scheme attempts to provide incentives to manufactures and importers to reduce adverse environmental impacts,
reward genuine initiatives by companies, and improve the quality of the environment and sustainability of available
resources. Besides the above attempts, notifications pertaining to Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules,
1999 were also incorporated under the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986.
The environment (protection) rules, 1986

These rules lay down the procedures for setting standards of emission or discharge of environmental pollutants.
The rules prescribe the parameters for the Central Government, under which it can issue orders of prohibition and
restrictions on the location and operation of industries in different areas. The rules lay down the procedure for taking
samples, serving notice, submitting samples for analysis and laboratory reports. The functions of the laboratories
are also described under the rules along with the qualifications of the concerned analysts.
The national environment appellate authority Act, 1997

This Act provided for the establishment of a National Environment Appellate Authority to hear appeals with respect
to restriction of areas in which any industry operation or process or class of industries, operations or processes could
not carry out or would be allowed to carry out subject to certain safeguards under the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986.
In addition to these, various Acts specific to the coal sector have been enacted. The first attempts in this direction
can be traced back to the Mines Act, 1952, which promoted health and safety standards in coal mines. Later the Coal
Mines (Conservation and Development) Act (1974) came up for conservation of coal during mining operations. For
conservation and development of oil and natural gas resources a similar legislation was enacted in 1959.
7.2.5 Hazardous Wastes

There are several legislations that directly or indirectly deal with hazardous waste. The relevant legislation is the
Factories Act, 1948, the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 and
some notifications under the Environmental Protection Act of 1986. A brief description of each of these is given
below. Under the EPA 1986, the MoEF has issued several notifications to tackle the problem of hazardous waste
management. These include the following:
• Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989, which brought out a guide for manufacture, storage
and import of hazardous chemicals and for management of hazardous wastes.
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• Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998, were formulated along parallel lines, for proper
disposal, segregation, transport, etc., of infectious wastes.
• Municipal Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, whose aim was to enable municipalities to dispose
municipal solid waste in a scientific manner.
• Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2000, a recent notification issued with the
view to providing guidelines for the import and export of hazardous wastes in the country.
Factories Act, 1948 and its amendment in 1987

The Factories Act, 1948 was a post-independence statute that explicitly showed concern for the environment. The
primary aim of the 1948 Act has been to ensure the welfare of workers not only in their working conditions in the
factories, but also their employment benefits. While ensuring the safety and health of the workers, the Act contributes
to environmental protection. The Act contains a comprehensive list of 29 categories of industries involving hazardous
processes, which are defined as a process or activity where unless special care is taken, raw materials used therein
or the intermediate or the finished products, by-products, wastes or effluents would result in the following:
• Cause material impairment to health of the persons engaged
• Result in the pollution of the general environment
Public liability insurance Act (PLIA), 1991

The Act covers accidents involving hazardous substances and insurance coverage for these. Where death or injury
results from an accident, this Act makes the owner liable to provide relief as is specified in the Schedule of the Act.
The PLIA was amended in 1992, and the Central Government was authorised to establish the Environmental Relief
Fund, for making relief payments.
National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995

The Act provided strict liability for damages arising out of any accident occurring while handling any hazardous
substance and for the establishment of a National Environment Tribunal for effective and expeditious disposal of
cases arising from such accident, with a view to give relief and compensation for damages to persons, property and
the environment and for the matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
7.3 International Agreements on Environmental Issues

India is signatory to a number of multilateral environment agreements (MEA) and conventions. An overview of
some of the major MEAs and India’s obligations under these is presented below. These are discussed at length in
the respective chapters.
Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), 1973
The aim of CITES is to control or prevent international commercial trade in endangered species or products derived
from them. CITES does not seek to directly protect endangered species or curtail development practices that destroy
their habitats. Rather, it seeks to reduce the economic incentive to poach endangered species and destroy their
habitat by closing off the international market. India became a party to the CITES in 1976. International trade in
all wild flora and fauna in general and species covered under CITES is regulated jointly through the provisions of
The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, the Import/Export policy of Government of India and the Customs Act 1962
(Bajaj, 1996).
Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer (to the Vienna convention for the protection of
the ozone layer), 1987
The Montreal protocol to the Vienna convention on substances that deplete the ozone layer came into force in 1989.
The protocol set targets for reducing the consumption and production of a range of ozone depleting substances
(ODS). In a major innovation the Protocol recognised that all nations should not be treated equally. The agreement
acknowledges that certain countries have contributed to ozone depletion more than others. It also recognises that
a nation’s obligation to reduce current emissions should reflect its technological and financial ability to do so. Due
to this, the agreement sets more stringent standards and accelerated phase-out timetables to countries that have
contributed most to ozone depletion (Divan and Rosencranz, 2001).
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India acceded to the Montreal Protocol along with its London Amendment in September 1992. The MoEF has
established an Ozone Cell and a steering committee on the Montreal Protocol to facilitate implementation of the
India Country Programme, for phasing out ODS production by 2010.
To meet India’s commitments under the Montreal Protocol, the Government of India has also taken certain policy
decisions as follows:
• Goods required to implement ODS phase-out projects funded by the Multilateral Fund are fully exempt from
duties. This benefit has been also extended to new investments with non-ODS technologies.
• Commercial banks are prohibited from financing or refinancing investments with ODS technologies.
The Gazette of India on 19 July, 2000 notified rules for regulation of ODS phase-out called the Ozone Depleting
Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000. They were notified under the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986. These rules were drafted by the MoEF following consultations with industries and related government
departments.
Basel convention on transboundary movement of hazardous wastes, 1989

Basel Convention, which entered into force in 1992, has the following three key objectives:
• To reduce transboundary movements of hazardous wastes.
• To minimise the creation of such wastes.
• To prohibit their shipment to countries lacking the capacity to dispose hazardous wastes in an environmentally
sound manner.
India ratified the Basel Convention in 1992, shortly after it came into force. The Indian Hazardous Wastes Management
Rules Act 1989 encompasses some of the Basel provisions related to the notification of import and export of hazardous
waste, illegal traffic, and liability.
UN framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC), 1992

The primary goals of the UNFCCC were to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions at levels that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the global climate. The convention embraced the principle of common,
but differentiated responsibilities which has guided the adoption of a regulatory structure.
India signed the agreement in June 1992, which was ratified in November 1993. As per the convention, the reduction/
limitation requirements apply only to developed countries. The only reporting obligation for developing countries
relates to the construction of a GHG inventory. India has initiated the preparation of its First National Communication
(base year 1994) that includes an inventory of GHG sources and sinks, potential vulnerability to climate change,
adaptation measures and other steps being taken in the country to address climate change. Further details on UNFCC
and the Kyoto Protocol are provided in Atmosphere and climate chapter.
Convention on biological diversity, 1992

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a legally binding, framework treaty that has been ratified until
now by 180 countries. The CBD has three main thrust areas like conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of
biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their sustainable use.
The Convention on Biological Diversity came into force in 1993. Many biodiversity issues are addressed in the
convention, including habitat preservation, intellectual property rights, biosafety, and indigenous peoples’ rights.
India’s initiatives under the Convention are detailed in the chapter on Biodiversity. These include the promulgation
of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, amended in 1991 and participation in several international conventions,
such as CITES.
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UN Convention on desertification, 1994

Delegates to the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) recommended establishment of an
intergovernmental negotiating committee for the elaboration of an international convention to combat desertification
in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification. The UN General Assembly established such a
committee in 1992 that later helped the formulation of Convention on Desertification in 1994.
The convention is distinctive as it endorses and employs a bottom-up approach to international environmental
cooperation. Under the terms of the convention, activities related to the control and alleviation of desertification
and its effects are to be closely linked to the needs and participation of local land users and non-governmental
organisations. Seven countries in the South Asian region are signatories to the Convention, which aims at tackling
desertification through national, regional and sub-regional action programmes. The Regional Action Programme
has six Thematic Programme Networks (TPN’s) for the Asian region, each headed by a country task manager. India
hosts the network on agro-forestry and soil conservation.
International tropical timber agreement and the international tropical timber organisation (ITTO), 1983,
1994
The ITTO established by the International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA), 1983, came into force in 1985 and
became operational in 1987. The ITTO facilitates discussion, consultation and international cooperation on issues
relating to the international trade and utilisation of tropical timber and the sustainable management of its resource
base. The successor agreement to the ITTA (1983) was negotiated in 1994, and came into force on 1 January, 1997.
The organisation has 57 member countries. India ratified the ITTA in 1996.
7.4 An Assessment of the Legal and Regulatory Framework for Environmental Protection
in India
The extent of the environmental legislation network is evident from the above discussion, but the enforcement of
the laws has been a matter of concern. One commonly cited reason is the prevailing command and control nature
of the environmental regime. Coupled with this is the prevalence of the all-or-nothing approach of the law; they do
not consider the extent of violation. Fines are levied on a flat-basis and in addition, there are no incentives to lower
the discharges below prescribed levels.
Some initiatives have addressed these issues in the recent past. The Government of India came out with a Policy
Statement for Abatement of Pollution in 1992, before the Rio conference, which declared that market-based approaches
would be considered in controlling pollution. It stated that economic instruments will be investigated to encourage
the shift from curative to preventive measures, internalise the costs of pollution and conserve resources, particularly
water. In 1995, the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) constituted a task force to evaluate market-based
instruments, which strongly advocated their use for the abatement of industrial pollution. Various economic incentives
have been used to supplement the command-and-control policies. Depreciation allowances, exemptions from excise
or customs duty payment, and arrangement of soft loans for the adoption of clean technologies are instances of such
incentives. Another aspect that is evident is the shift in the focus from end-of-pipe treatment of pollution to treatment
at source. The role of remote sensing and geographical information systems in natural resource management and
environmental protection has also gained importance over time.
An important recent development is the rise of judicial activism in the enforcement of environmental legislation. This
is reflected in the growth of environment-related public litigation cases that have led the courts to take major steps
such as ordering the shut-down of polluting factories. Agenda 21 highlights the need for integration of environmental
concerns at all stages of policy, planning and decision-making processes including the use of an effective legal
and regulatory framework, economic instruments and other incentives. These very principles were fundamental to
guiding environmental protection in the country well before Rio and will be reinforced, drawing on India’s own
experiences and those of other countries.
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Use of remote sensing in integrating environment and development at the policy planning and management
levels
The country has an extensive and integrated institutional infrastructure and focused programme elements to enable
integration of environmental concerns in decision-making. The main initiatives include:
• National natural resource management systems: An integrated resource management system aimed at optimal
utilisation of the country’s natural resources through a systematic inventory of resource availability using remote
sensing in conjunction with other techniques
• Remote sensing for sound environmental management: Remote sensing is playing an important role in providing
information on physical environmental parameters, such as land and climate, vegetation, soils, water, terrain
and slope, land use, air and water pollution, etc. Through the use of Geographical Information Systems, this
information is integrated with relevant collateral information to evolve solutions to many environment issues.
Notable achievements have been made in the area of regular forest cover mapping and monitoring as well as
detection and monitoring of natural disasters along with assessment of the associated damages.
Role of remote-sensing in strengthening the legal and regulatory framework for environmental protection
Remote-sensing has established itself as an operational means to provide reliable information and bench mark survey
mechanisms in the context of the following :
• Make laws and regulations more effective.
• Establish judicial and administrative procedures.
• Provide legal reference and support services.
• Develop effective national programmes for reviewing and enforcing compliance with national, state and local
laws on environment and development.
A number of case studies in the country demonstrate the application of remote-sensing in this context. These
cover forest encroachment studies, mapping of coastal regulation zones, enforcement of environmental legislation,
environmental impact assessments, vegetation change detection studies and land-use planning studies
Generation of natural resources information towards strengthening the national accounting system
Endeavors include the setting up of a National Spatial Data Infrastructure (to build a repository of natural resource
information), National (Natural) Resources Information System (to provide integrated information on natural
resources, socio-economic factors, etc.), Groundwater Prospects Zone Mapping, Bio-resource Data Base, Wasteland
Mapping, and the Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development. The IMSD project aimed at generating action plans
to enhance the productivity and quality of natural resources. The project covered 85 million hectares of problem lands
falling in 175 districts in the country and has been successful in evolving action plans with community participation
to address several issues including enriching groundwater potential and increasing cropping intensity.
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Summary
• The current focus on environment is not new. Environmental considerations have been an integral part of the
Indian culture.
• Even before India’s independence in 1947, several environmental legislations existed, but the real impetus for
bringing about a well-developed framework came only after the UN Conference on the Human Environment
(Stockholm, 1972).
• An extensive network of environmental legislation has grown in the country, since the 1970s.
• Water quality standards especially those for drinking water are set by the Indian Council of Medical
Research.
• At the State level, the SPCBs (State Pollution Control Board) function under the direction of the CPCB and
the state government.
• To counter the problems associated with air pollution, ambient air quality standards were established, under
the 1981 Act.
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for major pollutants were notified by the CPCB in April
1994.
• The WPA (Wildlife Protection Act), 1972, provides for protection to listed species of flora and fauna and
establishes a network of ecologically-important protected areas.
• The government in 1991 further decided to institute a national label scheme for environmentally-friendly
products called the ‘ECOMARK’.
• The Factories Act, 1948 was a post-independence statute that explicitly showed concern for the environment.
• The Montreal protocol to the Vienna convention on substances that deplete the ozone layer came into force in
1989.
• India acceded to the Montreal Protocol along with its London Amendment in September 1992.
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a legally binding, framework treaty that has been ratified
until now by 180 countries.
• The ITTO established by the International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA), 1983, came into force in 1985
and became operational in 1987.
• The extent of the environmental legislation network is evident from the above discussion, but the enforcement
of the laws has been a matter of concern.
• An important recent development is the rise of judicial activism in the enforcement of environmental
legislation.
References
• The legal and regulatory framework for environmental protection in India.[Pdf] Available at: <http://envfor.
nic.in/sites/default/files/ch2.pdf> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Environmental Regulations And Legal Framework In India. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.caretrust.in/
Environmental%20laws.pdf> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Abraham, C . M . , 1999. Environmental Jurisprudence in India. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
• Razzaque, J , 2004. Public Interest Environmental Litigation in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Kluwer
Law International.
• 1. Introduction to the Course. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DyRdQ_
Nih0&list=PL84DCD72C5B5DC403> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Environmental Case Law. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q40FKzI7T5g>
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Recommended Reading
• Thakur, K., 1997. Environmental Protection Law and Policy in India. Deep and Deep Publications.
• Naseem, M., 2010. Energy Law in India. Kluwer Law International.
• Martin, P. and Williams, J., 2011. Defending the Social Licence of Farming: Issues, Challenges and New
Directions for Agriculture. Csiro Publishing.
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Self Assessment
1. When was the National Council for Environmental Policy and Planning within the Department of Science and
Technology set up?
a. 1912
b. 1972
c. 1962
d. 1947
2. What was formulated in 1993 with the objective of improving environmental services and integrating
environmental considerations in to development programmes?
a. The EAP (Environmental Action Programme)
b. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
c. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
d. National Council for Environmental Policy

A. This Act provides for protection to listed species
1. Water (prevention and control of
of flora and fauna and establishes a network of
pollution) Act, 1974
ecologically-important protected areas.
2. Water (prevention and control of B. This Act represented India’s first attempts to
pollution) cess Act, 1977 comprehensively deal with environmental issues.
3. The wildlife (protection) Act, 1972, C. This Act was a post-independence statute that
amendment 1991 explicitly showed concern for the environment.
4. Factories act, 1948 and its D. This Act provides for a levy and collection of a cess on
amendment in 1987 water consumed by industries and local authorities.
a. 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A
b. 1-A, 2-C, 3-B, 4-D
c. 1-B, 2-D, 3-A, 4-C
d. 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4-B
4. Which of the following sets the water quality standards especially those for drinking water?
a. Central Pollution Control Board
b. Water (prevention and control of pollution)
c. Indian Council of Medical Research
d. Indian Medical Centre
5. The government in 1991 further decided to institute a national label scheme for environmentally-friendly
products called the ‘__________’.
a. ECOMARK
b. ECOFRIENDLY
c. ECOPROD
d. ECOACT
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6. __________Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998, were formulated along parallel lines, for proper
disposal, segregation, transport, etc., of infectious wastes.
a. Municipal
b. Hazardous
c. Chemical
d. Biomedical

a. India became a party to the CITES in 1976.
b. India became a party to the CITES in 1956.
c. India became a party to the CITES in 1967.
d. India became a party to the CITES in 1957.
8. The Montreal protocol to the Vienna convention on substances that deplete the ozone layer came into force in
_______.
a. 1990
b. 1979
c. 1981
d. 1989

a. India acceded to the Montreal Protocol along with its London Amendment in September 1992.
b. India became a party to the CITES in 1967.
c. India ratified the Basel Convention in 1992, shortly after it came into force.
d. The Convention on Biological Diversity came into force in 1993.
10. The ___________ established by the International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA), 1983, came into force
in 1985 and became operational in 1987.
a. ITTO
b. TPN
c. UNCED
d. CBD
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Chapter VIII
Environmental Management Plan
Aim
• introduce environmental management plan
• explain purposes of environmental management plan
• explicate details of environmental management plan
Objectives
• enlist environmental management cell
• elucidate monitoring of environment
• explicate proposed budgetary provisions for EMP
Learning outcome
• identify the concept of waste-minimisation, recycle/reuse/recover techniques, energy conservation and natural
resource conservation
• understand the operation phase
• describe environment management plan
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8.1 Introduction
Industrial development is associated with a few positive impacts and a few negative impacts on the environment. The
negative impacts should not hinder industrial development, but they should be properly mitigated. An Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) has been prepared for the proposed cement plant of M/s. Rudradev Cement Pvt. Ltd. to
minimise negative impacts and is formed on the basis of prevailing environmental conditions and likely impacts
of this project on various environmental parameters. This plan will also facilitate monitoring of environmental
parameters. EMP includes scheme for proper and scientific treatment and disposal mechanism for air, liquid and
solid hazardous pollutants. Apart from this, green belt development, safety aspect of the workers, noise control, fire
protection, etc., are also included in it.
8.2 Purpose of Environmental Management Plan

Various purposes of the environmental management plan are as follows:
• To treat and dispose of all the pollutants, viz., liquid, gaseous and solid wastes so as to meet statutory requirements
(Relevant Pollution Control Acts) with appropriate technology.
• To support and implement development work to achieve environmental standards and to improve the methods
of environmental management.
• To promote green-belt development.
• To encourage good working conditions for employees.
• To reduce fire and accident hazards.
• Budgeting and allocation of funds for environment management system.
• To adopt cleaner production technology and waste minimisation programme.
8.3 Details of Environmental Management Plan

The environmental management plan includes the following phases which are explained in the paragraphs below.
8.3.1 Construction and Commissioning Phase

The construction and commissioning phases of various environments are dealt in detail in the paragraphs below.
Air environment
The construction phase will be for a short period and hence the impacts will also be for a short and temporary period.
During construction activities, mainly emission of dust and gases from movement of vehicles and construction
activity is expected. However, following measures will be taken to reduce/contain such emissions:
• Preparation of paved internal movement roads will be taken up at the initial stage of civil construction work.
• Water will be sprinkled on loose top soil to prevent re-suspension of dust into ambient air due to movement of
vehicles, etc.
• Separate civil construction material storage yard will be created within the site and it will be enclosed.
• Cement bags will be separately stored under cover in bales. Sand will be stacked under tarpaulin cover.
• Possibility of raising green belt along with construction activity will also be explored.
• Transport vehicles and construction equipments/machineries will be properly maintained to reduce air
emissions.
• Vehicles and equipments will be periodically checked for pollutant emissions against stipulated norms.
• Idle running of vehicles will be minimised during material loading/unloading operations.
• Exhaust vent of DG set will be kept at proper height to ensure quick dispersal of gaseous emissions.
• All construction workers will be provided appropriate PPEs like dust mask, ear plug, helmet, safety belt, etc.,
and made to wear them during working hours.
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Water environment
Maximum water requirement for construction purpose is estimated to be approximately 10 cu. mt. per day and water
requirement for domestic purpose of construction work force is estimated to be approximately 3 cu. mt. per day.
Thus, total water requirement during construction period will be approximately 13 cu. mt. per day. Water requirement
during construction phase will be fulfilled by ground water using the bore-well located within premises. Water
quantity being small, no major impact on existing water resources of the study area is envisaged. Further, there will
be no housing facility at site for construction workers and hence a major source of impact on water environment
will be avoided. Proper and sufficient sanitary facility will be provided to construction workers to maintain hygienic
conditions at site. Storm water drain compatible with the local hydrological pattern of the area is provided to carry
off any run-off or storm water from the premises and this water will be harvested through ground water recharge
or storage. Care will be taken during construction work not to create any obstruction/dips in the topography which
can lead to accumulation of water within premises leading to undesirable consequences like health and hygiene
problems, etc.
Solid waste
Main solid waste generation during construction phase will be construction debris like rubble, brick bats, debris,
steel scrap, wooden scrap, sand, gravel, etc. However, these materials are inert in nature and will not result into
leaching of any substance or constituent. These materials will be properly sorted and will be used within premises
for filling of low-lying areas. Wooden scrap, steel scrap will be given to scrap dealers. On completion of civil work,
all debris, etc., will be completely removed from site to avoid any incompatibility with future use.
Noise environment
The following measures are proposed during construction period to mitigate adverse impacts:
• Construction machinery and vehicles will undergo periodic maintenance to keep them in good working
condition.
• All machineries to be used for construction purpose will be of highest standard of reputed make and compliance
of noise pollution control norms by these equipments will be emphasised by the company.
• Acoustic laggings and silencers will be used in equipments wherever possible.
• Feasibility of putting up acoustic enclosures/temporary barriers around areas with high noise levels will also
be explored.
• All construction workers working in high noise areas will be provided appropriate Personal Protective Equipments
(PPEs) like ear muffs and made to wear them during working hours.
• Possibility of raising green belt along with construction activity will also be explored so as to serve as a noise
barrier.
Land environment
The following steps are proposed to take care of impact of construction activity on project land area:
• On completion of civil work, all debris, etc., will be completely removed from site to avoid any incompatibility
with future use.
• Other materials like paints, diesel, etc., will be properly stored and handled to prevent any spillage on land.
• All the wastes will be stored at a designated site within the premises to prevent scattered discharge on land.
Ecology
As the proposed expansion will be within premises, no major tree cutting exercise will be there and no major
impact on ecology is anticipated. However, possibility of rising of green belt along with construction activity will
be explored, so that greening of area can be started at the beginning of proposed expansion project.
Socio-economic
As there will be no temporary housing colony for construction workers, no socioeconomic impact due to the same is
envisaged. Overall socioeconomic effect of construction phase will be positive due to direct and indirect employment
opportunity for the local population.
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8.3.2 Operation Phase
Operation phase of any industry being longer in duration and because of its potential to create continuous impacts
is much more important from the environmental impact point of view and a comprehensive and effective EMP has
to be prepared and implemented to safeguard environmental concerns during the operation phase of any unit.
Air environment
The incremental Ground Level Concentrations (GLCs) of pollutants, i.e., Particulate Matter (PM) due to the proposed
project have been predicted to be within the CPCB norms. The following measures are proposed to mitigate negative
impact of operation phase of the project on the surrounding air environment:
• All transfer points will have bag filter attached to them to control and capture dust emission.
• Height of all the stacks will be as per statutory requirements. All the stacks will have Stack Monitoring Facility
(SMF) consisting of sampling port-hole, platform and access ladder.
• Adequate spares of critical components of dust collection systems will be kept to ensure trouble free operations
and continuous compliance to emission norms.
• A comprehensive plan for fugitive emission control based on CPCB guidelines is prepared and its details are
given following section.
• All stacks will be provided with online CPM (Continuous Particulate Measurement) analysers and interlocking
system with production plant will be provided which will automatically shutoff production activities when the
emission concentration exceeds the set limit.
• Possibility of use of vehicles using cleaner fuel like Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) will be explored and if
found feasible will be implemented on a large-scale.
• Transport vehicles will be properly maintained to reduce air emissions.
• Vehicles will be periodically checked for pollutant emissions against stipulated norms.
• Idle running of vehicles will be minimised during material loading/unloading operations.
Action plan to control secondary fugitive emissions as per CPCB guidelines is explained in the paragraphs given
below.
Unloading section
The action plans to control secondary fugitive emissions at unloading section as per CPCB guidelines are as
follows:
• Enclosure (of flexible material) will be provided towards unloading side up to suitable height.
• Bag filter will be provided to effectively capture dust emission.
Material handling section and transfer points

The action plans to control secondary fugitive emissions at material handling section and transfer points as per
CPCB guidelines are as follows:
• All transfer point locations will be fully enclosed but will have access doors. Doors will be kept closed during
operation.
• All transfer points will have bag filters.
Storage of clinker, gypsum and fly ash

The action plans to control secondary fugitive emissions regarding storage of clinker, gypsum and fly ash as per
CPCB guidelines are as follows:
• Gypsum storage will be done under covered shed and side walls will be provided on minimum two sides up
to roof level.
• Clinker and fly ash will be stored in concrete silos.
• Fly ash will be transported in closed trucks/tankers and will be mechanically transported into silos.
• All silo tops will be equipped with bag filters.
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Cement packing section

The action plans to control secondary fugitive emissions at cement packing section as per CPCB guidelines are as
follows:
• Packing machines will be provided dust extraction system in the form of bag filters.
• Adequate ventilation will be provided in packing hall to provide dust-free work environment.
• Spilled cement from the packing machine will be collected properly and sent for recycling. Arrangement for
vacuum sweeping will also be provided.
Roads
The action plan to control secondary fugitive emissions at roads as per CPCB guidelines is as follows:
• All internal roads will be of concrete and will be well maintained. Repairing work required, if any, will be
carried out immediately.
• Speed limit inside the plant premises will be fixed to prevent dust emissions.
Other measures
The other measures adopted to control secondary fugitive emissions as per CPCB guidelines are as follows:
• Company will also designate Environment Manager, who will look after fugitive dust emission control
including emergency situations. He will be adequately trained to handle the responsibility of control of fugitive
emissions.
• All personnel working on fugitive emission control systems will be given regular training on operation and
maintenance of the system.
• A proper record and documentation of fugitive dust control system will be kept.
• All other guidelines of CPCB too will be complied.
Water environment
Total water requirement for operation phase will be 23 KLD and full filled by ground water using bore-well located
within premises. To compensate and mitigate impact on ground water availability in the area due to continuous
withdrawal of ground water by the project to the tune, a comprehensive rain water recharge scheme will be developed.
Proper and sufficient sanitary facility will be provided to construction workers to maintain hygienic conditions at
site. The sewage is treated in a common sewage treatment plant. While the purified water will be reused for the
cement manufacturing process, the sewage sludge, which is an excellent fertilizer, shall be set out in the areas where
reforestation is anticipated.
Action plan for rainwater harvesting

Rain water harvesting is a way to capture the rain water when it rains, store that water above ground or charge the
underground and use it later.
Rainwater harvesting system

Rooftop rainwater from the admin area, store area and plant area is flown down to the ground and then taken to storm
water drains. The storm water drains are intercepted at strategic locations and rainwater is diverted into recharge
wells. The recharge wells are provided with recharge bores to facilitate the recharge. Layers of filtering material
like boulders, pebbles and coarse sand inside the recharge will ensure efficient filtration.
Solid wastes
The following precautionary measures will be adopted for the effective disposal of solid wastes:
• All the solid wastes will be stored separately in a ‘Solid Waste Storage Area’ within the factory premises. It
will have non-percolating R.C.C. floor and covered roof. The storage area will have proper illumination and
ventilation and equipped with fire extinguisher device wherever required. A signboard will be put out-side the
storage area marked ‘Solid Waste Storage Area’ and ‘Danger’.
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• Non-hazardous dried bio-sludge from septic tank will be rich in nutrients and hence will be used as fertilizer
and nutrient within premises for gardening.
• Hazardous waste, i.e., used lubricating oil will be given to CPCB registered recycler/re-processor of oil.
Noise environment
The following precautionary measures will be adopted to control the noise level:
• Roof of buildings will be constructed of reinforced concrete or of lightweight concrete
• Walls and ceilings of building will be lined with sound absorbing materials, wherever required
• Sheet metal casting and housing will be insulated with sound absorbing materials
• Noise generating sources and their platforms will be maintained properly to minimise noise vibrations generated
by them
• Personnel working near the noisy machines in different plant locations, will be provided with well designed ear
muffs/plugs (effective noise reduction 10-15 dBA)
• Cement mill premises will have proper ventilation.
• Green belt will be developed to act as a noise barrier.
• Noise barriers/shields in the form of walls, beams will be provided around the units, wherever found feasible
• Training to personnel will be imparted to generate awareness about effects of noise and importance of using
PPEs.
Land environment
There will be no major generation of hazardous waste from the project. A small quantity of used lubricating oil
will be generated which will be properly stored and disposed off. There will be no disposal of industrial effluent
on land as small quantity of treated industrial effluent will be re-used. Only treated sewage will be used on land
for gardening purpose. Thus, no impact on land is envisaged due to discharge of gaseous emission, solid waste or
liquid effluents from the proposed unit.
Biological environment
Green belt development: Tree plantation is one of the effective remedial measures to control the air pollution and
noise pollution. It also causes aesthetics and improvement of area climatologically as well as sustains and supports
the biosphere. It is an established fact that trees and vegetation acts as a vast natural sink for the gaseous as well as
particulate air pollutants due to enormous surface area of leaves. It also helps to attenuate the ambient noise level.
Plantation around the pollution sources control the air pollution by filtering the air particulate and interacting with
gaseous pollutants before it reaches to the ground. Tree plantation also acts as buffer and absorber against accidental
release of pollutants.
In Green belt area about 1000 tree per acre of land shall be planted, the selection of tree species suitable for plantation
at the industry shall be governed by guiding factors as stated below:
• The trees should be tolerant to air pollutants present in the area
• The trees should be able to grow and thrive on soil of the area, be evergreen, inhabitant, having minimum of
leaf fall.
• The trees should be tall in peripheral curtain plantation and with large and spreading canopy in primary and
secondary attenuation zone.
• The trees should possess extensive foliar area to provide maximum impinging surface for continued efficient
adsorption and absorption of pollutants.
• The trees should be fast growing and indigenous and should maintain ecological, land and hydrological balance
of the region.
• It is also recommended to plant few trees, which are sensitive to air pollution, as air pollution indicator.
• It is also recommended to carry out extensive plantation within premises.
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• Some portion of rooftops/terraces area of the building will be covered with plantation.
• Keeping in view the climatic conditions, status of soils and vegetation types in and around the project area the
species shall be selected for the proposed green belt development.
Health and safety

The following health and safety measures will be adopted:
• Regular inspection and maintenance of pollution control systems. All measures related to safety such as safety
appliances, training, safety awards, posters, slogans will be undertaken.
• The workers exposed to noisy sources will be provided with ear muffs/plugs.
• Adequate facilities for drinking water and toilets will be provided to the employees.
• The fire and safety equipment will be properly utilised and maintained regularly.
• The health of the workers will be regularly checked by a well qualified doctor and proper records will be kept
for each worker.
General considerations
For good housekeeping of the proposed project, following measures will be planned:
• Maintaining cleanliness of roads to prevent accumulation of dust and waste material.
• Inculcating positive attitude among employees for good housekeeping.
• Maintaining hygienic conditions in canteens, near drinking water source and toilets.
Concept of waste-minimisation, recycle/reuse/recover techniques, energy conservation, and natural resource

conservation
Waste-minimisation, recycle/reuse/recover techniques, energy conservation, and natural resource conservation will
involve the following concepts:
• Waste-minimisation: Process optimisation by using latest technology equipment.
• Recycle/reuse/recover: Close circuit process water cooling system for plant. Dust collected from air pollution
control equipment will be 100% recycled in the in cement manufacturing process. Other solid wastes, i.e., used/
spent oil shall be reused in plant for lubrication or sold to authorise recyclers. However, no waste is generated
by plant operation.
• Energy Conservation Measures: Latest technology has been selected for grinding of clinker and slag which have
minimum specific power consumption. In order to conserve energy, the following measures have been taken
right at the time of selection of equipments and technology:
Control of fans with frequency converters instead of dampers.
To go for highly energy efficient pulse jet bag filters for the cement mill.
To install highly efficient, high efficiency air separators in the mill.
Minimise use of compressed air, by use of proper compressed air pipe line design in the plant.
The lighting of the complete plant will be controlled with light intensity controllers.
Air leakages will be to a bare minimum with proper design of air ductings and casings for cement mill.
False air leakages in the plant will be arrested by carrying out regular checks.
• Natural resource conservation: By using slag and fly ash, natural resource, such as limestone is conserved. To
conserve ground water, rain water harvesting will be carried out to store rain for future use and also to recharge
ground water.
8.4 Environmental Management Cell

In addition to preparing an EMP, it is also necessary to have a permanent organisational set up to ensure its effective
implementation. Hence, M/s. Rudradev Cement Pvt. Ltd. will create a team consisting of officers from various
departments to co-ordinate the activities concerned with management and implementation of the environmental
control measures. This team will undertake the activity of monitoring the stack emissions, ambient air quality, noise
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level, etc., either departmentally or by appointing external agencies wherever necessary. Regular monitoring of
environmental parameters will be carried out to find out any deterioration in environmental quality and also to take
corrective steps, if required, through respective internal departments. The Environmental Management Cell will also
collect data about health of workers, green belt development, etc. Organogram of the Environmental Management
Cell is presented in Fig. 8.1.
Vice President (Unit Head)
HOD (Environment & Safety)
Dy. Manager Asst. Manager Officer

(Env.) (Safety) (Safety)
Fig. 8.1 An organogram of environment management cell
The cell will also be responsible for monitoring of the plant safety and safety related systems which include the
following:
• Checking of safety related operating conditions.
• Visual inspection of safety equipments.
• Preparation of a maintenance plan and documentation of maintenance work specifying different maintenance
intervals and the type of work to be performed.
• Conduct and submit annual environmental audit. A SPCB registered agency will be retained to generate the
data in respect of air, water, noise, soil and meteorological data and prepare the environmental audit report.
This report will be submitted to the SPCB every year before 30th September. Timely renewal of Consolidated
Consents & Authorisation (CC & A) will also be taken care of.
• Submitting environmental monitoring report to SPCB. Data monitored by the cell will be submitted to the
Board regularly and as per the requirement of SPCB. The cell will also take mitigative or corrective measures
as required or suggested by the Board.
• Keeping the management updated on regular basis about the conclusions/results of monitoring activities and
proposes measures to improve environment preservation and protection.
• Conducting regular safety drills and training programmes to educate employees on safety practices. A qualified
and experienced safety officer will be responsible for the identification of the hazardous conditions and unsafe
acts of workers and advise on corrective actions, organise training programmes and provide professional expert
advice on various issues related to occupational safety and health.
• Conducting safety and health audits to ensure that recommended safety and health measures are followed.
8.5 Monitoring of Environment

A regular monitoring of environmental parameters like air, water, noise and soil as well as performance of pollution
control facilities and safety measures in the plant are important for proper environmental management of any project.
Therefore, the environment and safety cell will handle monitoring of air and water pollutants as well as the solid
wastes generation as per the requirements of State Pollution Control Board and Central Pollution Control Board.
Proposed monitoring schedule for environmental parameters is given in following table 8.1.
Advantages of monitoring
Monitoring of various parameters will be carried out regularly to administer the following:
• Find out pollution level inside the plant and in nearby area.
• Compile pollution related data for remedial measures.
• Find out efficiency level of pollution control measures adopted.
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Sr. No. Attribute Parameters Frequency of Monitoring
Every Month or as specified by State

1. Stack Monitoring SPM, SO2, NOx
pollution Control Board
Ambient air quality Every Month or as specified by State

2. PM, SO2, NOx, CO
within premises pollution Control Board
Ambient air quality Once in a year or as specified by State

3. PM, SO2, NOx, CO
outside premises pollution Control Board
Ph, Temp., TDS, TSS,
Once in a year or as specified by State
4. Water monitoring Hardness, BOD, COD, heavy
pollution Control Board
metals, etc.
5. Noise monitoring Every Month or as specified by State
Noise levels
within premises pollution Control Board
Noise monitoring Every Month or as specified by State

6. Noise levels
outside premises pollution Control Board
Table 8.1 Monitoring schedule for environmental parameters
Laboratory facilities
Laboratory facilities to analyse the above stated parameters will be provided to cater to the needs of all environmental
control activities, all necessary equipments for the monitoring and analysis of environmental parameters shall be made
available. List of laboratory equipments required for environmental monitoring is given in following table 8.2.
Name of
Sr. No. Description Make Model Qty.
Equipments
High volume For ambient air

1. Envirotech APM-460BL 3
sampler(RDS) quality monitoring
Vayubodhan
2. Stack sampler Stack monitoring VSS1 1
Upkaran
Sound level Sound level

3. Lutron SL4010 1
meter monitoring
Digital Wind speed

4. Lutron AM4201 1
anemometer measurement
5. Water testing kit Water quality testing Scientific Portable 1
Rain fall
6. Rain gauge Scientific - 1
measurement
TDS meter
7. TDS test ESICO 651E 1
(Digital)
PH meter
8. TDS test ESICO 111E 1
(Digital)
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Humidity
9. Hygrometer BARIGO - 2
measurement
Incubator for
10. BOD Scientific - 1
BOD test
Max-Min. Temperature
11. G.H.Zeal Ltd. - 1
thermometer measurement
Mercury Temperature 1
12. Labequip Inst. -
thermometer measurement
Table 8.2 Laboratory equipments for environmental monitoring
8.6 Proposed Budgetary Provisions for EMP

Adequate budgetary provisions have been made by management for execution of environmental management plans.
The details of total capital and recurring (per annum) for environmental pollution control measures are given in
following table 8.3.
Sr. No. Item Rs. In lakhs
Capital expenditure:
1. Air Pollution control equipment 320.00
2. Water treatment 10.00
3. Emission monitoring equipments 8.00
4. Green belt development 10.00
Total capital expenditure 348.00
Recurring expenditure per annum:

Recurring expenditure on environmental management cell and
6. 120.00
on pollution control systems
Table 8.3 Total capital and recurring cost for EPCM
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Summary
• Industrial development is associated with few positive impacts and few negative impacts on the environment.
• EMP includes scheme for proper and scientific treatment and disposal mechanism for air, liquid and solid
hazardous pollutants.
• During construction activities, mainly emission of dust and gases from movement of vehicles and construction
activity is expected.
• Maximum water requirement for construction purpose is estimated to be approximately 10 cu. mt. per day and
water requirement for domestic purpose of construction work force is estimated to be approximately 3 cu. mt.
per day.
• Main solid waste generation during construction phase will be construction debris like rubble, brick bats, debris,
steel scrap, wooden scrap, sand, gravel, etc.
• Total water requirement for operation phase will be 23 KLD and fulfilled by ground water using bore-well
located within premises.
• Rain water harvesting is a way to capture the rain water when it rains, store that water above ground or charge
the underground and use it later.
• Rooftop rainwater from the admin area, store area and plant area is flown down to the ground and then taken
to storm water drains.
• A small quantity of used lubricating oil will be generated which will be properly stored and disposed off.
• Tree plantation is one of the effective remedial measures to control the air pollution and noise pollution.
• Tree plantation also acts as buffer and absorber against accidental release of pollutants.
• Adequate budgetary provisions have been made by management for execution of environmental management
plans.
References
• Environmental Management Plan. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.tullowoil.com/files/pdf/Jubilee_Field_EIA_
Chapter_9_27Nov09.pdf> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Environmental Management Plan. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.ntepa.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_
file/0010/118981/Chapter-19-Environmental-Management-Plan.pdf> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Tinsley, S . , 2002. Environmental Management Plans Demystified: A Guide to ISO14001. Taylor & Francis.
• Randolph, J , 2004. Public Environmental Land Use Planning and Management. Island Press.
• E3 CIMA Lecture 3 - Environmental Analysis. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=MDUjyCOHDuU> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
• Principles of Management - Lecture 01. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lj7Z
nyskZuA&list=PLesgViD0jhW-Ydpei3GnpoUwUGbLg50-G> [Accessed 17 December 2013].
Recommended Reading
• Ghosh, A., 2003. Urban Environment Management: Local Government and Community Action. Concept
Publishing Company, New Delhi.
• Sawhney, A., 2004. The New Face of Environmental Management in India. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
• Stanley, S ., 2004. Social Problems in India. Allied Publishers.
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Self Assessment
1. ___________ development is associated with few positive impacts and few negative impacts on the
environment.
a. Environment
b. Industrial
c. Positive
d. Negative
2. _____________ includes scheme for proper and scientific treatment and disposal mechanism for air, liquid and
solid hazardous pollutants.
a. EMP-Environmental Management Plan
b. Relevant Pollution Control Acts
c. Appropriate technology
d. Industrial development

A. By using slag and fly ash, limestone is con-
1. Waste minimisation
served.
B. Process optimisation by using latest technol-
2. Recycle/reuse/recover
ogy equipment.
C. Close circuit process water cooling system
3. Energy conservation measures
for plant.
D. Control of fans with frequency converters
4. Natural resource conservation
instead of dampers.
a. 1-D, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B
b. 1-A, 2-D, 3-B, 4-C
c. 1-B, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A
d. 1-C, 2-B, 3-A, 4-D
4. Which phase will be for a short period and hence the impacts will also be for a short and temporary period?
a. Operational phase
b. Construction phase
c. Management phase
d. General phase
5. Maximum water requirement for construction purpose is estimated to be approximately _____ cu. mt. per day
and water requirement for domestic purpose of construction work force is estimated to be approximately 3 cu.
mt. per day.
a. 1 cu. mt.
b. 8cu. mt.
c. 6 cu. mt.
d. 10 cu. mt.
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a. Total water requirement during construction period will be approximately 13 cu. mt. per day.
b. Total water requirement during construction period will be approximately 11 cu. mt. per day.
c. Total water requirement during construction period will be approximately 9 cu. mt. per day.
d. Total water requirement during construction period will be approximately 4 cu. mt. per day.
7. What is one of the effective remedial measures to control the air pollution and noise pollution?
a. Deforestation
b. Tree plantation
c. Rain water harvesting
d. Rooftop rainwater harvesting
8. In addition to preparing an EMP, it is also necessary to have a permanent organisational set up to ensure its
_________ implementation.
a. effective
b. ineffective
c. minor
d. organised

a. Purposes of the environmental management plan are to encourage good working conditions for
employees.
b. Purposes of the environmental management plan are to reduce fire and accident hazards.
c. Purposes of the environmental management plan are to adopt cleaner production technology and waste
minimisation programme.
d. Purposes of the environmental management plan are to achieve environmental hazardous pollutants.
10. The Environmental Management Cell will also collect data about health of workers, _______ belt development,
etc.
a. green
b. red
c. brown
d. blue
114/JNU OLE
Case Study I
Fujitsu Environmental Management System
Fujitsu and sustainability

As a leader in ICT sustainability Fujitsu has a long commitment to reducing the environmental impact of our
operations. Here in Australia, our most significant impact is from our data centre operations and the consumption
of electricity. However, our sustainability strategy is much broader than this and covers all aspects of our operations
across Australia and New Zealand including greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water and waste.
The challenges
While many organisations accept that they have a duty or moral obligation to be environmentally responsible, there
are also other key drivers that should be acknowledged. These can include legal requirements, customer or stakeholder
demands and expectations from present and potential future employees. These drivers require organisations to not
only pursue profit, but seek to do so in a manner that is considerate to the environment, if not actively beneficial to
the environment.
While many organisations have acknowledged these drivers, the leading organisations have gone a step further and
are harnessing the societal shift towards greater sustainability to deliver innovation and new forms of value.
Fujitsu’s Sustainability Team is dedicated to the development and execution of the company’s ambitious sustainability
vision. As part of this transformation process they need to connect to all parts of the organisation and integrate into
all layers of the company, from the fundamental underpinning processes all the way through to the culture, company
brand and identity.
Any sustainability transformation programme is dependent on its integrity. The company must be genuine in its
intentions and its actions. It is fundamental to understand what impact the company’s operations are having on
the environment, what action is being taken to reduce these impacts and how successful these actions are in their
implementation.
The Environmental Management System underpins the company’s objectives which in turn supports our goals and
ultimately our sustainability vision. The EMS is the framework to move from strategy to realisation.
The solution
Fujitsu has a global Environmental Management System certified under 14001. However, as with other management
systems we opted to seek a local certification for our operations. Our primary reasons for doing this was to enable
closer integration with the existing management systems such as ISO 9001; that the EMS would benefit from greater
integrity from closer management attention; and also a higher audit frequency.
The Fujitsu EMS provides a framework for a systematic approach to meeting our environmental objectives. This
enhances the likelihood of meeting them through a rigorous plan-do-check-act approach that is independently
verified.
SAI Global’s Damian James General Manager, Assurance Services Australia said, “During SAI Global’s EMS
certification audits conducted during August 2012, we found evidence of an exceptional level of commitment,
input and support from top management and staff alike with a focus on sustainability. This has ensured that the
Environmental Management System provides Fujitsu ANZ with the intended controls, prevention and reduction of
pollution as well as customer focus and system improvement opportunities through effective implementation.”
The health and performance of the system is monitored via a comprehensive set of goals, KPIs and related targets
along with a well implemented internal audit programme.”
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Fujitsu’s operations in Australia and New Zealand include office locations, warehouse and distribution centres and
of course our data centres. Each of these types of locations has been included in our EMS. Of these facilities it is our
data centres which have the greatest environmental impact, so naturally these were the focus of our EMS roll out.
Today all of Fujitsu’s data centres are managed under our local ISO 14001 certified Environmental Management
System. This is something above and beyond our competition and is something that Fujitsu is rightfully proud of.
Building a virtual team from across the organisation and working closely with our Business Management Systems
team, we developed an extremely robust environmental management framework. We have clear and measureable
objectives with associated measurement and controls. As part of our EMS we have trained more than 1,100 staff,
so that participation and understanding of our obligations and impacts are known and understood by our staff.
The benefits
At Fujitsu Australia and New Zealand we have reduced operating expenses and injected additional impetus into
our path to sustainability. From a 2008 baseline, the emissions generated by our offices have been cut by more than
18%, travel related GHG emissions have been reduced by more than 50% and our data centre facilities run a PUE
that is best practice for tier III data centres.
Our environmental management system is integrated into both our local and global management systems. Our
approach is robust and includes the following principles:
• Transparency: We share our environment related results to critique for continuous improvement
• Broad based: We encourage employees to keep the impact of their business activities front of mind
• Customer-focused: We work with our clients on improving environmental efficiency
• Responsible: We are conserving resources as we create best of breed, eco-friendly products and services
“I firmly believe that business has a crucial role to play in addressing the challenges we face in terms of achieving
a sustainable future and that part of this role is a responsibility to minimise the environmental impact from our
operations. An Environmental Management System is a comprehensive framework that promotes good practice
for achieving this.
Fujitsu is seeing better performance against our sustainability targets, real cost saving and a greater degree of staff
understanding and engagement in sustainability at all levels as a result of our programme.” Chris Seale, Director
of Sustainability, Fujitsu Australia & New Zealand
Our Environmental Management System is well-documented and successful. We have in place top level management
support and a very comprehensive set of goals underpinning our strategy. The strategy itself is understood by our
employees and progress is monitored effectively. These aspects combine into a highly effective sustainability program
which has been recognised in a number of external audits. Fujitsu Australia and New Zealand has embraced the
challenge of global sustainability and seeks ongoing, continuous improvement in our environmental performance.
(Source: Fujitsu Environmental Management System. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.fujitsu.com/

downloads/AU/Fujitsu-Environmental-Management-System-Case-Study.pdf)> [Accessed 17 December
2013]).
Questions
1. What is the challenge?
Answer
Fujitsu’s ambitious sustainability vision spans the entire operation of the company. To underpin and support our
long-term strategy robust processes and practices are needed to continuously reduce the environmental impact
of our operations, and embed sustainability into everything that we do.
116/JNU OLE
2. What is the solution?
Answer
The solutions are as follows:
• I mplementation and ISO 14001 certification of an Environmental Management System (EMS) across all
facility portfolio types
• Locally managed and resourced with strong management support
• Aligned to existing local management systems and to global EMS
• All regional data centres included in our certification programme
3. What is the benefit?

Answer
The benefits are as follows:
• Continuous improvement and monitoring of environmental goals, objectives and targets
• Reduced operating expenses
• Integration of sustainability across the entire organisation both locally and globally
117/JNU OLE
Case Study II
How Autani can Save Your School Money?
A case study on implementing the Autani integrated energy management solution in schools.
Executive Summary
Autani provides school administrators an effective means of saving money and energy. After implementing Autani’s
integrated energy management solution, the school studied herein reported an average savings of over 70%.
The Autani Solution

Autani has developed an integrated energy management system that enables school administrators to save money
by cost effectively managing their lighting, HVAC, computers, and plug loads from a single, easy to use, wireless
platform. Wireless technology and user-friendly, intuitive energy management software makes the solution easy to
install and easy to maintain for both new and retrofit construction.
Autani’s integrated approach to energy management yields numerous benefits over manual control. The Autani
solution simplifies energy management by integrating multiple energy consuming systems, which eliminates redundant
equipment costs and interoperability issues, as well as streamlines operating processes. There is no need to deploy
dedicated personnel to verify the status of the building or make changes for special events or seasonal adjustments.
In short, Autani solutions make energy management easy by reducing waste and saving money automatically.
The Autani Solution Implemented

The Autani solution was implemented in a California private school. This implementation included HVAC, lighting,
computer energy management and plug load control, and it was performed in three phases.
• Metering devices were installed to baseline the school’s average daily consumption. In the baseline, the school
continued to use it’s previously installed programmable thermostats and the cleaning crews continued to turn
off lights at night.
• HVAC and lighting management were implemented, which involved installing wirelessly communicating
thermostats, light controllers, and occupancy sensors. HVAC was controlled based on schedule and occupancy,
and lighting was controlled based on occupancy.
• Plug load control and computer management were added. User-defined energy saving rules for temperature
setback, lighting control, and computer and plug device operation were optimised. The optimisation rules
included changing the temperature set point schedules, activating rules for doors and contacts, and activating
occupancy rules.
The Results
Fig. 1, below, details the energy consumption at the school during each phase of the Autani implementation as a
function of the type of day: school day, non-school day, or school closed.
Phase I:
Kilowatt Hours
Uncontrolled
Phase II:
Controlled
Phase III
Optimized
School Day Non-School Closed Day
Day
Fig. 1 Energy consumption comparison
118/JNU OLE
The full implementation of the Autani solution resulted in a significant decrease in energy usage for all types of days.
The significant energy savings achieved using the Autani solution results from the Autani system being designed
specifically to manage the variable usage patterns prevalent in schools.
Fig. 2 shows the savings in lighting, HVAC, and computers/other office equipment resulting after the implementation
of the Autani solution.
Figure 2: Energy Savings

Lighting HVAC Computers & Plug devices
Percentage Reduction 48% 31% 85%
Fig. 2 Energy savings
The Autani solution was able to achieve substantial energy savings across all major consumption groups and across
all three daily usage patterns. Within the individual consumption groups, it was notable that:
• Significant reductions in HVAC and lighting energy consumption were achieved over and above the savings
achieved with programmable thermostats and manual control of lighting.
• Automated control of computer and plug devices can substantially reduce the energy consumed by those devices,
presumably due in part to the lack of an effective manual procedure to control those devices as a group.
The Added Benefit – Utility Rebate Opportunities

In addition to lower utility costs, the amount of energy saved on campus qualified the school for a rebate from their
utility provider, providing further monetary savings and reducing system payback time.
A Word from Our Customer

The headmaster of the school summarised his experience with Autani by saying, “We carefully monitored and
recorded our energy use prior to implementing the system. Our energy savings to date are impressive, with an overall
average savings of 71%. Thanks to the Autani system, we are finally able to monitor and control our energy use,
while still providing a comfortable and non-disruptive environment for our students, faculty and staff.”
(Source: How Autani Can Save Your School Money. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.autani.com/wp-
content/uploads/file/White_Paper_School_Case_Study.pdf)> [Accessed 17 December 2013]).
Questions
1. What did the Autani solution implemented in a California private school?
2. What did the Autani solution able to achieve?
3. How much energy was saved?
119/JNU OLE
Case Study III

United Nations Environment Programme
Background
Conduct a green buildings review of renovation designs for the United Nations complex in New York.
Our Approach
The United Nations (UN) headquarters complex in New York City has changed little since it was designed in the
1940’s. In response to changes in building codes, security concerns, and the desire for improved energy efficiency
and environmental performance, the UN has budgeted over US$1.5 billion to completely renovate the campus.
While the design, size, and shape of the buildings will remain unchanged, the renovation’s main goal is to replace
outdated and deteriorated building systems, to improve security and the environmental performance of the buildings,
including indoor environment, energy and other items.
The UN also aims to improve its environmental performance by benchmarking its improvements against the standards
established by the United Stated Green Building Council (USGBC) called Leadership in Energy & Environmental
Design (LEED).
The UN retained ERM to review the current design of the campus renovation to evaluate its improvements in energy
efficiency and environmental performance to determine its potential status against a LEED benchmark. In addition,
the UN requested that ERM provide potential ‘blue sky’ design features that while not necessarily cost-effective,
can be used to make the campus unique and provide a unique ‘signature’ for stakeholders.
ERM first assembled a truly global team of diverse professionals for this project, including experts in green building
design, environmental assessments, energy efficiency, and climate change. The team reviewed current design
information and evaluated the features against other programmes. The team then identified additional improvements
in energy efficiency, water conservation, landscaping and materials usage. ERM estimated approximate costs of
the additional design features where appropriate. ERM also researched and evaluated the application to the UN
renovation of unique ‘blue sky’ design features.
Benefits and Value

ERM issued a report to the UN containing the review of the current design of its major renovation of the Headquarters
campus as applied to green building standards. The report confirmed in detail that the current design was highly
advanced in environmental performance. The report provided a list of additional features that could be incorporated.
ERM provided a number of more innovative, ‘blue sky’ design features to make the renovation unique.
The client is currently reviewing the recommendations for possible inclusion in the final design and construction
documents, and will likely incorporate many of ERM’s recommendations in the final design.
(Source: United Nations Environment Program. [online] Available at: <http://www.erm.com/en/Analy-

sis-and-Insight/Case-Studies/Case-Study_United_Nations/)> [Accessed 17 December 2013]).
Questions
1. When was the United Nations (UN) headquarters complex in New York City designed?
2. What is the aim of U.N?
3. What is blue sky and its benefits?
120/JNU OLE
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• Agarwal, S. K., 2005. Environmental Management. APH Publishing, New Delhi.
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Delhi.
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123/JNU OLE
Self Assessment Answers

Chapter I
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. a
5. c
6. b
7. a
8. d
9. b
10. d
Chapter II
1. a
2. c
3. d
4. c
5. a
6. b
7. c
8. c
9. b
10. c
Chapter III
1. b
2. d
3. c
4. a
5. c
6. d
7. b
8. a
9. b
10. d
Chapter IV
1. b
2. b
3. d
4. a
5. c
6. d
7. a
8. a
9. b
10. c
124/JNU OLE
Chapter V
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. c
5. b
6. a
7. b
8. a
9. d
10. c
Chapter VI
1. a
2. c
3. d
4. d
5. b
6. d
7. c
8. b
9. a
10. b
Chapter VII
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. c
5. a
6. d
7. a
8. d
9. b
10. a
Chapter VIII
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. d
6. a
7. b
8. a
9. d
10. a
125/JNU OLE

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II. List of Figures..........................................................VI

III. List of Tables........................................................ VII

V. Case Study.............................................................. 115

VI. Bibliography......................................................... 121

VII. Self Assessment Answers................................... 124

Chapter VIII.............................................................................................................................................. 102

• introduce environmental management

• explain evolution of the concept

• explicate the fundamentals of sustainable development

• enlist sustainable environment

• elucidate sustainable environment

• explain principles of sustainable development

• identify the sustainable economy

• understand the critique of the concept of sustainable development

1.2 Evolution of the Concept

1.2.2 Fundamentals and Goals

The nature of environmental management

1.2.3 Environmental Management System

CHECKING & IMPLEMENTATION &

Fig. 1.1 EMS continuous improvement cycle

1.3 Fundamentals of Sustainable Development

1.3.1 Principles of Sustainable Development

Fig. 1.2 A representation of sustainability

1.3.2 Sustainable Economy

Fig. 1.3 Scheme of sustainable development

The following are some of the facets of sustainable development:

The long-term goals of the ecological world view

1.3.3 Sustainable Environment

Sustainable aquaculture development

1.3.4 The Notion of Capital in Sustainable Development

The business case for sustainable development

1.3.5 Critique of the Concept of Sustainable Development

Vagueness of the term

4. Match the following

3. Inspire diversified economic

7. Which of the following statement is false?

8. What refers to the management of an organisation’s environmental programmes in a comprehensive, systematic,

9. Which of the following statement is true?

• introduce energy management

• explain fundamentals of energy management

• explicate fossil fuel use

• enlist home energy management

• elucidate energy production and trade

• explain energy balance ecosystem concepts

• identify the types of fossil fuel energy

• understand the benefits and limitations of fossil fuels

• define competency-based strategies

2.2 Energy Management

2.2.1 Fundamentals of Energy Management

2.2.2 Home Energy Management

A good home energy-management system should possess the following qualities:

Importance of energy management

The global need to save energy

2.2.3 Controlling and Reducing Energy Consumption in Organisation

2.2.4 Best Ways to Manage Energy Consumption

Metering your energy consumption and collecting the data

Finding and quantifying opportunities to save energy

3. Inspire diversified economic