UNIT 1: Philosophical Perspective

Overview:
This section uncovers the philosophical essence in understanding the self.
Discussions in this unit encompasses the discourse of ancient to contemporary philosophers
on their perspective of the self. This will serve as a scholarly foundation on one’s knowledge
and assessment of one’s way of thinking and behavior using the lens of selected
philosophers.

Specific objectives:
At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:

1. Describe and discuss the different philosophical viewpoints.

2. Compare and contrast the philosophical perspectives from different era.
3. Provide a critical analysis on the philosophical perspectives and one’s reflection of
self.

ABSTRACTION:
Concepts of self, according to Philosophers from ancient times to contemporary
period.

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS
1. SOCRATES/PLATO
( In some books, they discuss Socrates and Plato separately. In our case, we are combining
both their perspectives because Plato is a student of Socrates, is the one who wrote the
ideas of Socrates and not Socrates himself.)
SOCRATES The First Philosopher who ever engaged in a systematic questioning of
self, known as the Socratic dialogue. The task is not to attain true knowledge; the task is
to keep on asking questions. Therefore, the self is the by-product of the constant
questioning.
(Nugget of wisdom from “The Oracle of Delphi”, Wise is it to know that you don’t know
anything.)
Every man is composed of body and soul. This means that every human person is
dualistic. This means all individuals have an imperfect, impermanent aspect to him--- the
body, which belongs to the world of matter. While the perfect and permanent aspect is
the soul, which belongs to the world of form.
PLATO (a student of Socrates) supports the idea that man is a dual nature of body and
soul. The soul is in the body. Plato added that there are three components of soul:
a. The Rational Soul- (Wisdom) forged by reason and intellect has to govern the affairs
of the human person. The rational soul can control the spirited and appetitive soul.
b. The Spirited Soul- (Fortitude) is in charge of emotions which should be kept at bay.
c. The Appetitive Soul- (Temperance) in charge of the basic needs, and these basic need
should be controlled as well.

The ideal state is attained when the human person’s soul becomes just and virtuous.

MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHERS
2. SAINT AUGUSTINE
He Christianized philosophy by introducing the name God. He claims that humans
are
 prone to mistakes and that, there is the restlessness of the soul, it longs to be with God.
The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate eternally in a realm of
spiritual bliss in communion with God.

3. THOMAS AQUINAS
Adapting the ideas from Aristotle (who is a student of Plato), claims that man is
composed
of two parts: Matter and form.
Matter (or Hyle) refers to the body.
Form (or Morphe) the soul.
The soul is what animates the body; Aquinas calls it “embodied soul”.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHERS
4. RENÉ DESCARTES – Father of Modern Philosophy
Cogito Ergo Sum,“I THINK THEREFORE I AM”
Descartes doubted the senses because the senses can deceive us (ex: the smell and taste
of the durian fruit.) The only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of self, for even if
one doubts one’s self that only proves that there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks and
therefore, that cannot be doubted. Thinking assures us that we exist.
Mind is independent from the body. The mind assures us we exist; the body is
composed
of the senses. Therefore, man is dualistic: mind and body.
Descartes is considered a rationalist (a priori), ideas comes first before experience.

5. JOHN LOCKE
Is on the empiricist side (a posteriori), we experience first before we can have
knowledge.
Borrowing from Aristotle: TABULA RASA, we can only learn to engage with one’s self
through
the experience we have with others. So we are blank sheets, then we fill it with experiences,
then we have the self.

6. DAVID HUME
Who is also an empiricist, does not believe in ideas. Man can only attain knowledge
by
experiencing. There is no self, but only an impression of self. He categorized the two:
a. Impressions are the basic objects of our experience and sensation. They form the
core of our thought. (When one touches an ice cube, the cold sensation is an
impression). Impressions are vivid because they are products of our direct
experience of the world.
b. Ideas are copies of impressions. (When one imagines the feeling of being in love
for the first time, that is still an idea).

7. IMMANUEL KANT
To Kant, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions that men get from
the external world. Time and space, are ideas that one cannot find in the world, but is built
in our minds. Kant calls these the APPARAUS OF THE MIND. Along with the different
apparatuses of the mind is the SELF. Without the self, one cannot organize the different
impressions that one gets in relation to his own existence. Therefore, we can have a unified
self through these impressions. The self is not just what give one his personality, it is also
the seat of knowledge acquisition--- the amalgamation of perceptions.
 8. GILBERT RYLE
What truly matters is the behavior that a person manifest in his day-to-day life. The
SELF is not an entity one can locate and analyze but simply a convenient name that people
use to refer to all the behavior that people make.

9. MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
Mind and body are so intertwined that they cannot be separated from one another.
The
living body, his thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all in one. Reality can be
perceived
as multi angular façade--- the self is also multi angular. There are many sides to one’s self.

ASSESSMENT:

1. Write an essay on the 3 philosophical perspectives that best describes the self.

SOCIOLOGICAL/ ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

What is the SELF?

In contemporary literature, the self can be defined as having the following
characteristics: “separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary, and private”.
By separate it is meant that the self is distinct from each other. Self is unique, it has its
own identity.
Second, self is also self-contained and independent because in itself, it can exist.
Lastly, the self being private suggests that the self is isolated from the external world.
However, this potential clash between the self and the external reality is the reason for the self
to have a clear understanding of what it might be, what it can be, and what it will be.
Social Constructivist argue that the self should not be seen as constant and not
changing.
We have different roles in the society. And each role we play shows a different self. As
we shift between the roles we play, our language and behavior changes also. Now, who is
the true self?
“The self is capable of morphing and fitting itself into any circumstances it finds itself
in”.

The Self and the Development of the Social World

How we put meaning to our experiences and how the presence, expectations, and
influence of other people shape the self. The self is dynamic. It grows, develop and evolves.
 George Mead and Lev Vygotsky claims that human person develops with the use of
language acquisition and interaction with others.
Cognitive and emotional development of a child is
always a mimicry of how it is done in the social world,
the external reality where he is in.
Both Vygotsky and Mead treat the human mind as something that is made, constituted
through language as experienced in the external world and as encountered in dialogs with
others.
According to George Mead, this takes as the child assumes the “other” through
language and role play. A child conceptualizes his notion of self through this. How a child
makes scripts and dialogs with their toys as they play with them, this is how a child delineates
the “I” from the rest.
While according to Lev Vygotsky, a child internalizes real-life dialogs that he had with
others, with his family or his playmates. And eventually learns how to deal with the cognitive
and emotional conflicts along the way.
A different view comes from Charles H. Cooley, his “Looking Glass Self”, it describes
the development of one’s self and of one’s identity through one’s interpersonal interactions
within the context of society. Or through the eyes of other people. How we see ourselves does
not come from who we really are, but rather from how we believe others see us. If we are
labeled and evaluated by others, the self labeling may occur, which happens when we adopt
others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept.

Social Comparison Theory: Our Sense of Self is Influenced by Comparison with Others.
Social Comparison occurs when we learn about our abilities and skills, about the
appropriateness and validity of our opinions, and about our relative social; status by
comparing our own attitudes, belief, and behaviors with those of others.

Self in Families
The kind of family that we are born in, the resources available to us (human, spiritual,
economic), and the kind of development that they will have, will certainly affect us as we go
through life. Individuals internalize ways and styles that they observe from their family. By
imitating, babies learn language and ways of behaving.

Gender and the Self

Sex is biological, gender is a preference. Gender is the part of self that is subject to
alteration, change and development. It is important that one finds, express, and live his
identity. Oftentimes, society forces a particular identity unto us depending on our sex and/or
gender. Husbands are expected by society to be the main provider of the family. The eldest
man is expected to be the head of the family. Over the years, there has been a slight
modification of gender, the LGBTQ+ activism. Gender has to be personally discovered and
asserted and not dictated by culture and the society.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
“ What is normally accepted in one place, may not be accepted in other culture”.
This section attempts to understand humankind in relation to their culture.
The self is both a biological and cultural entity.
Biological Cultural
➢ We are considered an animal specie ➢ Adaptation to the environment for
that underwent the process of survival, the self develops a culture
biological evolution. resulting in behavioral changes.
 Two very important concepts in anthropology:
Culture Enculturation
➢ Systems of human behavior and ➢ The process of transmitting culture
thought. to infants and other new members of
➢ Culture is symbolic. Used tools and society through both informal and
symbols become an integral part of formal processes.
the culture. Burial sites, ancestral ➢ Hearing stories and seeing
homes, landmarks of significant and performances of rituals and dramas
historical events, rituals and are other long-standing forms of
customary actions. enculturation.
➢ Culture is a historically transmitted
patterns of meanings embodied in
symbols, a system of inherited
conceptions expressed in symbolic
forms by mean of which men
communicate, perpetuate, and
develop their knowledge about their
attitudes towards life.
➢ Culture is learned and is very much
integrated in one’s customs and
beliefs

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Abstraction:
What is Choice Theory? Developed by psychiatrist William Glasser, Choice Theory
states we are motivated by a never-ending quest to satisfy the following 5 basic needs woven
into our genes: to love and belong, to be powerful, to be free, to have fun and to survive.
1. The only person whose behavior we can control is our own.
2. All we can give another person is information.

William James, the proponent of the school of thought, Functionalism, conceptualize

the self as having two aspects:
“I” “Me”
• Is the “doer”, experiencing he • The narrative self.
immediate present. • 3 division of ME:
• The thinking self, is the part of self 1. The Material self- refers to tangible
to the soul of the person, or what is objects people, or places that carry
now thought of as the mind. the designation “my” or “mine”.
2. The Social self- refers to how we are
regarded and recognized by others.
3. The Spiritual self- is our inner self. It
is comprised of our self-perceived
abilities, attitudes, emotions,
interests, values, motives, opinions,
traits and wishes. (e.g. people think
of themselves as attractive or
 unattractive, intelligent or
unintelligent, honest or dishonest)

Another differentiation of self:

Global Self Differentiated Self
• Common characteristics or traits. • The uniqueness of the person.

Carl Rogers’ Person - Centered Perspective Fellow humanistic psychologist Carl

Rogers agreed with much of Maslow’s thinking. Rogers’ person-centered perspective held
that people are basically good and are endowed with self - actualizing tendencies. Unless
thwarted by an environment that inhibits growth, each of us is like an acorn, primed for
growth and fulfillment. Rogers (1980) believed that a growth - promoting climate required
three conditions.
• Genuineness: When people are genuine, they are open with their own feelings, drop
their facades, and are transparent and self - disclosing.
• Acceptance: When people are accepting, they offer unconditional positive regard, an
attitude of grace that values us even knowing our failings. It is a profound relief to
drop our pretenses, confess our worst feelings, and discover that we are still accepted.
In a good marriage, a close family, or an intimate friendship, we are free to be
spontaneous without fearing the loss of others’ esteem.
• Empathy: When people are empathic, they share and mirror other’s feelings and
reflect their meanings. “Rarely do we listen with real understanding, true empathy,”
said Rogers. “Yet listening, of this very special kind, is one of the most potent forces
for change that I know.”
Genuineness, acceptance, and empathy are, Rogers believed, the water, sun, and
nutrients that enable people to grow like vigorous oak trees. For “as persons are accepted and
prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude toward themselves” (Rogers, 1980, p. 116).
As persons are empathically heard, “it becomes possible for them to listen more accurately to
the flow of inner experiencing.”
Writer Calvin Trillin (2006) recalled an example of parental genuineness and acceptance at a
camp for children with severe disorders, where his wife, Alice, worked. L., a “magical child,” had genetic
diseases that meant she had to be tube-fed and could walk only with difficulty. Alice recalled, one day,
when we were playing duck-duck-goose, I was sitting behind her and she asked me to hold her mail for
her while she took her turn to be chased around the circle. It took her a while to make the circuit, and I
had time to see that on top of the pile [of mail] was a note from her mom. Then I did something truly
awful. I simply had to know what this child’s parents could have done to make her so spectacular, to
make her the most optimistic, most enthusiastic, most hopeful human being I had ever encountered. I
snuck a quick look at the note, and my eyes fell on this sentence: “If God had given us all of the children
in the world to choose from, L., we would only have chosen you.” Before L. got back to her place in the
circle, I showed the note to Bud, who was sitting next to me. “Quick. Read this,” I whispered. “It’s the
secret of life.”
Maslow and Rogers would have smiled knowingly. For them, a central feature of
personality is one’s self - concept —all the thoughts and feelings we have in response to the
question, “Who am I?” If our self - concept is positive, we tend to act and perceive the world
positively. If it is negative—if in our own eyes we fall far short of our ideal self—said Rogers,
we feel dissatisfied and unhappy. A worthwhile goal for therapists, parents, teachers, and
friends is therefore, he said, to help others know, accept, and be true to themselves.
Humanistic psychologists sometimes assessed personality by asking people to fill out
questionnaires that would evaluate their self - concept. One questionnaire, inspired by Carl
Rogers, asked people to describe themselves both as they would ideally like to be and as they
actually are. When the ideal and the actual self are nearly alike, said Rogers, the self - concept
is positive. Assessing his clients’ personal growth during therapy, he looked for successively
closer ratings of actual and ideal selves. Some humanistic psychologists believed that any
standardized assessment of personality, even a questionnaire, is depersonalizing. Rather than
forcing the person to respond to narrow categories, these humanistic psychologists presumed
that interviews and intimate conversation would provide a better understanding of each
person’s unique experiences.

Another psychological perspective is the notion of the multiple self and unified self:
Multiplicity of Self States Unified Self
- Our self concept is greatly - Is connected to consciousness,
influenced by the “audience” we awareness and agency(sense of
initially narrate to. Change the control).
audience, and we change the self.

Alexander Lowen’s “True self and False self”.

False self or superficial self; the self presented to the world. True self is the feeling self;
but it is the self that must be hidden and denied.
The true self is represented by our real feelings and desires, while the false self is a side
of us that has changed its behavior, repressed feelings and pushed needs aside in order to
survive. We have the idea of the onion--- the true self is at the center protected by outer layers
of false self. There are two kinds of false self:
Healthy False Self Unhealthy False Self
The healthy false self is described as one This false self is behind may dysfunctional
which allows someone to be functional in behaviors, including narcissism and
society. It enables politeness and social addiction. D.W. Winnicott defines the
courtesy, even when we may not feel like it. unhealthy false self as one that fits into
society through force compliance rather than
Healthy false self is an awareness of a desire to adapt.
personal boundaries.
Real life examples of the false self are based
A healthy false self is one that works with around certain beliefs that we take on in
and stays committed to the true self. It is a order to fit into our world better:
form of useful self-protection, in that it • If I am pretty, I will be more likable.
shields us at times when vulnerability • If I have a lot of money, I am
would not be appropriate, or even be successful.
harmful. • One more glass of wine, and I’ll start
feeling better.

And the last psychological perspective is the:

Agentic Self Proactive Self
Albert Bandura defined human agency as Proactive behavior by individuals refers to
“the human capacity to exert influence over anticipatory, change-oriented, and self-
one’s functioning and the course of events initiated behavior in situations. Proactive
by one’s actions”. To be an agent is to behavior involves acting in advance of a
influence intentionally one’s functioning future situation, rather than just reacting.
and life circumstances.

Other Perspectives
 EASTERN AND WESTERN THOUGHTS

Abstraction:
Confucianism
Confucianism is the main ancient philosophy of China. It implicitly embodies key
aspects of Chinese culture. Confucian beliefs have constantly changed and developed over
the past 2,500 years.

What Confucianism Is
Confucianism has been the code of ethics adopted by most of the great Chinese empires (206
BC – 1912 AD). The ideas of Confucius, Mencius and Xun Zi were codified and adapted over
millennia into system of doctrine known as Confucianism.

His version of the golden rule: “Do not do unto others, what you don’t want done to
yourself.”
Things Confucius wants us to remember:
1. Ceremony is important. Even the simple food that is served to us when we are
sick is considered a ceremony. He valued ritual propriety. Our yearly birthday
celebration or the wedding vows, rituals gives clarity to our intentions and it helps
us how to behave.
2. We should treat our parents with reverence. Obey them when we are young. Care
for them when we are old. Mourn for them when they die. And make sacrifices
on their memory thereafter (honor dead ancestors). Filial piety, is to be there for
our parents whenever they need us. For moral life starts within the family.
3. We should be obedient to honorable people. “Let the ruler be a ruler; the subject,
a subject; a father, a father; and a son, a son.” We should be modest enough to
recognize the people whose experience and accomplishment outweigh our own.
4. Cultivated knowledge can be more important than creativity. Moral character and
wisdom is a work of a lifetime.

Taoism (Daoism)
Taoism is also referred to as Daoism, which is a more accurate way of representing in
English the sound of the Chinese word.

Taoism is about the Tao. This is usually translated as the Way. But it's hard to say exactly what
this means. The Tao is the ultimate creative principle of the universe. All things are unified
and connected in the Tao.

Founder is Lao Tzu. Introduced the “Wu wei” way of life. Flowing or effortless action.
We have to let go of our anxiety, our schedules and simply experience the world. “Nature
does not hurry, yet everything is accomplished”. Breathing, growing wiser, having
relationships only happen on their own schedule, like the changing of leaves in the autumn
or the blossoming of flowers. We have to open our minds to nature and people. We have to
be in touch with our real selves. We spend a great time worrying about who we ought to
become, but we should instead take time to be who we already are. In a world so preoccupied
with technology and social media, one should give importance to stillness, openness, and
discover buried yet central parts of ourselves.
“ The way never acts yet nothing is left undone”.

Buddhism
 Buddhism is a spiritual tradition that focuses on personal spiritual development and
the attainment of a deep insight into the true nature of life. There are 376 million followers
worldwide.

Buddhists seek to reach a state of nirvana, following the path of the Buddha,
Siddhartha Gautama, who went on a quest for Enlightenment around the sixth century BC.

There is no belief in a personal god. Buddhists believe that nothing is fixed or

permanent and that change is always possible. The path to Enlightenment is through the
practice and development of morality, meditation and wisdom.

Buddhists believe that life is both endless and subject to impermanence, suffering and
uncertainty. These states are called the tilakhana, or the three signs of existence. Existence is
endless because individuals are reincarnated over and over again, experiencing suffering
throughout many lives.

It is impermanent because no state, good or bad, lasts forever. Our mistaken belief that things
can last is a chief cause of suffering.

The history of Buddhism is the story of one man's spiritual journey to enlightenment, and of
the teachings and ways of living that developed from it.

The Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born into a royal family in present-day Nepal
over 2500 years ago. He lived a life of privilege and luxury until one day he left the royal
enclosure and encountered for the first time, an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. Disturbed
by this he became a monk before adopting the harsh poverty of Indian asceticism. Neither
path satisfied him and he decided to pursue the ‘Middle Way’ - a life without luxury but also
without poverty.
Buddhists believe that one day, seated beneath the Bodhi tree (the tree of awakening),
Siddhartha became deeply absorbed in meditation and reflected on his experience of life until
he became enlightened.

By finding the path to enlightenment, Siddhartha was led from the pain of suffering and
rebirth towards the path of enlightenment and became known as the Buddha or 'awakened
one'.
Key facts

• Buddhism is 2,500 years old

• Buddhism arose as a result of Siddhartha Gautama's quest for Enlightenment in
around the 6th Century BC
• There is no belief in a personal God. It is not centered on the relationship between
humanity and God
• Buddhists believe that nothing is fixed or permanent - change is always possible
• The two main Buddhist sects are Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism, but
there are many more
• Buddhists can worship both at home or at a temple
 • The path to Enlightenment is through the practice and development of morality,
meditation and wisdom.

The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha's teachings. It was these four
principles that the Buddha came to understand during his meditation under the bodhi tree.

1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)

2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudāya)
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

In the first two Noble Truths he diagnosed the problem (suffering) and identified its cause. The third
Noble Truth is the realization that there is a cure. The fourth Noble Truth, in which the Buddha set out
the Eightfold Path, is the prescription, the way to achieve a release from suffering.

The First Noble Truth: Suffering (Dukkha)

Suffering comes in many forms. Three obvious kinds of suffering correspond to the
first three sights the Buddha saw on his first journey outside his palace: old age, sickness and
death.
But according to the Buddha, the problem of suffering goes much deeper. Life is not
ideal: it frequently fails to live up to our expectations.
Human beings are subject to desires and cravings, but even when we are able to satisfy these
desires, the satisfaction is only temporary. Pleasure does not last; or if it does, it becomes
monotonous.
Even when we are not suffering from outward causes like illness or bereavement, we
are unfulfilled, unsatisfied. This is the truth of suffering.
Some people who encounter this teaching may find it pessimistic. Buddhists find it neither
optimistic nor pessimistic, but realistic. Fortunately, the Buddha's teachings do not end with
suffering; rather, they go on to tell us what we can do about it and how to end it.

The Second Noble Truth: Origin of suffering (Samudāya)

Our day-to-day troubles may seem to have easily identifiable causes: thirst, pain from
an injury, sadness from the loss of a loved one. In the second of his Noble Truths, though, the
Buddha claimed to have found the cause of all suffering - and it is much more deeply rooted
than our immediate worries.
Buddhists recognize that there can be positive desires, such as desire for
enlightenment and good wishes for others.

The Third Noble Truth: Cessation of suffering (Nirodha)

The Buddha taught that the way to extinguish desire, which causes suffering, is to
liberate oneself from attachment. This is the third Noble Truth - the possibility of liberation.
The Buddha was a living example that this is possible in a human lifetime.

The Fourth Noble Truth: Path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

The final Noble Truth is the Buddha's prescription for the end of suffering. This is a
set of principles called the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is also called the Middle Way: it
avoids both indulgence and severe asceticism, neither of which the Buddha had found helpful
in his search for enlightenment.

The eight stages are not to be taken in order, but rather support and reinforce each other:

1. Right Understanding - Sammā ditthi

Accepting Buddhist teachings. (The Buddha never intended his followers to believe his
teachings blindly, but to practice them and judge for themselves whether they were true.)
2. Right Intention - Sammā san̄kappa
A commitment to cultivate the right attitudes.
3. Right Speech - Sammā vācā
Speaking truthfully, avoiding slander, gossip and abusive speech.
4. Right Action - Sammā kammanta
Behaving peacefully and harmoniously; refraining from stealing, killing and overindulgence
in sensual pleasure.
5. Right Livelihood - Sammā ājīva
Avoiding making a living in ways that cause harm, such as exploiting people or killing
animals, or trading in intoxicants or weapons.
6. Right Effort - Sammā vāyāma
Cultivating positive states of mind; freeing oneself from evil and unwholesome states and
preventing them arising in future.
7. Right Mindfulness - Sammā sati
Developing awareness of the body, sensations, feelings and states of mind.
8. Right Concentration - Sammā samādhi
Developing the mental focus necessary for this awareness.

The eight stages can be grouped into Wisdom (right understanding and intention), Ethical Conduct
(right speech, action and livelihood) and Meditation (right effort, mindfulness and concentration).

The Buddha described the Eightfold Path as a means to enlightenment, like a raft for crossing
a river. Once one has reached the opposite shore, one no longer needs the raft and can leave
it behind.

Western thought
- Is concerned in the formation of self.

Western Culture Eastern Culture

• You are distinct from the other • Everyone is interconnected.
person.
• Western people talk about their • Asians talk about their social roles or
personal attributes when describing social situations.
themselves.
• Highlights personal achievement. • Feels that promoting the self can be
seen as boastfulness that disrupts
social relationships.
• Individualistic culture, their focus is * Collectivist culture as the group
on the person. and social relations is given
importance.
• Completion is the name of the game. • Looks after the welfare of their
They are straightforward and groups and values cooperation.
 forceful in their communication as
well as decision-making.

• Values equality
• Emphasis on the hierarchy as the
culture wants to keep things in
• Westerners calls their bosses, harmony and order.
parents, seniors by their first name. • Respectful terms for seniors.

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