1

Unit 2
The Earth and
Its Changing
Landforms
Subunit 1 02
Origin and Structure of the earth

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01 Origin and Structure of the earth

Inquiry questions
1. How did our planet come into existence?
2. What are the different layers beneath the surface of the earth?

1.1 Introduction

Figure 1: Illustration from Calvin and Hobbes by Bill Waterson, Published on October 14, 1993

Look at the comic strip above. What do you think it means? How does it make you feel? Can you note down
your thoughts?

The origin of the earth is a complex and fascinating topic studied by scientists and researchers from
multiple disciplines. Looking at the sky, we often wonder about the existence of the stars, earth, and
moon (and sometimes about our own place) in the universe. The formation of the earth started over
4.6 billion (4,600,000,000) years ago out of a mixture of dust and gas around a young sun. It was a
barren planet with rocks and toxic gases that has evolved over millions of years into what we call our
home today.

Since times immemorial human beings have been curious about the world they live in. Various
philosophers and scientists have proposed numerous theories explaining the origin of the universe.
Our understanding of the universe continued to evolve as scientific research and understanding
developed. Astronomers like Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton
have played important roles in this regard. Their invaluable contributions have laid the groundwork
for many subsequent theories.

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1.2 The Origin of the Universe

Many theories have tried to explain how the universe originated. Among them, the Big Bang Theory
is the most widely accepted theory, and currently serves as the foundation for explaining the origin
of the universe. Proposed by astronomer Georges Lemaître in 1927, the theory suggests that the
universe originated from a singular point. Since then, it has continuously expanded to become as
large as it is now. In fact, it is still stretching and growing in size!

According to this theory, in its initial stage the universe was composed of tiny particles mixed with
light and energy, and thus was vastly different from its current form. Eventually, the tiny particles
grouped together, forming atoms. The atoms, in turn, grouped together to form stars and galaxies.
Of course, these processes took place over the course of millions of years. In fact, it is now estimated
that the universe is 13,800,000,000 years old—that’s 13.8 billion!

Discover it Yourself - 1
To know more about the Big Bang Theory, follow these three links:

How Did the Universe What Is the Big Bang? | NASA Space Overview -
Begin? | AMNH Place – NASA Science for Kids NASA Science

Formation of stars
A galaxy consists of gas, dust, and an extremely large group of stars and their solar systems. It is all
held together by gravity. Our solar system is part of the Milky Way galaxy. A galaxy is so vast that
it extends over millions of light-years. What are light-years? A light-year is a measure of distance.
It refers to the distance that light travels in one year. The speed of light is calculated as 3,00,000
kilometres per second. Can you imagine that speed? Nothing travels faster than light. For our
reference, we can consider this: the earth is 149.65 million kilometres away from the sun. It takes
light about eight minutes to travel this distance.

Stars are the most widely known astronomical objects. These celestial bodies are enormous in size
and are mostly made up of hydrogen and helium. They emit light and heat. It is tough to estimate the
total number of stars that exist. There must be billions of them in the universe!

The lifespan of a star is usually very long, sometimes as long as billions of years. A star is born
within hydrogen-rich clouds of dust called nebulae. Over the course of thousands of years, gravity
causes pockets of dense matter inside the nebula to collapse under their own weight, i.e., due to their
own gravitational attraction. As portions of the dense matter of the nebula collapses, the collapsed
matter at the centre begins to heat up. This hot core at the centre of the collapsing nebula is called a
protostar. It represents a star’s early phase.
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Formation of our Solar System

Our solar system started forming around 4.5 billion years ago from a thick cloud of gas and dust in
the space. As this cloud collapsed, it resulted in a spinning disk of material called a solar nebula. The
gravitational force pulled the material in the middle. As the pressure began to increase at the core,
hydrogen atoms started joining to make helium. This released a lot of energy, and that is how our sun
was born.

Our sun is a yellow dwarf star that is 4.5 billion years old. It is a really hot, glowing ball made of
hydrogen and helium. The sun sits in the middle of our solar system, about 150 million kilometres
away from earth. It is the only star in our solar system. Without the sun’s energy, life on earth would
not be possible. The sun has a diameter of 1.4 million kilometres, making it the largest object in our
solar system. Its gravitational force holds the entire solar system together, ensuring that everything
from the biggest planet to the smallest pieces of rock debris stays in their respective orbits.

As the dust around the sun started to clump together, they formed small rocks. These rocks crashed
into each other, making bigger and bigger objects. The presence of gas helped these solid particles
stick together. These were the early versions of planets, also called planetesimals. Planetesimals
are a large number of smaller bodies that come together by collision and gravitational pull to form
planets. When planets form around the star, they make up a planetary system, which means a group
of objects held together by gravity, all circling a star. In our solar system, we have eight planets.
Starting from the sun and going outward, they are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.

Discover it Yourself - 2
Follow this link to find out the fundamental differences
between a ‘star’ and a ‘planet’:
Planets vs Stars: Brightness, Size, and Weight (‘Mass’) –
Exoplanet Exploration: Planets Beyond our Solar System
(nasa.gov)

The way the solar system formed explains why the planets are arranged as they are. Closer to the
sun, only the rocky materials could withstand the heat when the solar system was young. That is why
the first four planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars – are called terrestrial planets due to their
solid, rocky nature. These planets constitute the four innermost members of our solar system.

On the other hand, materials that we usually see as ice, liquid, or gas settled in the outer parts of
the young solar system. Gravity pulled these materials together, forming the gas giants Jupiter and
Saturn, and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. These are the outer planets of our solar system,
and are often called the Jovian planets. Unlike the terrestrial planets, these planets don’t have solid
surfaces. Instead, they are mostly made up of hydrogen and helium, with some methane, ammonia,
water, and other gases in their atmospheres. One interesting feature of these planets is their multiple
moons. Jupiter and Saturn have over 60 moons each, Uranus has more than 20, and Neptune has over
10. These planets also have strong winds, storms, and faster rotations.

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Figure 2: The Sun and the Eight Planets in Our Solar System

Discover it Yourself - 3
In August 2006, in a meeting of the International Astronomical
Union, Pluto was decided to be regarded as a ‘dwarf planet’.
Follow this link to find out why Pluto is no longer considered a
planet: Why is Pluto no longer a planet? - BBC News

The Earth and Its Moon

Earth is unique because it supports life in the vastness of space. What makes earth so hospitable?
Firstly, its optimal distance from the sun ensures that it receives just the right amount of sunlight
and heat to make the planet habitable. Secondly, the earth’s magnetic field shields it from harmful
solar radiation. Thirdly, the planet’s insulating atmosphere helps maintain temperatures that are
conducive to life. And fourthly, its chemical composition, including water and carbon, builds and
sustains diverse life forms.

Originating from a cloud of dust and gas, the present day earth has transformed into diverse and
thriving ecosystems. Its rocky landscapes, favourable atmosphere, and freshwater lakes, rivers and
oceans have made it a unique and precious celestial body in the universe.

The moon is earth’s only natural satellite, and it has been circling our planet for billions of years. It is
the biggest and brightest thing we see in the night sky. Even though scientists have proposed several
different theories to explain how the moon was formed, the most popular theory suggests that a big
object about the size of Mars, nicknamed “Theia,” crashed into earth a long time ago. This crash is

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called the “moon-forming impact.” According to

this theory, the moon formed from the materials
thrown out into space by the crash—like rock
dust and gases.

Understanding how earth and the moon came to

be formed is of immense significance. It helps
us figure out the story of our solar system, like
how long it takes for planets to form, what they
are made of, and what makes a planet suitable
for life to flourish. It also helps scientists who
study planets know what to look for when
searching for other places where life could exist,
both in our solar system and beyond!

Figure 3: The Earth and the Moon

Discover it Yourself - 4
The Moon is moving away from Earth! Follow this link to know
why: Why the Moon is getting further away from Earth - BBC News

Did You Know: Geological Time Scale

You must be aware that earth’s natural history or timeline is
much longer than the history of humans as we know it. We are
talking millions and billions of years here. Have a look at the
Geological Time Scale below (Figure 4). In this subunit, we are chiefly
concerned with the earliest stages of Earth’s history - The Hadean,
Archaen and Pretorozoic Eons which spanned roughly from 5 billion
years ago (bya) to 550 million years ago (mya). This is a time when only
the earliest life forms were beginning to originate.

Discover it Yourself - 5
Follow the link to find out how Earth looked across the
geological time scale. We will keep coming back to this.

https://dinosaurpictures.org/ancient-earth#500

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MASS EON MILLIONS OF ERA PERIOD EPOCH

EXTINCTIONS YEARS AGO

K-T extinction: QUATERNARY

Holocene
A global mass Rise of mammals Pleistocene

CENOZOIC
extinction that Pliocene
took place 66 Milocene

million year 1.8 Oligocene

Eocene
ago. It removed Paleocene
TERTIARY
80% of all animal
Rise of Man
species.
80%
50
(including
dinosaurs).
death rate
100 CRETACROUS - Modern seed bearing
plants, Dinosaurs
150

MESOZOIC
JURASSIC - First Birds
PHANEROZOIC

200
TRIASSIC 85% TRIASSIC - Cyeads, First Dinosaurs
death rate
250
95% CARBONIFEROUS PERMAIN - First Reptiles
PERMAIN
death rate
300
PENNSYLVANIAN - First Insects

MISSISSIPPIAN - Many Crinoids

350
DEVONIAN
DEVONIAN 70%
First seed plants Cartilage Fish
MESOZOIC

death rate
400

SILURIAN - Earliest Land Animals

450 ORDOVICIAN - Early Bony Fish

ORDOVICIAN 85%
death rate
500 CAMBRIAN - Invertebrate animals,
Brachiopods, Trilobites
550
PROTEROZOIC Bacteria, Algae, Jellyfish
2500
ARCHEAN Earth’s crush had cooled enough to allow the
formation of continents and life started to form
4000
HADEAN Formation of the earth
4540
Figure 4: The Geological Time Scale

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1.3 The Structure of the Earth

Figure 5: Planetary Differentiation

The earth, our home, is more than just a solid ball floating in space. It is a complex and dynamic
planet, and its structure is divided into three distinct layers, each with its unique properties. These
three layers are called the Crust, the outermost-most layer, followed by the Mantle and finally the
innermost layer called the Core.

We will be studying these in detail in this subunit, with special attention to their physical and
chemical properties and the basis of their subdivisions. But first, let us think about why the three
layers exist. The one-word answer is density. The longer answer, however, traces back to the
formation of the solar system.

During the formation of the solar system, our planet looked nothing like it does today. In its initial
phase, the earth was so hot that it consisted almost entirely of magma (molten or semi-molten rocks).
It took a few hundred million years for earth to cool down and for water to form. Heave elements
began to sink down towards the centre of the earth, eventually forming the core. This was mostly
iron and nickel. As this process continued, the earth became differentiated into layers (see Figure 5).
While the dense, molten materials sank to form the core, the crust was formed by relatively lighter
materials. In between these two layers, less dense materials (compared to the core) composed of

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iron-rich silicates (combinations of iron, silicon and oxygen) formed the mantle.

Over the course of millions of years, the mantle underwent a gradual cooling process. During this
cooling phase, water trapped within minerals was released through volcanic activity, a phenomenon
known as “outgassing.” As outgassing continued, the mantle progressively solidified.

• Heavy elements began to sink down towards the centre of the earth, eventually forming the core.
This was mostly iron and nickel.
• Comparatively, less dense materials composed of iron-rich silicates (combinations of iron, silicon
and oxygen) formed the mantle. Over the course of millions of years, the mantle underwent a
gradual cooling process. During this cooling phase, water trapped within minerals was released
through volcanic activity, a phenomenon known as ‘outgassing. As outgassing continued, the
mantle progressively solidified.
• Finally, the materials with the lowest density, including common rocks like granite and basalt,
rose towards the surface. Then they cooled down, and solidified into the Earth’s outermost layer,
forming the solid, rocky crust. Thus, while the dense, molten materials sank to form the core, the
crust was formed by relatively lighter materials.

As this process continued, the earth became differentiated into layers (see Figure 5). This
organisation into layers is referred to as planetary differentiation. It is one of the most significant
events in the history of our planet. This process resulted in the formation of a core, the development
of a mantle, and eventually the creation of the crust containing the oceans and continents. At the
same time, varied gaseous matter was pushed from the earth’s interior to give rise to the atmosphere
and the oceans. Let us now look at each layer in detail.

Crust
The outermost layer of the earth, everything we see around us, where we live are all part of the crust.
The crust is relatively thin compared to the other layers of the earth. It has an average thickness
of about 30 kilometres (18.6 miles) beneath continents and approximately 5 kilometres (3.1 miles)
beneath the ocean floor.

Discover it Yourself - 6
How deep have you ever been? Can you find out how deep Delhi’s deepest metro station is?
Compare it with the deepest metro/rail station in the world.

The earth’s crust is composed of a variety of rocks that include igneous (granite, basalt, etc.),
metamorphic (gneiss, schist, etc.) and sedimentary (sandstone, conglomerate, etc.), which vary in
composition and density. It is divided into two primary types: oceanic crust, found beneath the
ocean basins, and continental crust, which makes up the continents. The continental crust is thicker
in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as 70 kilometres thick in the Himalayan region.

The crust is where most geographical processes and surface features occur, including the formation
of mountains, lakes, dunes, etc. It also hosts valuable resources like minerals, and groundwater,
making it of great significance for human need.
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Mantle
The mantle, around 2,900 kilometres (1,802 miles) thick, lies between the super-hot core at the centre
and the thin outer layer of the crust. The upper mantle has two parts that are recognised as two
distinct regions - the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

• The lithosphere includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle along with the crust. It is the
coolest and the most rigid layer of the earth. The boundary between the crust and the mantle is
called the Mohorovičić discontinuity, or the Moho.

• Underneath the lithosphere, we have the asthenosphere, which is a denser layer. The temperature
and pressure of the asthenosphere are so high that rocks soften and become semi-molten.

The lower mantle is deeper down, stretching from about 660 kilometres (410 miles) to roughly 2,900
kilometres beneath earth’s surface. It is hotter and denser compared to the upper mantle.

Core
The earth’s core, situated
at approximately 2,900
kilometres beneath the
surface, is a pivotal component
of our planet’s interior. The
core can be divided into two
distinct layers: the outer
core and the inner core. The
outer core extends from
about 2,900 kilometres (1,800
miles) to approximately 5,100
kilometres (3,200 miles)
below the earth’s surface. It
is in a liquid state due to high
temperatures and pressures.
Figure 6: The Layers of the earth
The inner core, starting from
around 5,100 kilometres to the centre of the earth at about 6,378 kilometres (3,959 miles), is solid
because of even greater pressure despite high temperatures. The outer and inner cores have such
pressures that you would be squeezed into a ball smaller than a marble if you were able to go to the
centre of the earth!

Comprising exceedingly dense materials, the core is primarily composed of nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe),
and is often referred to as the “NiFe layer”. This dense composition contributes significantly to the
earth’s overall mass and gravity. The earth’s magnetic field is primarily generated by the movements
of molten iron and nickel in the outer core. This motion, known as convection, generates electric
currents, which, in turn, create the planet’s magnetic field.

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Discover it Yourself - 7
What do you think would happen if the earth’s core
cooled? Follow these links if you are curious to
know more:
Earth’s core cooling faster than previously thought,
researchers say (nbcnews.com)
Earth’s core may be cooling faster than scientists
thought – DW – 01/20/2022

Book Recommendation

Read the novel - Journey to the Center of the Earth by Jules Verne.
(Remember that the book is a work of fiction and does not offer a scientific
explanation of the earth’s core. However, it certainly makes for an interesting
read.)

1.4 Conclusion
Exploring the formation of our solar system and the development of the earth’s layers enhances our
understanding of the complex processes that have shaped both our cosmic environment and our own
planet. We have learned about the nebula that gave rise to the Sun and planets, as well as the complex
mechanisms responsible for earth’s layered structure based on density, pressure and temperature.
Reflecting on these concepts emphasises on the earth’s unique position within the solar system and
its significance as the only known planet that supports diverse life forms.

However, the inquiry into our planet is far from over. In the following subunit, we will study about
the dynamic nature of the earth’s surface. But before we do that, take a look at a world map and ask
yourself: Has the earth’s surface always appeared as it does today?

A Glossary
• Aeon/Eon: The longest division of geological time, representing a vast and distinct period in
Earth’s geological history. Aeons/eons are further divided into eras, which are then subdivided
into periods, epochs, and ages.

• Archean: The Archean Eon came after Hadean, marked by the emergence of life and the
development of Earth’s continents.

• Asthenosphere: The semi-fluid, partially molten layer beneath the lithosphere in the Earth’s
upper mantle, where material can flow slowly over geological timescales.

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• Core: It is the innermost layer or the centre of the earth. It is made up of two parts - the liquid
outer core and the solid inner core.

• Crust: It is the outermost layer of the earth and is composed of a variety of solid rocks. It is of two
types - oceanic crust and continental crust. The latter is thicker than the former.

• Galaxy: A galaxy consists of gas, dust, and an extremely large group of stars and their solar
systems. It is all held together by gravity.

• Hadean: The Hadean Eon represents Earth’s earliest geological era, characterised by extreme
heat and the formation of the planet’s crust and oceans.

• Jovian planets: The term “Jovian planets” refers to the giant planets of the outer solar system,
including Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. These planets lack solid surfaces and are
primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, with traces of methane, ammonia, water, and other
gases in their atmospheres.

• Light-year: It is a measure of distance, referring to the distance that light travels in one year. The
speed of light is calculated as 3,00,000 kilometres per second.

• Lithosphere: The rigid outer layer of the Earth’s surface that includes the crust and uppermost
part of the mantle.

• Mantle: It lies below the crust.

• Nebula: A giant cloud of dust and gas in space.

• Outgassing: The process of releasing gases, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, and sulphur
dioxide, from volcanic activity.

• Planetary differentiation: The process by which a planet’s materials separate into distinct layers
based on their density, with heavier elements sinking toward the core and lighter ones rising
toward the surface.

• Planetesimals: Large number of smaller celestial bodies that come together by collision and
gravitational pull to form planets.

• Proterozoic: The Proterozoic Eon is defined by the proliferation of complex life forms, the
formation of supercontinents, and the transition to an oxygen-rich atmosphere.

• Terrestrial planets: Rocky, dense planets located closer to the Sun in the solar system, including
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

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Check Your Progress

1. What is the main focus of the Big Bang Theory?
a. Describing the formation of stars c. Studying the composition of galaxies
b. Explaining the origin of the universe d. Analysing the movement of planets

2. Who proposed the Big Bang Theory?

a. Albert Einstein c. Georges Lemaître
b. Isaac Newton d. Nicolaus Copernicus

3. What are stars primarily composed of?

a. Oxygen and nitrogen c. Carbon and nitrogen
b. Hydrogen and helium d. Iron and nickel

4. What is the early phase of a star called?

a. Nebula c. Supernova
b. Protostar d. Planetesimal

5. What are the early versions of planets called?

a. Nebulae c. Planetesimals
b. Protoplanets d. Supernovae

6. Why are the first four planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars - called “terrestrial planets”?
a. Because they are made of gas and ice c. Because they have many moons
b. Because of their solid, rocky surfaces d. Because they are closer to Jupiter & Saturn

7. What are the outer planets of the solar system often called?
a. Terrestrial planets c. Jovian planets
b. Gas giants d. Rocky planets

8. What is the moon’s most widely accepted formation theory?

a. The collision with an asteroid
b. The capture of a passing celestial body
c. The collision with a large object named “Theia”
d. The gradual accumulation of space debris

9. What is the primary reason for the earth’s interior being arranged into layers?
a. Heat generated from nuclear fusion c. Friction from volcanic activity
b. Density variations d. Radioactive decay

10. The term “outgassing” refers to:

a. the process of gas inflow from space
b. the expulsion of water during underground mining
c. the release of gases, particularly volatile compounds like water vapour, from materials such as
minerals or the earth’s crust, often through processes like volcanic activity
d. The sinking of heavy materials to the earth’s core

Unit 2 - The Earth and its Changing Landforms

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11. What is the primary division within the upper mantle?
a. Lithosphere and asthenosphere
b. Crust and lithosphere
c. Outer core and inner core
d. Mohorovičić discontinuity and asthenosphere

12. What is the state of the outer core of the earth?

a. Solid c. Liquid
b. Semi-molten d. Gaseous

13. Determine whether the following statements are true or false:

. The Mohorovičić discontinuity marks the boundary between the lithosphere and
asthenosphere.
. The earth’s mantle is primarily composed of nickel and iron.
. The inner core of the earth is in a liquid state due to high temperatures and pressures.
. The lithosphere includes the crust and the brittle upper portion of the mantle.
. The earth’s crust is also regarded as the “NiFe” layer.

14. How are the terrestrial planets of our solar system different from the Jovian planets?

15. What is meant by the term “planetary differentiation”?

16. Explain the three layers of the earth with a diagram.

References:
1. Big Bang or Steady State. Niels Bohr Library & Archives. (n.d.). https://history.aip.org/exhibits/cosmology/ideas/bigbang.htm
2. Crust. Education | National Geographic. (n.d.-a). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/crust/
3. Earth Structure. Education | National Geographic. (n.d.-a). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-earth-
structure/
4. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Where did the Moon come from?. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/list/
where-did-the-moon-come-from
5. IMDb.com. (n.d.). Journey to the Center of the earth. IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0052948/mediaviewer/
rm2282158592/?ref_=tt_md_1
6. Layers of Earth. Exploring Our Fluid Earth. (n.d.). https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/layers-earth
7. MAT, M. (2023, December 5). Geologic Time Scale. Geology Science. https://geologyscience.com/geology-branches/paleontology/
geologic-time-scale/#gsc.tab=0
8. Mantle. Education | National Geographic. (n.d.-b). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mantle/
9. NASA. (n.d.). Planets. NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/planets/
10. NASA. (n.d.). Stars - NASA science. NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/how-do-stars-form-and-evolve
11. NASA. (n.d.-a). How do planets form? – exoplanet exploration: Planets beyond our solar system. NASA. https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/
faq/43/how-do-planets-form/
12. NASA. (n.d.-a). How do planets form? – exoplanet exploration: Planets beyond our solar system. NASA. https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/
faq/43/how-do-planets-form/
13. NASA. (n.d.-b). Moon. NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/moon/
14. NASA. (n.d.-b). Solar system: Facts. NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/facts/

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15. NASA. (n.d.-b). Sun: Facts. NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/sun/facts/
16. National Geographic. (n.d.). Mantle. Education. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mantle/
17. Reddy, F. (2023, May 3). NASA Scientific Visualization studio. NASA. https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/13511
18. Staff, A. (2018, September 2). Demoting pluto as a planet. Australian Geographic. https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/
science-environment/2011/12/demoting-pluto-as-a-planet/
19. The differentiated Earth: AMNH. American Museum of Natural History. (n.d.). https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/planet-
earth/how-has-the-earth-evolved/the-differentiated-earth#:~:text=The%20differentiation%2C%20or%20organization%2C%20
of,form%20an%20ocean%20and%20atmosphere
20. Warren, S. (n.d.). How the earth and Moon formed, explained. University of Chicago News. https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/
formation-earth-and-moon-explained
21. Watterson, B. (1993, October 14). Calvin and Hobbes. GoComics. https://www.gocomics.com/calvinandhobbes/1993/10/14

Unit 2 - The Earth and its Changing Landforms