Quarter 1-Module 2

Minerals and Rocks

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

1.identify common rock-forming minerals using their

physical and chemical properties
2.classify minerals based on chemical affinity
3.identify and describe the three basic types of rocks
4.describe the transformation of rocks from one rock type to
another
 Lesson 1 – Rock-forming Minerals

Rocks are made up of minerals which are glued together

by natural processes to form into solid lumps. There are
over 4,000 different minerals which have been identified
by scientists but only a few forms into rocks. Both rocks
and minerals are valuable to humans because of their
ecological and economic uses. In this lesson, the focus is
learning about the nature of rock-forming minerals.
 What’s In
Instructions:
1.Study the picture below.
2.Answer the questions that follow on a piece of paper.

Questions:
1.What materials are in the picture above?
2.In what sphere of the Earth can these materials be found?
 What Is It
A mineral is a wondrous thing because of its unique
characteristics that includes ordered structure and beauty. But what
exactly are minerals as defined by most geologists?

Most geologists define mineral as a substance that must meet five

requirements as follows:

"Naturally occurring" means that people did not make it. Steel is
not a mineral because it is an alloy produced by people.

"Inorganic" means that the substance is not made by an organism.

Wood and pearls are made by organisms and thus, they are not
minerals.
 "Solid" means that it is not a liquid or a
gas at standard temperature and pressure.
Water is not a mineral because it is a
liquid.

"Definite chemical composition"

means that all occurrences of that mineral
have a chemical composition that varies
within a specific limited range. For
example: the mineral halite (known as "
rock salt" when it is mined) has a
chemical composition of NaCl. It is
made up of an equal number of atoms of
sodium and chlorine.
"Ordered internal structure" means
that the atoms in a mineral are arranged in
a systematic and repeating pattern. The Figure 1.1 Arrangement of Sodium and
structure of the mineral halite is shown in Chloride Ions in Halite
https://tinyurl.com/3fe6hmad
(Figure 1.1). Halite is composed of an equal
ratio of sodium and chlorine atoms
arranged in a cubic pattern.
 There are almost 5000 known mineral species. Yet, a vast majority of
rocks are formed from combinations of a few common minerals as
shown in figure 1.2, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”.

Figure 1.2. The Most Abundant Minerals

in Earth’s Crust
Source: https://tinyurl.com/2zstevaa
Figure 1.3. Common Rock-forming Minerals
Source: https://tinyurl.com/thh5s48b
 To be considered a common rock-forming mineral, a mineral must: A)
be one of the most abundant minerals in Earth’s crust; B) be one of the
original minerals present at the time of a crustal rock’s formation; and
C) be an important mineral in determining a rock’s classification.
Minerals that easily meet these criteria are feldspars, quartz,
amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes as shown in
Figure 1.3.

Physical property of Minerals

Each of the minerals has a unique set of physical properties. The
properties are related to the chemical composition and bonding of the
minerals which include color, streak, hardness, luster, cleavage,
fracture, magnetism, and many more. These physical properties are
useful for identifying minerals. However, they are much more
important in determining the potential industrial uses of the mineral.
Let us consider a few examples.
1. Color and Streak
Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be used for
identification. In opaque minerals, the color tends to be more
consistent. So, learning the colors associated with these
minerals can be very helpful in identification. Translucent to
transparent minerals have a much more varied degree of color
due to the presence of trace minerals. For example, ruby and
sapphire are differently colored types of the mineral corundum
(Al2O3). The red color of ruby is due to the presence of the element
chromium. There are also lots of minerals that share the same
color while some minerals can exhibit a range of colors. The
mineral quartz for example, can be pink (rose quartz), purple
(amethyst), orange (citrine), white (colorless quartz) etc.
The different colors and varieties of quartz is the result of impurities within the
crystal structure. The color of some minerals can also be modified by
weathering. Therefore, color alone is not reliable as a single identifying
characteristic. Streak, on the other hand is
the color of a mineral in powdered form.
Streak is the color of the mineral in
powdered form when rubbed against a
streak plate or unglazed porcelain file
(Figure 1.4). Note that the color of a mineral
could be different from the streak. For
example, pyrite (FeS2) exhibits golden color. Hence, the

other term of pyrite is Fool’s Gold which has

a black or dark gray streak. Streak is a better
diagnostic property as compared to color
since it is inherent to almost every mineral.
Impurities within the minerals may give
them different color. Thus, color maybe Figure 1.4: Color vs streak of a
unreliable for identification. hematite (FeO3).
Source: https://tinyurl.com/43nruc97
2. Luster
Luster is the amount (quantity) and appearance (quality) of
light reflected from the surface of a mineral. It provides an
assessment of how much the mineral surface “sparkles”.

Minerals are primarily divided into the two categories of

metallic and nonmetallic luster (Table 1). Minerals possessing
metallic luster are opaque and very reflective, possessing a high
absorptive index. This type of luster indicates the presence of
metallic bonding within the crystal lattice of the material.
Submetallic minerals have similar luster to metal but are duller
and less reflective. Those which vary in appearance and non-
lustrous possess non-metallic luster.
 Table 1. Types hand is of luster
METALLIC NON-METALLIC
having the Examples: Dull or Earthy - reflect light very poorly Ex. kaolinite
Look of a copper, gold, and do not shine
polished and silver,
metal; galena,
pyrite,
Sub-metallic Resinous - resembling that of a resin Ex.sulfur
having the Example: Pearly - having the iridescent look of Ex.talc
Look of a hematite mother-of-pearl
metal that Greasy - looks as if it is covered with Ex.gypsum
is dulled by oil/grease
weathering Silky – having the look of silk, fine Ex. asbestos
or parallel fibers of mineral
corrosion
Vitreous – similar to that of glass Ex.Quartz
Adamantine - sparkling reflection Ex. diamond
3. Hardness
Hardness is a measure of how resistant a mineral
from being scratched. This physical property is
controlled by the chemical composition and structure
of the mineral. Hardness is commonly measured on
the Mohs scale (Figure 1.5). This is defined by ten
minerals, where each mineral can scratch those with
a lower scale number. Diamond (hardness 10) can
scratch everything below it on the Mohs scale, but
cannot itself be scratched, whereas quartz (hardness
5) can scratch calcite (hardness 3) but not
corundum (hardness 9).

The hardness scale is designed by German

geologist/mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812 (Mohs
Scale of Hardness). The test compares the resistance
of a mineral relative to the 10 reference minerals
with known hardness. It is simply determining the
hardness of a mineral by scratching them with
common objects of known hardness (e.g., copper coin
-3.0-3.5). Figure 1.5. Mohs Hardness Scale
Source: https://tinyurl.com/aw85wyf9
4.
Cleavage is the property of some
Cleavage minerals to break along parallel
repetitive planes of weakness to form
smooth, flat surfaces (Figure 1.7). These
planes of weakness are inherent in the
bonding of atoms that makes up the
mineral. These planes of weakness are
parallel to the atomic planes and appear
to be repeating within the mineral.
When minerals break evenly in more
than one direction, cleavage is described
by the number of cleavage directions
and the angle(s) between planes (e.g.,
cleavage in 2 directions at 90 degrees to
each other).
 The illustration in Figure 1.7 shows
the effect when an external force is
applied on calcite that produces
cleavage. Note how the crystal breaks
into smaller pieces and still manifest
the same rhombic shape. Where the
crystal breaks (the flat surfaces) are
called cleavage planes. For the calcite
crystal, there are three cleavage planes
at 120 and 60 degrees. Whereas some
minerals have excellent cleavage in one,
two, three, or more directions, whereas
others exhibit fair or poor cleavage, and
still others have no cleavage at all .
Cleavage differs from fracture in
terms of breaking properties.
Cleavage occurs when mineral
breaks along a flat surface. While
fracture happens if mineral breaks
with lots of jagged edges (Figure 1.8).
5. Crystal Form or Habit
Crystal Form or Habit is the external
shape of a crystal or groups of crystals that is
displayed and observed as these crystals
grow in open spaces (Table 1.1). The form
reflects the supposedly internal structure (of
atoms and ions) of the crystal (mineral). It is
the natural shape of the mineral before the
development of any cleavage or fracture.
It is important to clearly differentiate a
crystal habit from cleavage. Although
both are dictated by crystal structure,
crystal habit forms as the mineral is
growing. Therefore, it relies on how the
individual atoms in the crystal come
together. Cleavage on the other hand is the
weak plane that developed after the crystal
is formed. Cleavage in different directions is
17
The crystal form also defines the relative growth of the crystal in
3 dimension which are its length, width, and height. Examples of
crystal form or habit are prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy,
reniform and equant. A mineral that does not have a crystal
structure is described as amorphous.

6. Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the
weight of an equal volume of water. A bucket of silver (SG 10)
would weigh 10 times more than a bucket of water (SG 1). It is a
measure to express the density (mass per unit volume) of a
mineral. The specific gravity of a mineral is numerically equal to
density.
 Table 1.3. Other Properties of Minerals
Properti Description Examples
es
Magnetism allows a mineral to attract or A.Diamagnetic minerals –not attracted
repel by a magnet
other magnetic materials B.Paramagnetic minerals – Attracted
by a magnet
Examples:
magnetite (Fe3O4) –strongly magnetic

ilmenite (FeTiO3) -weakly magnetic

Taste a characteristic shown among A)acid or sour taste of sulfuric acid

water-soluble minerals. Some - indicates the presence of sulfur
minerals are toxic. So, tasting B)alkaline taste of potash
minerals is discouraged. C)astringent or puckering - alum
D)bitter taste - epsom or bitter salts
E)cooling - saltpeter (NaNO3),
F)metallic decomposed FeS2 -brassy taste
G)saline or salty - table salt (NaCl)
 Table 1.3. Other Properties of Minerals
Properti Description Examples
es
double a special optical property of certain
refraction minerals where a light ray enters the
crystal and splits up into two
separate rays.

effervescence property of some minerals that Chemical reaction of calcium carbonate

effervesce or bubble when dilute with dilute hydrochloric acid produces
hydrochloric acid is applied to the bubbles because carbon dioxide gas if
surface released.
fluorescence the ability of a substance to produce gypsum
light when activated by invisible
ultraviolet light (UV), X-
rays and/or electron beams
phosphorescen ability of a mineral to continue fluorite
ce emitting light after external light
source is taken away
 Table 1.3. Other Properties of Minerals
Properties Description Examples
thermoluminescence property of some minerals to glow calcite
when they are heated
triboluminescence property of some minerals to glow calcite and fluorite
when they are crushed, struck,
scratched, or even rubbed in some
cases

7. Fracture
Fracture occurs when a mineral is broken or crushed. The breaking
happens in a direction which does not serve as a plane of perfect or
distinct cleavage. In other words, fracture takes place along a plane
possessing difficult or indistinct cleavage. Thus, the mineral splits into
any possible direction. Examples of fracture are conchoidal, fibrous,
hackly, and uneven or irregular among others (Table 1.2).
 Table 1.2. Types of Fracture in Minerals
Types of Conchoidal Fibrous and Hackly Uneven of
Splintery Irregular
Fracture
breaks along similar to the jagged rough
Descripti smooth way wood fractures irregular
on curved breaks with sharp surfaces
surfaces edges

Examples

Chemical Properties of Minerals

Minerals can be pure elements or compounds. Their chemical properties mainly
reflect the kind of atoms or molecules present in each. The properties depend on the
way the atoms or molecules are bound in the mineral's crystal structure. And minerals
are identified by how they chemically react to certain substances.
 There are 7 types of minerals based on chemical composition. This includes
silicates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, carbonates, halides, and native elements as
presented in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4. Classification of Minerals based on Composition

Types of Radicals Descriptions Examples
Minerals
composed primarily of silicon- quartz (SiO2)
Silicates oxygen tetrahedrons (the major
SiO42- rock-forming minerals) talc (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Oxides consist of metal cations bonded magnetite (Fe3, O4)
O2-, O3- to oxygen anions
hematite (Fe2O3)
Sulfides consist of metal cation bonded galena (PbS)
S 2- to sulfide (S2-)
pyrite (FeS2)
Sulfates consist of a metal ion bonded to gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
SO 4 2-

the SO 42- anion group

barite (BaSO4)
Halides Halogens (Cl-, composed of a halogen ion halite (NaCl)
F-, Br, I-, At-) such as chlorine 23or fluorine
fluorite (CaF2)
characterized by the presence
 Notice that the most abundant minerals, the silicates, are formed by the most
plentiful elements in Earth’s crust. Hence, they are the rock-forming minerals
among the numerous minerals ever discovered. Table 1.5 shows that seven out of
eight rock-forming minerals are silicates.

Table 1.5. Common rock-forming minerals and their chemical composition.

Rock- Chemica Examples Chemical Formula
forming l Group
Minerals
Amphibole silicate hornblende (Ca, Na)2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Al, Si)8O22 (OH)2
Calcite carbonate Calcium CaCO3
carbonate
Feldspar silicate potassium KAlSi3O8
feldspar
Garnet silicate almandine Fe3Al2Si3O12
Mica silicate muscovite KAl2(Si3Al) O10(OH)2
Olivine silicate olivine (Fe, Mg) SiO
 What’s More
Activity
1.1
Minerals
Procedur
e:
1.Fill in the blanks with the
missing ideas in the concept
map to generalize your learning
about minerals.

2.Write your answers on a

separate sheet of paper.
 What I Can Do
Activity 1.2 Minerals Found at Home

Materials: table salt, iron nail without rust, graphite (pencil), piece of
paper, hand lens (optional/only if available), light source, 3 plastic
cups (each is half- filled with potable water), spoon

Procedure:
1.Copy the table on a sheet of paper.
2.Observe the properties of each sample mineral. Record your observations
in the table.
a.Give the chemical composition of each mineral.
b.Place the minerals under a source of light. NOTE: Rub the iron nail
with sandpaper/scrub pad/sand to remove the rust before testing its
properties.
c. Describe the color.
d. Test the streak by rubbing the mineral against a piece of clean
stone. Take note of the color left on the stone after rubbing.
e. Observe the minerals with the naked eye (or you may use a hand
lens). Describe whether it is crystalline (clear and transparent
like crystal) or not crystalline.
f. Pound each mineral with a hammer in a safe and clean area where
you will not destroy anything valuable. Feel the pounded
mineral in your hand.
g. Put the pounded mineral in a plastic cup half-filled with potable
water. Stir the mixture using a spoon and observe. The mineral is
soluble if it dissolves or mixes thoroughly in water. It is not
soluble if it does dissolve in water. NOTE: Taste only the ones
with star which is soluble. Dip the teaspoon into the
solution and taste it. Describe the taste.
 A. Physical Properties of Common Household Minerals
Properties Name of Minerals
Halite Iron Nail Graphite (Pencil)
a. chemical Composition
b. luster
c. color
d. streak
e. crystal form or habit
f. mineral cleavage and texture
g. solubility
h. taste

3. Fill in the table to identify the properties and uses of each sample minerals.

Table B. Properties and Uses of Common Household Minerals

Sample Minerals Properties Uses
halite or table salt to season food or dishes
iron nail
graphite (pencil) brittle, soft and easily leaves marks
 Lesson 2 – Rocks and the
Rocks are
Rock Cycle
found in the lithosphere. Lithosphere is the rigid, rocky,
outermost part of Earth that is composed of the crust and the uppermost
part of the mantle. The word lithosphere is derived from the Greek word
lithos which means “stone”. We see stones and rocks on mountains,
valleys, bodies of water and in the ground. In this lesson, you will learn
more about these amazing materials called rocks.

What’s In

Instruction: Guess what is described below and write it on a sheet of

paper.
I am inorganic.
I am a solid substance with crystalline structure.
I have a definite chemical composition.
 What’s New
Instructions:

1.You may sing the song following the tune of Queen’s song “We Will
Rock You.”

2.Take note of the lyrics to be able to answer the questions that

follow.

3.Write the answers on a separate sheet of paper.

 WE WILL ROCK YOU! (Rock Cycle Song) OPTIONAL:
May watch video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r68iEwYdbh4

Questions:

1.What are the types of

rocks mentioned in
the song?

2.What are the

processes involved in
the formation of each
type of rock?
31
 What is It
The song describes the three types of rocks and the processes responsible for their
formation. But what exactly is a rock? First, let us understand the level of organizations
where rocks become part of. Atoms of elements combine chemically to form into compound.
Example, elements silicon (Si) and oxygen gas (O ) react to 2 2
become silicon dioxide (SiO ). The

2
compound (SiO ) is a mineral called quartz which further clump together with other minerals to
form into a rock. And in the previous lessons, we learned that rocks made up the
lithospheric plates of the planet Earth (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1. Levels of organization that make up the Earth’s crust.

http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/coasts/lecture/gg101/powerpoints/Minerals_Igneous.pdf
 Rocks are made of minerals. They can be a mixture of different kinds of
minerals, a mixture of many grains of the same kind of mineral, or a mixture of
different grains of rocks. When you split a rock into very small pieces, the pieces
are different from each other. For example (Figure 2.2), when you break granite
apart, you get small pieces of quartz (clear), feldspar (pink or white), and mica
(black). When you split a mineral into pieces, you still have pieces of the same
mineral. If you break a big chunk of quartz into smaller pieces, you still have
pieces of quartz.

Figure 2.2. Four types of minerals that aggregate into a piece of granite rock.
 Geologists define a rock as a natural substance composed of solid crystals of
different minerals that have been fused together into a solid lump. The minerals
may or may not have been formed at the same time. What matters is that natural
processes glued them all together.

Generally, rocks are classified based on the mode of formation and that some
of these physical and chemical properties are inherent on how the rocks are
formed. The three common classes of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic. The details about the major classes of rocks are presented in the
succeeding discussions.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
Magma is called lava once it is expelled out of the Earth’s surface through a
central vent of a volcano or as fissure eruption. The word “igneous” is derived
from Latin igneus, which means “fiery” or “on fire.” Igneous rocks form at much
higher temperatures compared to other types of rocks. There are three ways in
which igneous rocks can form:
 1. Below the surface, from
slowly cooling magma – This results in the
formation of crystals that are visible to the naked
eye without the aid of a magnifying lens (Figure
2.3). These types of igneous rocks are called
intrusive or plutonic since they cool
underneath the surface as plutons. Examples of
these rocks include granite, diorite, and syenite.
Notice the different colored portions. Each
color represents a different mineral in the rock.

Figure 2.3. Granite showing visible mineral crystals.

2. On the surface, from rapidly cooling lava –

This results in the formation of very small
crystals that may not be visible without the use of
a magnifying lens (Figure 4). Igneous rocks like
these are called extrusive or volcanic since
they are usually extruded during volcanic
eruptions. Examples of these rocks are basalt,
Figure 2.4. Fine-grained basalt rock andesite, and rhyolite.
3. On the surface, from the consolidation of particle erupted by explosive
volcanic activity – When volcanoes erupt violently, the lava exiting the volcanoes
are ripped apart into smaller pieces by rapidly expanding gases in the lava, just
like the bubbles in a bottle of soft drinks shaken vigorously. Depending on how
much gas is present, the particles may solidify in different sizes (Figure5). When
these particles come together on the surface via lithification, they form
pyroclastic igneous rocks. Examples of this type of rock are ignimbrite (locally
known as adobe), tuff, and volcanic breccia. The formation of pyroclastic rocks is
a hybrid of igneous and sedimentary processes. Pyroclastic rocks are relevant in
the Philippine setting because it is a common eruptive product.

Figure 2.5. Pyroclastic igneous rocks.

 Igneous rocks form when molten rock material (magma or lava) cools
and crystallizes. They can look different based on their cooling
conditions because the rate of cooling is an important factor that
control crystal size of minerals present in them. Slow cooling forms
large interlocking crystals. Fast cooling does not promote the
formation of large crystals.

Igneous rocks can have many different compositions, depending on

the magma they cool from. For example, two rocks from identical
magma can become either rhyolite or granite, depending on whether
they cool quickly or slowly.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

The two main categories of igneous rocks are intrusive and
extrusive. These can be crystalline when they form from slowly
cooled magma or lava, or pyroclastic, when they are made of
 products like volcanic ash. Intrusive rocks known as plutonic
rocks are formed beneath the ground, while extrusive rocks also
called as volcanic rocks are developed on the surface of the
Earth. Volcanic rocks break down into two more categories: (a)
lava flows and (b) tephra (pyroclastic material).

1. Intrusive rocks

Igneous rocks are called intrusive or plutonic when they cool

and solidify beneath the surface. Because they form within the
Earth, cooling occurs slowly. Such slow cooling allows time for
large crystals to form, therefore, intrusive, or plutonic igneous
rocks have relatively large mineral crystals that are easy to see.
This surface
is known as a phaneritic (phaner means visible) texture. Perhaps the
best-known phaneritic rock is granite. It is the most common intrusive
igneous rock.

Some igneous rocks can have a huge variety of crystal shapes and
sizes. They show pegmatitic textures in which the crystals are very
observable. Examples are pegmatite, diorite and gabbro shown in figure
2.6 that show large crystals.

Figure 2.6. Rocks with pegmatitic textures.

2. Extrusive rocks
Extrusive rocks are also called volcanic igneous
rocks. They are formed from magmas that erupt
as lava onto the earth’s surface cool and solidify
rapidly. Rapid cooling results in an aphanitic
(a means not, phaner means visible) igneous
texture, in which few or none of the individual
minerals are big enough to see with the naked
eye (Figure 2.7).

Some lava flows, however, are not purely fine-

grained. If some mineral crystals start growing
while the magma is still underground and
cooling slowly, those crystals grow to a large
enough size to be easily seen, and the magma
then erupts as a lava flow, the resulting texture
will consist of coarse-grained crystals embedded
in a fine-grained matrix. This texture is called
porphyritic texture (Figure 2.7).
2. The rock samples shown in Figure 2.8 shows other textures. If
lava has bubbles of gas escaping from it as it solidifies, it will end
up with “frozen bubble holes” in it. These “frozen bubble holes” are
called vesicles, and the texture of a rock containing them is said to
be vesicular.

When there are many bubbles escaping from lava that it ends up
containing more bubble holes than solid rock, the resulting
texture is said to be frothy. Pumice is the name of a type of
volcanic rock with a frothy texture.

As lava cools extremely quickly, and has very little water

dissolved in it, it may freeze into glass, with no minerals (glass as
defined here is not a mineral, because it does not have a crystal
lattice). Such a rock is said to have a glassy texture.
41
 Figure 2.8. Other textures of extrusive rocks

Now let us briefly consider textures of tephra or pyroclastic rocks. Like

lava flow rocks, these are also extrusive igneous rocks. However, instead
of originating from lava that flowed on the earth’s surface, tephra is
volcanic material that was hurled through the air during a volcanic
eruption.
 A pyroclastic (pyro means igneous, clastic means fragment)
rock made of fine- grained volcanic ash may be said to have a fine-
grained, fragmental texture. Volcanic ash consists mainly of fine
shards of volcanic glass. It may be white, gray, pink, brown, beige,
or black in color, and it may have some other fine crystals and rock
debris mixed in. Rocks made of volcanic ash are called tuff.

A pyroclastic rock with many big chunks of material in it that

were caught up in the explosive eruption is said to have a coarse-
grained, fragmental texture. However, a better word that will avoid
confusion is to say it has a brecciated texture, and the rock is
usually called a volcanic breccia.
 Igneous rocks are also classified
according to silica content and relative
amounts of K, Na, Fe, Mg and Ca. They can
be classified as felsic, intermediate, mafic,
and ultramafic, practically based on
presence of light and dark colored
minerals. Felsic rocks tend to be light in
color (white, pink, tan, light brown, light
gray) because their composition is higher in
2 magnesium
silica (SiO ) and low in iron (Fe) and
(Mg). On the other hand, mafic rocks tend
to be dark in color (black, very dark brown,
very dark gray, dark green) mixed with
black since their composition is higher in
iron and magnesium and lower in silica.
Intermediate compositions contain silica,
iron, and magnesium in amounts that are
intermediate to felsic and mafic
compositions while ultramafic rocks have
very low silica content and are rich in
Figure 2.9. Types of Igneous rocks based on
minerals (Figure 2.9).
composition.
 However, there are some rocks that do not follow the color index. Obsidian is
a volcanic glass which erupts as a lava flow. Most obsidian is felsic in
composition but will typically have a very dark color. Dunite has ultramafic
composition but is greenish in color because it is composed almost entirely of
green mineral, olivine (Table 2.1)
Table 2.1. Identification of Igneous Rocks based on Texture and Composition

TEXTURE COMPOSITION
felsic intermediat mafic ultramafi
e c
pegmatitic granite pegmatitic diorite gabbro pegmatite
pegmatitic granite gabbro dunite
aphanitic rhyolite andesite basalt
porphyritic rhyolite andesite basalt
glassy obsidian basaltic glass
vesicular pumice scoria
pyroclastic volcanic
OPTIONAL: Video on Igneousstuff
Rocks
2. Sedimentary
rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of
sediments. Sediments are solid fragments of organic or
inorganic materials from weathered and eroded pre-existing
rocks and living matters. The term sediment is derived from the
Latin sedentarius, which means “sitting,” as these sediments
will eventually be deposited and remain until they are
transformed into sedimentary rocks.

Sediments that undergo the processes to become sedimentary

rocks are of different types. These are the following:
a.Grains - greater than sand- sized minerals and/or rock
fragments.
b.Matrix - fine-grained (clay to silt sized) minerals.
c. Cement - minerals precipitated from solution that binds the
grains and matrix together.

Accumulation of sediments occur in low-lying areas like lakes,

oceans, and deserts. Fragments are then compressed back into
rock by the weight of overlying materials. Examples include
sandstone which is formed from sand, mudstone from mud,
and limestone from seashells, diatoms, or bonelike minerals
precipitating out of calcium-rich water.
Sedimentary rocks are formed on or near the Earth’s surface
where temperature and pressure are low, in contrast with
igneous and metamorphic rocks that formed below the Earth’s
surface. The most important geological processes that lead to
the creation of sedimentary rocks are weathering, erosion,
dissolution, precipitation, deposition, and lithification
(compaction and cementation).
 Common sedimentary features are fossil assemblages and
stratification. Fossil assemblages are remains and traces of plants and
animals that are preserved in rocks (Figure 2.10). While stratification
or layering is the result of a change in grain size and composition.
Stratification which is greater than1cm is called bedding while
lamination is less than 1cm. Each layer represents a distinct period of
deposition (Figure 2.11).

Figure 2.10. Fossil fish assemblage. Figure 2.11. Series of sedimentary strata at
Kapurpurawan Burgos, Ilocos Norte, courtesy of
riderako.com
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Clastic sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are clastic when they
form from the concentration of sediments
that have been deposited, buried, and
compacted over a long period of time such as
quartz, felspar, and clay. These fragments
may come from pre-existing rocks or
minerals which are called clasts. Clastic
indicates that particles have been broken
and transported.
Sedimentary clastic texture may further be
refined whether the shapes of the individual
grains are angular or rounded. Clasts may
also be described based on their sizes and is
divided into three types: clay or silt, sand,
and gravel. Figure 2.12 on the right shows Figure 2.12. Transformation of sediments into
the clast size or rock name relationship. sedimentary rocks.
 Rocks that are formed from mechanical weathering debris include breccia,
conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale (Figure 2.13). They have been formed
from sediments of different sizes such gravel, sand, silty mud, and clayey mud.
Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks like (a)conglomerate rock has relatively large and
rounded clasts as compared to the angular clasts of the (b) breccia (Figure 16). The
sandstone has visible grains and prominent layering while the (d) claystone may have
several embedded fossils. Non-clastic sedimentary rocks like (e)limestone are a
precipitate and (f) coquina is a bioclastic.
Figure 2.13. Clastic sedimentary rocks

25
 Clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g., pyroclastics) and may have
undergone some stages in the sedimentary processes could be
classified as sedimentary rock (e.g., volcanoclastic rocks).

2. Crystalline or chemical sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are crystalline or chemical when minerals or

mineraloids are precipitated directly from water or are concentrated
by organic matter or life. Rocks that are exposed to water and
oxygen can slowly experience chemical changes such as oxidation or
rusting and hydrolysis through time. These processes break down
rocks into their chemical components, particularly into ions that can
be carried by running water in solution. Once the solution is
saturated, the precipitation of minerals like calcite and halite can
25

occur, leading into the formation of chemical sedimentary rocks. The

 components of these rocks have not been transported prior to
deposition and clasts are not present. These rocks are classified by
the chemistry of the minerals. Examples of these types of rocks
include limestone, dolostone, and rock salt.
There are three common groups within chemical sedimentary
rocks: carbonates, evaporites and chert (Figure 2.14).

Carbonate rocks are made of the minerals, called calcite and

dolomite. When a rock contains calcite, it is one of the types of
limestone. This type of stone is usually formed by organisms that
live in water, or biota, like clams or corals. This water life creates
their exoskeletons by taking the chemicals needed from the water.
Their skeletal remains become part of the rocks. Algae and
zooplankton also become part of these rocks.
25
 Geologists test for limestone by way of its reaction to dilute
hydrochloric acid. Bubbles are formed when the acid reacts with
limestone. When limestone contains large pieces of fossils, they
are called fossiliferous limes. If the shell fragments are even
larger the rock is a coquina. Otherwise, the rock is called
limestone or micrite.
 Limestone made of very small exoskeletons of algae are chalk.
This can be differentiated from micrite by its texture. Chalk has
a gritty texture. Other limestones are made of spheres of calcite,
or ooliths, and are called oolitic limestone.

A dolostone is a rock that is made up of dolomite. These stones

begin as limestone, but they go through a change. Dolostones
lose the limestone texture when they go through
recrystallization. This makes them appears to be micrites or
fossiliferous limestone.

Chemical sedimentary rocks that are created by precipitation

are called evaporites. Evaporites formed from the evaporation of
water leaving the dissolved minerals to crystallize. These stones
are dominated by dolostone, gypsum, and halite or rock salt.
 When water becomes supersaturated with these minerals
evaporite rocks form. Precipitates are rocks that developed when
minerals from a mineral supersaturated water start to crystallize
at the bottom of the solution.

When minerals are formed under the Earth’s surface, the

temperature and pressure produced the mineral quartz. Chert is
what is called a cryptocrystalline type of quartz. Its mineral
structure is different than quartz. When chert is formed, it is
created by biochemical processes where silica is taken up from
the water by diatoms to use in their exoskeleton.
 3. Organic sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks can also be organic or bioclastic when they form as the
result of the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of plant and/or
animal remains. Bioclastic rocks may contain remnants of plants, coral, shell,
bones, or fossil fragments. These plant and animal debris have calcium
minerals in them that pile on the sea floor over time to form organic
sedimentary rocks. Examples include rocks such as chert, peat, coal, some
limestone (Figure 2.15).

OPTIONAL: Video
on Sedimentary
Rocks

https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=Etu9BWbuDlY
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are made when existing rocks are subjected to high
temperatures and high pressures for long periods of time.
Metamorphism (meta means change, morph means form) happens
when molten rock intrudes other rocks and bakes the contact zone
where the molten rock touches the preexisting rock. This is contact
metamorphism in which heat and reactive fluids are the main factors
in the transformation of rocks. Metamorphism also occurs at convergent
boundaries where tectonic plates are colliding. During this process of
mountain building, rocks are subjected to pressure which is the main
factor in its transformation. This is called regional metamorphism.

All metamorphic rocks are derived by the action of heat and/or

pressure on pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks.
The pre-existing rock is called either the parent rock or the protolith.
Heat and pressure do not melt the parent rocks, but instead transforms
27
them into denser, more compact rocks. Exposure to extreme
conditions have also altered the rocks’ mineralogy, texture, and
chemical composition. New minerals are created either by
rearrangement of mineral components or by reactions with fluids
that enter the rocks. Pressure or temperature can even change
previously metamorphosed rocks into new types. Metamorphic
rocks are often squished, smeared out, and folded.

The kind of metamorphic rock depends on the type of original

rock. For example, sandstone is turned to quartzite, shale is
turned to slate, and limestone is turned to marble. Other kinds of
metamorphic rock are named for the kinds of minerals present,
the size of the grains and other textures. For example, mica schist
has very thin layers of mica, and garnet gneiss (pronounced like
nice) has garnet 27
crystals in thick layers of quartz and feldspar. The amount of
time, amount of pressure, and highness of temperature
determine what types of metamorphic rocks are made.

Metamorphic rocks are classified according to their texture.

Texture refers to the size, shape, and boundary relationships
of the minerals, particles, and other substances that make up
a rock. There are two major textural groups in metamorphic
rocks: Foliated and Non-Foliated.

Foliated or Banded Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks may be foliated when the dominant agent
of metamorphism is pressure. In this texture, the mineral
28
crystals in the rock are aligned with each other. This
alignment may be displayed as parallel planes along which the
rock splits, by overlapping sheets of platy minerals such as
micas, by the parallel alignment of elongate minerals such as
amphiboles, or by alternating layers of light and dark
minerals.

Differential stress has a major influence on the appearance of

a metamorphic rock. This can flatten pre-existing grains in the
rock, as shown in the diagram below (Figure 2.16).
 Figure 2.16. Grains in rocks before stress and under stress

Metamorphic minerals that grow under differential stress will have a

preferred orientation if the minerals have atomic structures that tend
to make them form either flat or elongate crystals. This will be
especially apparent for micas or other sheet silicates that grow during
metamorphism, such as biotite, muscovite, chlorite, talc,
28
or
serpentine. If any of these flat minerals are growing under normal
 stress, they will grow with their sheets oriented perpendicular to the
direction of maximum compression. As shown in Figure 2.17, platy
minerals align themselves parallel to the axis of pressure, resulting in a
layered appearance or foliation. This results in a rock that can be easily
broken along the parallel mineral sheets. Such a rock is said to be
foliated, or to have foliation.

28

Figure 2.17. Change in orientation of minerals due to stress

 Minerals differ in foliation based on their composition (Table
2.2). Slaty foliation results if the minerals are microscopic and
the rock appears foliated to the naked eye. This kind of
foliation, however, will manifest itself physically in the rock’s
tendency to separate along parallel planes. If the minerals are
barely visible to the naked eye, their alignment results in an
obvious but not very well-defined foliation called phyllitic.
When the bands are visible to the naked eye and have more
distinct layering, the texture is schistose. But if the minerals
are visible and elongated, the rock exhibits a coarsely banded
appearance due to the alignment of minerals. This type of
texture is gneissic.
Table 2.2. Simple metamorphic rock identification based on
texture, foliation, composition, and parent rock.
 Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks result when the dominant

agent is heat. Heat induces recrystallization of the existing
minerals. In this texture the mineral crystals in the rock have
grown in many directions and do not show alignment. As a result,
non- foliated rocks commonly appear massive and structureless,
with only a few lines of impurities through the rock.

Crystalline metamorphic rocks are usually composed only of

one type of mineral. For example, when a limestone composed of
calcite that precipitated out of solution gets in contact with an
intrusive magma body will metamorphose into marble. But when
conglomerate rocks which is composed of rock and mineral
fragments undergo contact metamorphism, the smaller components may
recrystallize, producing a meta-conglomerate rock that physically
resembles the parent material but is denser and shows evidence of
deformation.

The appearance of a foliated metamorphic rock can easily be

distinguished from a non-foliated one through its bands that clearly
show that the minerals are arranged parallel to the axis of pressure.
Non-foliated metamorphic rock does not show any bands since its
metamorphism is due to heat that allowed mineral crystals to grow in
many directions (Figure 2.18).

Figure 2.18. Difference

in appearance of
foliated and non-
foliated rocks.
Non-foliated rocks like marble also form through regional
metamorphism, where pressure is not intense, far from the main geologic
event.

Both foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks have undergone the

process of transformation due to increasing metamorphic grade and
increasing pressure as shown in Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19. Rocks subjected to

increasing pressure & temperature
attained increased metamorphic
grade
Source: https://tinyurl.com/5xnwy6pv

OPTIONAL: Video on Metamorphic

Rocks
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oQ1J0w3x0o&t=6s
 Types of Rocks
Instructions:

Complete the concept map by using the words or phrases from the table.
Write your answer on a sheet of paper.

Words or phrases to choose from:

mineral Lava cools quickly

igneous Large crystals form
regional Compacted sediments
precipitates Classified on how they are formed
Maybe Rocks change due to temperature and/or
vesicular pressure change
31
 What I Have Learned
Instructions:
1.Compare and contrast minerals and rocks.
2.On a separate sheet of paper, copy the Venn Diagram.
3.Fill it out with the similarities and differences between minerals and
rocks.
 What I Can Do

Instructions:

1.Perform the activity on

Rock Type Identification
Chart.
2. Fill in the blanks to
complete the tables and
write your answers on a
sheet of paper.
A). Sedimentary Rocks

32
 TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE ROCK OTHER
ROCK (Clastic, Crystalline, (Gravel, Sand, NAME CHARACT- ENVIRONMENT
Bioclastic) Silt, Clay) ERISTICS
1. clastic sandstone beach, river, or
sand dunes
2. gravel round rock river deposit
fragments
3. clastic shale low energy basin
4. varied halite dried up salty
water
5. bioclastic Do you see swamp
plant material?

B). Igneous
Rocks
 COLOR TEXTURE ENVIRONMENT
ROCK (Dark with (Glassy, ROCK INTRUSIVE (Mantle, Ocean,
green, Fine, or Intermediate,
Dark, Coarse, NAME EXTRUSIVE Continental)
Intermediate, Very
Light) Coarse,
Vesicular)
6. dark extrusive ocean
7. dark to gabbro mantle
greenish
black
8. medium- diorite intermediate
coarse
9. intermediate fine extrusive intermediate
10. light medium- continental
coarse
11. fine rhyolite extrusive continental
C). Metamorphic
Rocks

35
The texture and composition of igneous rocks are determined by their degree of metamorphism.
Depending on the influence of heat/pressure, metamorphic rocks may form as:
1.New mineral compositions, some typical of igneous rocks and some unique to metamorphic rocks.
2.New textures unique to metamorphic rocks.
 TEXTURE COMPOSITI ROCK PROTOLI ENVIRONMENT
ROC (Foliated or ON TH Contact (heat) or
K Non- (minerals) NAME (parent regional,
foliated) rock) (heat+pressure)
12. non- Does it extrusive ocean
foliated fizz? (volcanic)
13. Does it mantle
fizz?
14. intermediate
banded Quartz,
15. (compositi garnet, extrusive intermediate
onal pyroxene,
layering) amphibole
ASSESSMENT
____1. Why is the common table salt (NaCl) a mineral? Common table
salt (NaCl) because it is/has___________.
A. solid C. cubic form
B. man-made D. a fixed chemical structure

____2. Which of the following is a group of rock-forming minerals?

A. copper, gold, silver C. zircon, granite, pyrite
B. calcite, feldspar, mica D. apatite, titanite, tourmaline

____3. What makes a mineral different from a rock? A mineral is a

__________ while a rock is a_____________.
C. organic, inorganic C. pure substance, mixture
D. mixture, pure substance D. solidified lava, molten rock
____4. What group of minerals does graphite (pure carbon) in pencils
belong?
A. halide B. sulfate C. carbonate D. native element

____5. What type of crystal form or habit is exhibited by the sample

mineral on the right?

B. cubic B. hexagonal C. monoclinic D. triclinic

6. How is hardness of a mineral being tested? The hardness of a mineral

can be tested by scratching it using a _______.
C. fingernail C. concrete nail
D. tool for cutting D. all of the above
___7. Why is taste as a technique in identifying minerals need to
be used with precautions? Tasting as a technique in
identifying minerals need to be used with precautions because
some of them are______________________.
A. acidic B. bitter C. saline D. poisonous

____8. Which of the following clasts shale comes from?

A. gravel B. sand C. silty mud D. clayey mud

____9. What type of rock may contain fossils?

B. sedimentary rocks C. extrusive igneous rocks
C. metamorphic rocks D. intrusive igneous rocks
____10. What factors are required for the formation of
metamorphic rocks?
A. heat and pressure C. the cooling of magma
B. the melting of rock D. compaction of sediments

____11. Which of the following represents the correct order of

the process responsible for the formation of sedimentary
rocks?
C. compaction, cementation, deposition, weathering, erosion
D. deposition, cementation, compaction, erosion, weathering
E. erosion, weathering, compaction, cementation, deposition
F. weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, cementation
_____14. Why are sedimentary rocks able to provide traces of living
organisms that existed in the past but not with igneous nor
metamorphic rocks? Remnants of once living things were preserved in
sedimentary rocks because they were____________________.
I. developed from molten rocks.
II. exposed to high temperature and pressure.
III. not subjected to extreme heat and pressure.
IV. formed from lithification of sediments and other materials.
A. I & II only C. III & IV only
B. I, II & III only D. I, II, III & IV

_____15. How do clastic rocks differ from non-clastic rocks in terms of

process of formation? Clastic rocks are formed from the ________of
rock and mineral fragments rather than by chemical processes.
A. erosion B. lithification C. melting D. weathering