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    Essentials of Geology 7th Edition PDF

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    Essentials of Geology 7th Edition

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    Essentials of Geology 7th Edition

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    Download as pdf or txt
    2K views32 pages

    Essentials of Geology 7th Edition PDF

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    yoyoha5645
    Essentials of Geology 7th Edition

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    Contents

    PRELUDE
    And Just What Is Geology? • 2
    P.1 In Search of Ideas • 3
    P.2 Why Study Geology? • 4
    P.3 Themes of This Book • 5

    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Earth


    System • 8
    BOX P.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Scientific
    Method • 10
    PRELUDE PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW •
    13
    CHAPTER 1
    The Earth in Context • 14
    1.1 Introduction • 15
    1.2 An Image of Our Universe • 15

    BOX 1.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Basics of


    Matter, Force, and Energy • 16
    BOX 1.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Exploring the Universe • 18
    1.3 Forming the Universe • 20

    BOX 1.3 SCIENCE TOOLBOX: Heat,


    Temperature, and Heat Transfer • 22
    1.4 Forming the Solar System • 24
    1.5 The Earth’s Moon and Magnetic Field • 27
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Forming the
    Planets and the Earth-Moon System • 28

    1.6 The Earth System • 31


    1.7 Looking Inward: Discovering the Earth’s
    Interior • 36

    1.8 Basic Characteristics of the Earth’s Layers •

    38
    BOX 1.4 CONSIDER THIS: Meteors and
    Meteorites • 39
    CHAPTER 1 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 42

    CHAPTER 2
    The Way the Earth Works: Plate
    Tectonics • 44
    2.1 Introduction • 45
    2.2 Wegener’s Evidence for Continental Drift •

    46

    2.3 The Discovery of Seafloor Spreading • 49


    2.4 Paleomagnetism: Proving Continental Drift
    and Seafloor Spreading • 54

    2.5 What Do We Mean by Plate Tectonics? • 60


    BOX 2.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Continental Shelves and Exclusive Economic
    Zones • 62

    2.6 Divergent Boundaries and Seafloor

    Spreading • 64

    2.7 Convergent Boundaries and Subduction • 67


    2.8 Transform Boundaries • 70
    2.9 Special Locations in the Plate Mosaic • 72
    2.10 How Do Plate Boundaries Form, and How

    Do They Die? • 74
    2.11 Moving Plates • 75

    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Theory of


    Plate Tectonics • 78
    CHAPTER 2 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 82

    CHAPTER 3
    Patterns in Nature: Minerals • 84
    3.1 Introduction • 85

    BOX 3.1 SCIENCE TOOLBOX: Some Basic


    Concepts from Chemistry • 86
    3.2 What Is a Mineral? • 86
    3.3 Beauty in Patterns: Crystals and Their

    Structures • 88
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Mineral
    Formation • 92

    3.4 How Can You Tell One Mineral from

    Another? • 94
    BOX 3.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Hazardous Minerals • 97

    3.5 Organizing Your Knowledge: Mineral

    Classification • 98

    3.6 Something Precious: Gems! • 101


    BOX 3.3 CONSIDER THIS: Where Do
    Diamonds Come From? • 102
    CHAPTER 3 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 104

    INTERLUDE A
    Introducing Rocks • 106
    A.1 Introduction • 107
    A.2 What Is Rock? • 107
    A.3 The Basis of Rock Classification • 108
    A.4 Studying Rock • 110
    INTERLUDE A PRACTICE WHAT YOU
    KNOW • 113

    CHAPTER 4
    Up from the Inferno: Magma and
    Igneous Rocks • 114
    4.1 Introduction • 115
    4.2 Why Does Magma Form, and What Is It

    Made of? • 115

    4.3 Movement and Solidification of Molten Rock

    • 120
    BOX 4.1 CONSIDER THIS: Bowen’s
    Reaction Series • 124

    4.4 How Do You Describe an Igneous Rock? •

    126
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Formation of
    Igneous Rocks • 130

    4.5 Plate-Tectonic Context of Igneous Activity •

    132
    CHAPTER 4 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 136

    CHAPTER 5
    The Wrath of Vulcan: Volcanic
    Eruptions • 138
    5.1 Introduction • 139
    5.2 The Products of Volcanic Eruptions • 139
    5.3 Structure and Eruptive Style • 146
    BOX 5.1 CONSIDER THIS: Explosive
    Eruptions to Remember • 152
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Volcanoes • 154

    5.4 Geologic Settings of Volcanism • 156


    5.5 Beware: Volcanoes Are Hazards! • 160
    5.6 Protection from Vulcan’s Wrath • 164
    BOX 5.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Reading a Volcanic Hazard Map • 166
    5.7 Effect of Volcanoes on Climate and

    Civilization • 167

    5.8 Volcanoes on Other Planets • 169

    CHAPTER 5 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW


    • 170

    INTERLUDE B
    A Surface Veneer: Sediments and
    Soils • 172
    B.1 Introduction • 173
    B.2 Weathering: Forming Sediment • 173
    B.3 Soil • 179
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Weathering,
    Sediment, and Soil Production • 180
    BOX B.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Soil Conservation • 186
    INTERLUDE B PRACTICE WHAT YOU
    KNOW • 187

    CHAPTER 6
    Pages of the Earth’s Past:
    Sedimentary Rocks • 188
    6.1 Introduction • 189
    6.2 Classes of Sedimentary Rocks • 190
    6.3 Sedimentary Structures • 198
    6.4 Recognizing Depositional Environments •

    204
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Formation
    of Sedimentary Rocks • 206
    6.5 Sedimentary Basins • 210
    CHAPTER 6 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 214

    CHAPTER 7
    Metamorphism: A Process of Change •
    216
    7.1 Introduction • 217
    7.2 Consequences and Causes of

    Metamorphism • 217

    7.3 Types of Metamorphic Rocks • 221

    BOX 7.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: The


    Sculptures of Michelangelo • 226
    BOX 7.2 CONSIDER THIS: Metamorphic
    Facies • 229

    7.4 Where Does Metamorphism Occur? • 230


    BOX 7.3 CONSIDER THIS: Pottery Making:
    An Analog for Thermal Metamorphism • 232
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Environments of
    Metamorphism • 234
    CHAPTER 7 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 238

    INTERLUDE C
    The Rock Cycle • 240
    C.1 Introduction • 241
    C.2 Rock Cycle Paths • 241

    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Rock-Forming


    Environments and the Rock Cycle • 242
    C.3 A Case Study of the Rock Cycle • 244
    C.4 Cycles of the Earth System • 246
    INTERLUDE C PRACTICE WHAT YOU
    KNOW • 247

    CHAPTER 8
    A Violent Pulse: Earthquakes • 248
    8.1 Introduction • 249
    8.2 Causes of Earthquakes • 250

    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Faulting in the


    Crust • 254

    8.3 Seismic Waves and Their Measurement •

    257

    8.4 Defining the “Size” of Earthquakes • 262


    8.5 Where and Why Do Earthquakes Occur? •

    265

    8.6 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage? • 270


    BOX 8.1 CONSIDER THIS: The 2010 Haiti
    Catastrophe • 281

    8.7 Can We Predict the “Big One”? • 282


    8.8 Earthquake Engineering and Zoning • 284
    BOX 8.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Staying Safe in Earthquake Country • 286
    CHAPTER 8 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 288

    INTERLUDE D
    The Earth’s Interior Revisited: Insights
    from Geophysics • 290
    D.1 Introduction • 291
    D.2 The Basis for Seismic Study of the Interior •

    291

    D.3 Seismic Study of the Earth’s Interior • 293


    D.4 The Earth’s Gravity • 297
    D.5 The Earth’s Magnetic Field, Revisited • 301
    INTERLUDE D PRACTICE WHAT YOU
    KNOW • 303

    CHAPTER 9
    Crags, Cracks, and Crumples:
    Geologic Structures and Mountain
    Building • 304
    9.1 Introduction • 305
    9.2 Rock Deformation in the Earth’s Crust • 305
    9.3 Brittle Structures • 311

    BOX 9.1 CONSIDER THIS: Describing the


    Orientation of Geologic Structures • 312

    9.4 Folds and Foliation • 316


    9.5 Causes of Mountain Building • 321

    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Collision of


    India with Asia • 324
    BOX 9.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Seeing the Mountain Belts of North America
    • 326

    9.6 Other Consequences of Mountain Building •


    327

    9.7 Basins and Domes in Cratons • 332

    CHAPTER 9 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW


    • 334

    INTERLUDE E
    Memories of Past Life: Fossils and
    Evolution • 336
    E.1 The Discovery of Fossils • 337
    E.2 Fossilization • 338
    E.3 Taxonomy and Identification • 342
    E.4 The Fossil Record • 344
    E.5 Evolution and Extinction • 345

    INTERLUDE E PRACTICE WHAT YOU


    KNOW • 347
    CHAPTER 10
    Deep Time: How Old Is Old? • 348
    10.1 Introduction • 349
    10.2 The Concept of Geologic Time • 349
    10.3 Relative Age • 350
    10.4 Unconformities: Gaps in the Record • 353
    10.5 Stratigraphic Formations and Their

    Correlation • 355
    BOX 10.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Using Geologic Maps and Cross Sections for
    Land-Use Planning • 359
    10.6 The Geologic Column • 360

    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Record in


    Rocks: Reconstructing Geologic History •
    364

    10.7 How Do We Determine Numerical Ages? •


    366

    10.8 Numerical Age and Geologic Time • 368


    CHAPTER 10 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 372

    CHAPTER 11
    A Biography of the Earth • 374
    11.1 Introduction • 375
    11.2 Hadean and Archean Time: The Earth’s

    Early Days • 375

    11.3 The Proterozoic: The Earth in Transition •

    379

    11.4 The Paleozoic Era: Continents Reassemble,

    and Life Gets Complex • 383


    11.5 The Mesozoic Era: When Dinosaurs Ruled •

    386

    11.6 The Cenozoic Era: The Modern World

    Comes to Be • 392
    BOX 11.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Adding Context to a View • 394
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Earth Has a
    History • 396
    CHAPTER 11 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 398

    CHAPTER 12
    Riches in Rock: Energy and Mineral
    Resources • 400
    12.1 Introduction • 401
    12.2 Sources of Energy in the Earth System •
    401

    12.3 Introducing Hydrocarbon Resources • 402


    12.4 Conventional Hydrocarbon Systems • 404
    BOX 12.1 CONSIDER THIS: Types of Oil
    and Gas Traps • 406

    12.5 Unconventional Hydrocarbon Reserves • 411


    BOX 12.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Hydrofracturing and the Concerns
    Surrounding It • 412

    12.6 Coal: Energy from Swamps of the Past •

    414

    12.7 Nuclear Power • 418


    12.8 Other Energy Sources • 420
    12.9 Energy Choices, Energy Problems • 423
    BOX 12.3 CONSIDER THIS: Offshore
    Drilling and the Deepwater Horizon Disaster
    • 425

    12.10 Mineral Resources • 427

    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Power from the


    Earth • 432

    12.11 Nonmetallic Mineral Resources • 434


    12.12 Global Mineral Needs • 436

    CHAPTER 12 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW


    • 438

    INTERLUDE F
    An Introduction to Landscapes and the
    Hydrologic Cycle • 440
    F.1 Introduction • 441
    F.2 Shaping the Earth’s Surface • 441
    BOX F.1 CONSIDER THIS: Topographic
    Maps and Profiles • 443

    F.3 Factors Controlling Landscape Development

    • 444

    F.4 The Hydrologic Cycle • 444

    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Hydrologic


    Cycle • 446

    F.5 Landscapes of Other Planets • 448

    BOX F.2 CONSIDER THIS: Water on Mars?


    • 450
    INTERLUDE F PRACTICE WHAT YOU
    KNOW • 451

    CHAPTER 13
    Unsafe Ground: Landslides and Other
    Mass Wasting • 452
    13.1 Introduction • 453
    13.2 Types of Mass Wasting • 454

    BOX 13.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:


    Thinking about Slope Stability at La
    Conchita, California • 458

    13.3 Why Does Mass Wasting Occur? • 462


    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Mass Wasting •
    464

    13.4 How Can We Protect against Mass-Wasting

    Disasters? • 468
    CHAPTER 13 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 472

    CHAPTER 14
    Streams and Floods: The Geology of
    Running Water • 474
    14.1 Introduction • 475
    14.2 Draining the Land • 476
    14.3 The Work of Running Water • 479
    14.4 Streams in the Landscape • 482
    14.5 The Evolution of Drainage • 490
    14.6 Raging Waters • 491

    BOX 14.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Johnstown


    Flood of 1889 • 495
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Changing
    Landscape along a Stream • 496
    BOX 14.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    How Do We Calculate the Threat Posed by
    Flooding? • 500

    14.7 Human Impact on Rivers • 501

    CHAPTER 14 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW


    • 502
    CHAPTER 15
    Restless Realm: Oceans and Coasts •
    504
    15.1 Introduction • 505
    15.2 Landscapes beneath the Sea • 505
    15.3 Ocean-Water Characteristics • 508
    15.4 Tides and Wave Action • 509
    15.5 Currents: Rivers in the Sea • 511

    BOX 15.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Coriolis


    Effect and the Generation of Gyres • 512
    15.6 Where Land Meets Sea: Coastal Landforms

    • 515
    BOX 15.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Planning for Clamming: Reading Tidal
    Charts • 518

    15.7 Causes of Coastal Variation • 523


    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Oceans and
    Coasts • 524

    15.8 Coastal Problems and Solutions • 526


    BOX 15.3 CONSIDER THIS: Hurricane
    Katrina • 532
    CHAPTER 15 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 534

    CHAPTER 16
    A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater • 536
    16.1 Introduction • 537
    16.2 Where Does Groundwater Reside? • 538
    16.3 Groundwater Flow • 542

    BOX 16.1 CONSIDER THIS: Darcy’s Law for


    Groundwater Flow • 543

    16.4 Tapping Groundwater Supplies • 544


    16.5 Hot Springs and Geysers • 547
    16.6 Groundwater Problems • 549
    16.7 Caves and Karst • 553

    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Karst


    Landscapes • 556
    CHAPTER 16 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
    • 560

    CHAPTER 17
    Dry Regions: The Geology of Deserts •
    562
    17.1 Introduction • 563
    17.2 The Nature and Locations of Deserts • 563
    17.3 Producing Desert Landscapes • 565
    BOX 17.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Recognizing Young Landslides in Desert
    Regions • 567

    17.4 Deposition in Deserts • 569


    17.5 Desert Landscapes • 571
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Desert
    Realm • 574

    17.6 Desert Problems • 578

    CHAPTER 17 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW


    • 580

    CHAPTER 18
    Amazing Ice: Glaciers and Ice Ages •
    582
    18.1 Introduction • 583
    18.2 Ice and the Nature of Glaciers • 583

    BOX 18.1 CONSIDER THIS: Polar Ice Caps


    on Mars • 587

    18.3 Carving and Carrying by Ice • 591


    18.4 Deposition Associated with Glaciation • 595
    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Glaciers and
    Glacial Landforms • 596

    18.5 Consequences of Continental Glaciation •

    600

    18.6 The Pleistocene Ice Age • 605


    18.7 The Causes of Ice Ages • 609

    CHAPTER 18 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW


    • 614

    CHAPTER 19
    Global Change in the Earth System •
    616
    19.1 Introduction • 617
    19.2 Unidirectional Changes • 618
    19.3 Cyclic Changes • 620
    19.4 Human Impact on Land and Life • 622
    19.5 Global Climate Change • 625
    BOX 19.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Role of
    Greenhouse Gases and Feedback
    Mechanisms • 627

    19.6 Contemporary Global Warming • 631


    GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Consequences
    of Sea-Level Change • 638
    BOX 19.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
    Reducing Your Personal Carbon Footprint •
    640

    19.7 The Future of the Earth • 640

    CHAPTER 19 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW


    • 642

    Metric Conversion Chart • A-1


    The Periodic Table of Elements • A-2
    Glossary • G-1
    Credits • C-1
    Index • I-1

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