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Reviewer Earth and Life Science

Earth Science STEM 11 (Bonga National High School)

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Earth and Life Science EDWIN POWELL HUBBLE – American

astronomer, who played a crucial role in
[Reporting 1] establishing the fields of extragalactic
astronomy and observational cosmology,
Three (3) THEORIES about the Origin of the
proved the “Nebulae” were actually
Universe:
galaxies beyond Milky Way
1. DIVINE CREATION THEORY GEORGE LEMAITRE – Belgian Catholic
- also known as Creationism priest, mathematician, astronomer and
- the belief that the universe and the professor of physics, first denied
various forms of life were created by “Hubble’s Law”, now called as Hubble-
god out of nothing Lemaitre Law by the IAV, proposed the
“Big Bang Theory” calling it the hypothesis
2. STEADY-STATE THEORY of the primeval atom, and later called
- a view that the universe is always “the beginning of the world”
expanding but maintaining a constant
average density
- old starts and galaxies become  GEOCENTRIC MODEL
unobservable as a consequence of - also known as the Ptolemaic System
their increasing distance and velocity - Earth is considered to be the center of
of recession the Solar System
FRED HOYLE – English astronomer who - the Moon, the planets, the sun and the
formulated the theory of stellar stars all rotate around the Earth, with
nucleosynthesis and rejected big bang uniform circular motion
theory  HELIOCENTRIC MODEL
HERMANN BONDI – Austrian-British - the Sun is at the center
mathematician and cosmologist, - the word “helios” in Greek means
developed the Steady-State Model with “sun”
Fred Hoyle and Thomas Gold - Planets revolve around the fixed Sun
THOMAS GOLD – an Austrian-born - Proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus
American astrophysicist

3. BIG BANG THEORY [Reporting 2]

- most accepted theory, since it was
born to observe how galaxies are EARTH SUBSYTEMS
moving away from its own at great
 This systems interact with each other,
speed in all directions
they work together to influence the
- describes how the universe expanded
climate, trigger geological processes, and
from an initial state of high density
affect life all over the Earth
and temperature
- offers a comprehensive explanation Four (4) SUBSYSTEMS:
for a broad range of observed
phenomena, including: abundance of 1. GEOSPHERE
light elements, the cosmic microwave - solid parts of the Earth – rocks,
background (CMB) radiation and large minerals and landforms at the surface
scale structure and interior

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- controls the distribution of rocks,  Earth as an OPEN SYSTEM for ENERGY

minerals and soils, also controls  Energy radiates into the Earth’s
difficult hazards of nature system, mainly from Sun, then
2. HYDROSPHERE energy is radiated back into the
- total amount of water – on the space from Earth
surface, underground and air on  Earth as a CLOSED SYSTEM for MATTER
- can be liquid, vapor or ice  The earth is made up of chemical
- Cryosphere is the frozen part elements, because of gravity,
3. BIOSPHERE matter (comprising all liquids,
- parts of Earth where life exists – all solids & gases) does not leave the
ecosystems system
- narrow zone where land, water and air
interact with each other to support life
4. ATMOSPHERE [Reporting 3]
- from the surface of Earth up to
10,000km (6,214 miles) above Four (4) SUBSTANCES that MINERAL should
- layers of gases surrounding Earth have:
- composed of about 78% nitrogen,
 NATURALLY OCCURING
21% oxygen, 0.9% argon and 0.1% other
- naturally present in the
gases
environment
FIVE (5) layers of the Atmosphere:
- mineral must occur on Earth (Gold,
 TROPOSPHERE
Copper, Silver & Graphite)
- 0-10 KM
- where most type of clouds
 SOLID SUBSTANCE
are found - must have definite chemical
- where weather occurs composition
- where airplanes travel - each one must be made up of
 STRATOSPHERE particular mix of chemical
- 10-30 KM elements
- where the ozone layer was  DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
found - it has the same chemical
- where jets like to travel composition that varies within a
 MESOSPHERE specific limited range and the
- 30-50 KM
atoms that makes it up must
- the coldest layer
occur in specific ratios
- where shooting stars or
 INORGANIC MATERIALS
meteors burn up/melt
- material that has occur never been
 THERMOSPHERE
- 50-400 km alive
- the hottest layer
CAUSES of the FORMATION of ROCKS:
- absorbs sun’s radiation
- where Aurora Borealis occur  rocks are formed by PHYSICAL CHANGES
- where Satellites are seen such as:
- where Karman Line is located
 melting
 EXOSPHERE
 cooling
- 400-10,000 km
- Outer space, spaceships are seen  eroding
 compacting

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 deforming commonly some combination of

these factors
These are all parts of the “ROCK CYCLE”

ROCK CYCLE - process of transformation

and generation of igneous, sedimentary [Reporting 4]
and metamorphic rocks
Types of EXOGENIC PROCESSES:
Three (3) main TYPES of ROCKS:
1. WEATHERING
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS - combined action of all processes
- or magmatic rocks that cause rock to disintegrate
- formed when molten hot material physically and decompose
cools and solidifies chemically because of exposure
near the Earth’s surface through
Types of Igneous Rocks:
elements of “weather” such as:
 INTRUSIVE temperature, rainfall, frost, fog
- deep in the crust and ice
- cooling time: thousands
Three (3) types of WEATHERING:
of years
- texture: small to medium a. PHYSICAL WEATHERING
grains  also known as mechanical
 EXTRUSIVE weathering
- formed in the surface  happens when rocks are
- cooling time: seconds to broken up into smaller
months fragments without any
- texture: invisible or chemical change
microscopic grains Types of Physical Weathering:
 PLUTONIC o Block Disintegration
- deep in the crust - successive heating
- cooling time: millions of and cooling which
years causes expansion
- texture: large grains and contraction of
rocks
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS o Exfoliation
- formed by the accumulation or - results because of
deposition of minerals or organic the intense heating of
particles at the Earth’s surface the rock’s outer
- followed by cementation layers
- process that cause particles to o Frost Action
- most important
settle in place
physical weathering
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
in cold climates
- started out as some other type of
- the alternate freezing
rock but have been substantially and melting of water
changed inside the joints of
- formed when rocks are subjected rocks, split them into
to high heat, high pressure, hot fragments caused by
mineral-rich fluids or more the conversion of

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water to ice increases Classifications of Mass Wasting:

the volume of water
by 10% a. FALL
- free-fall movement of
b. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
 chemical change in rocks detached individual
through formation of new pieces of rocks (ex:
compounds and new Rock Fall)
substances b. SLIDES
- when rock materials
Types of Chemical Weathering: remain fairly coherent
and move along a
o Oxidation well-defined surface
- atmospheric oxygen (ex: Landslides,
reacts with the rock
Slumps)
to produce oxides c. FLOW
o Carbonation - When rock materials
- various types of are saturated with
carbonates are water and move
formed
downslope as a
- CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 viscous fluid (ex:
o Hydration Mudflow, Earthflow
- water is absorbed by and Solifluction)
the minerals of rocks
3. SOIL EROSION
- due to absorption its
- removal of soil at a greater rate
volume increases and
than its replacement by natural
the grains lose their
shape agencies (water, wind etc.)
c. BIOTIC WEATHERING
Types of Soil Erosion:
o Plants - the roots of plants
penetrate into the joints of a. WIND EROSION
the rocks - when wind carry
o Burrowing – animals away vast quantity of
(earthworms, rats, rabbits, fine soil particles and
termites and ants) sand
breakdown the rocks and b. SHEET EROSION
hooves of animals break the - when water moves as
soil sheets taking way
o Human Beings – man breaks layers of soil
large amount of rocks in the c. RILL EROSION
course of his activities like - removal of surface
agriculture, construction of material (usually soil)
houses, roads etc. by the action of
running water
2. MASS WASTING d. GULLY EROSION
- downslope movement of rock and - when water moves as a
channel down the slope
soil under the influence of gravity
and it scoops out the
- natural processes and is soil and form gullies
considered a natural hazard which multiply and in
long run spread over a
wide area

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Types of ENDOGENIC PROCESSES: b. REVERSE

- the block above the
1. FOLDING / FAULTING fault moves up
- creates and abnormal tension relative to the block
inside the Earth’s crust which lead below the fault
to unequal leveling of the mantle - caused by
and hence it forms pressure in the compressional forces
surface of the earth and results in
- Folding INSIDE the earth’s crust shortening
- called a thrust-fault if
takes many years
the dip of the fault
- Fault IN THE LAND makes the land
plane is small
hollow or inhabitable, hence it c. NORMAL
causes earthquakes - A dip-slip fault in
which the block
Types of Fold:
above the fault
a. ANTICLINE moves downward in
- fold that is convex relation to the block
below
upward
- forms an “A” shape How EARTHQUAKES HAPPEN?
- anticlinorium is a
large anticline  Happens when two blocks of the earth
b. SYNCLINE suddenly SLIP PAST ONE ANOTHER.
- fold that is concave  FAULT or FAULT PLANE is the surface
upward where they slip
- synclinorium is a  HYPOCENTER is the location below the
large syncline earth’s surface where earthquake starts
- fold that drop away  EPICENTER is the location directly above
from the crest on it, on the surface of the earth
either half
TECTONIC FORCES & PROCESSES
- forms a “S” shape
- takes place at the plate edges
Types of Fault:
- oceanic plates form the mid-ocean ridges,
a. TRANSFORM they thicken as the move away (about
- a special variety of 1km for every million years) and has a
strike-slip fault that basaltic composition
accommodates
relative horizontal slip
 COMPRESSION
between other
- a sort of stress in which rocks are
tectonic elements
such as oceanic pushed or squeezed together
crustal plates - aims towards the rock’s center
and can cause it to tilt horizontally
or vertically
 TENSION
- stress that tends to pull
something apart

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-stress component perpendicular o island arcs

to a given surface such as a fault o submarine mountain ranges
o fault lines
plane
 Volcanoes form when two(2) tectonic
 SHEARING
plates collide and one moves beneath the
- force tending to cause
other
deformation of a material by a
slippage along a plane or planes DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
parallel to the imposed stress
 divergent plate boundaries
THERMAL STRESS  linear feature that exists between two (2)
tectonic plates that are moving away
 caused by temperature variations
from each other
 can contribute to mechanical weathering
 produce rifts which become rift valleys
 temperature changes cause rock to
 example: THE MID-ATLANTIC RIDGES
expand (with heat) and compress (with
- mid-ocean ridge located along the
cold)
floor of the Atlantic ocean and
[Reporting 5] part of the longest mountain range
in the world
PLATE TECTONICS
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
 a theory explain structure of the earth’s
crust and many associated phenomena as  when two (2) plates come together
resulting from the interaction of rigid  the impact of colliding plates can cause
lithospheric plates which move slowly over the edges of one or both plates to buckle
the underlying mantle up into a mountain ranges or into a deep
seafloor trench
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
 example: THE PACIFIC RING OF FIRE
 in the early 20th century, WEGENER - also called as Circum-Pacific plate,
published a paper explaining his theory a path along the Pacific ocean
that the continental landmasses were characterized by active volcanoes
“drifting” across the earth, sometimes and frequent earthquakes
plowing through oceans and into each
TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES
other
 occurs when two (2) plates slide past
PANGAEA / PANGEA
each other horizontally
 supercontinent  example: SAN ANDRES FAULT
 incorporated almost all landmasses on - a continental transform fault that
earth extends roughly 1,200 km through
 the continent broke apart from a single California
landmass and moved to their present
How are MOUNTAINS FORMED?
position
 When pieces of Earth’s crust called
What FEATURES FORM at Plate Tectonic
‘plates’ smash against each other in a
Boundaries:
process called plate tectonics, and buckle
o deep ocean trenches up like the hood of a car in a head-on
o volcanoes collision

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