Basic Arithmetic Operations

Learning Outcome
When you complete this chapter you will be able to…

Perform basic arithmetic operations without the use of a calculator.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective.

1. Add and subtract integers.

2. Multiply and divide whole and decimal numbers.
3. Evaluate equations involving combinations of addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division, and powers in the proper sequence.

Introduction
While much of this material may be very elementary to some students, a review may
refresh the memory and sharpen the skills of those students who finished their schooling
many years ago. If you think your mathematical skills are sharp, then skip to the self tests
at the end of this chapter and try them. If you have trouble with some questions, then find
the corresponding part of the chapter and study it carefully.

Because many people now rely on calculators for doing even the most basic arithmetic
operations, they have forgotten many of the skills they learned in school. However, in
order to manipulate algebraic expressions and solve equations, the student must
understand how to do the basic arithmetic operations without a calculator. Therefore, in
studying this chapter, students are urged to set their calculator aside and to do the
calculations by hand unless specific instructions to the contrary are given.

Objective One
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Add and subtract integers.

Learning Material
Basic Numbers
When working with numbers, the main objectives are speed and accuracy. Most people
now rely on the electronic calculator to accomplish both objectives. However, unless a
person understands how to manually perform basic mathematical operations, the
accuracy of answers given by the calculator cannot be assessed.

Some basic terms require definition at the outset.

Natural numbers are the numbers used for counting. They are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6... The
symbol "..." means "and so on". That is, the numbers continue on indefinitely
according to the pattern of adding 1 to each number to obtain the next number.

Whole numbers are the natural numbers and zero. They are 0, 1, 2, 3....

Prime numbers are whole numbers other than 0 and 1 that are exactly divisible
only by themselves and 1. Examples of prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11.

Signed numbers are numbers which have either a positive or a negative sign in
front. Numbers preceded by a positive sign are called positive numbers; numbers
that are preceded by a negative sign are called negative numbers. Zero is neither
positive nor negative.

Integers are the positive and negative whole numbers and zero. They are: ... 4, 3,
2, 1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4...

A number of signs and symbols are used throughout this chapter. To summarize them:

The Number System

All Numbers Have Names

Numbers are symbols. They answer the question: how many? They may be applied to
any kind of object without discrimination. One may say: "I count six ", or "There are one
hundred". The engineer usually applies them to one object, speaking of a turbine rating of
100 MW (megawatts), or calculating the heat units in a certain quantity of water as equal
to 1000 BTU (British Thermal Units).
In elementary manipulation of numbers, the term "digit" may be used to designate fingers
and a number less then ten. Digits are grouped into word names of numbers. Hyphens are
used to find word names for numbers such as 29, 52, 75:

29 is written twenty-nine

75 is written seventy-five

The Decimal System

A number system has a rigid structure. Power engineers use the decimal structure or
system for much of their work. It is a number system scaled in units of ten. It is known as
decimal notation because it is based on the Latin word for ten: decem. Ordinary whole
numbers are decimal numbers (decimals, for short).

For example, the number 4542 is made up of 4000 + 500 + 40 + 2, or four places of
digits.

The Line Concept of Numbers

Zero is a number with no value. All numbers to the left may be thought of as negative
numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. All number to the right of the zero are then positive numbers,
usually written without the positive sign (+) but the positive sign is always understood to
exist.

The Place Value of Numbers

A chart is a convenient method of recognizing place values of numbers, whether positive
or negative, and their names.

Table 1. Place Values

The example shown below the above chart is written: 21 505 920 065 and is read:
Twenty one billion, five hundred five million, nine hundred twenty thousand, sixty five.

716 543 212 is read: Seven hundred sixteen million, five hundred forty three thousand,
two hundred twelve.

Whole Numbers

Addition of Whole Numbers

Addition is basically a system of counting. The sum 3 + 4 is determined by counting first

a set of 3 objects, then another set of 4 objects, joining the two sets, and counting all the
objects. In the statement 3 + 4 = 7, 3 is called an addend, 4 is an addend, and 7 is their
sum. To add large numbers, place the ones under ones in one column, and tens, hundreds,
and so on are forced to fall in their proper columns.
It is considered desirable to separate larger numbers into groups of three, with a space
between groups. A space is not necessary with four digit numbers except when they are
in a column and must be aligned with larger numbers.

Subtraction of Whole Numbers

Subtraction undoes addition. We subtract to get the difference between two numbers, the
difference between two sets of numbers. The minus sign (-) is placed between two
numbers to indicate that the second number must be subtracted from the first.

Larger numbers are arranged as in addition. Ones are subtracted first, then tens, then
thousands, and so on.

Objective Two
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Multiply and divide whole and decimal numbers.

Learning Material
Multiplication of Whole Numbers
In multiplication, two numbers, called factors, are counted to get a third number, called a
product. The number which is multiplied is called the multiplicand. The number by
which it is multiplied is called the multiplier. The resulting number is called the product.
Thus 3 x 5 is found by counting 3 sets of 5 objects each, joining them, and counting them
all:

3 x 5 = 5 + 5 + 5 = 15

When a number must be added to itself several times, the process may be shortened
considerably by multiplication. Multiplication tables, such as Table 2, are used and must
be memorized.

Table 2. Multiplication Table

Again numbers must be carried to be placed under the correct tens, hundreds, etc.,
columns as in addition.

7443 is arrived at as follows:

827 x 9 =

63, write 3 and carry 6 to the tens column

9x7 =

18 plus the 6 carried over, making 24; write 4,

9x2 = carry 2

72 plus the 2 carried over, making 74; write 74.

9x8 =
Division of Whole Numbers

Division is a sharing. The sign for division is and it is read "divided by". The expression
15 / 5 means that 15 objects are shared or divided into 5 sets. Division is the process of
calculating how many times one number is contained in another. It is the converse of
multiplication. The number that is divided is the dividend, the number it is divided by is
the divisor and the answer is the quotient.

Thus dividing 34 916 by 7:

It often happens that division cannot be carried out exactly. When the divisor does not go
an exact number of times into the dividend, the excess is called the remainder.

Division by zero is excluded; we never divide by 0. Also, zero divided by any number is
zero.

Decimal Numbers

Reading and Writing Decimal Numbers

A decimal fraction is a fraction which has 10 or a power of 10 as a denominator.

In writing a decimal fraction, it is convenient to omit the denominator and indicate what
it is by placing a point or period (called a decimal point) in the numerator so that there
shall be as many figures to the right of this point as there are zeros in the denominator.

The above fractions now become 2.6, 0.76 and 0.0532, read as "two decimal six, zero
decimal seven six, and zero decimal zero five three two". The zero is sometimes omitted.

The term "common" is used to describe all fractions other than those which are decimal
fractions. For example 1/2, 3/4, etc., are common fractions, their equivalents 0.5 and 0.75
are decimal fractions. To change 1/2 to 0.5 the rule is:

Add zeros to the numerator and divide by the denominator. Place the decimal point so as
to make as many digits to the right of the decimal point as there were zeros added.

For example, to change, 3/4 to a decimal add two zeros to the numerator and divide by
the denominator.

Notice that when the decimal number has no digits to the left of the decimal point, a zero
is placed to the left of that decimal point.

Ordering of Decimal Numbers

Table 3 shows the order and names of the places to both the left and the right of the
decimal point, with the number 765 432.135 79 illustrating the simplicity of the decimal
number system.

Table 3. Decimal number system.

The decimal point is located between the ones and tenths places, where whole numbers
end and fractions begin. Thus:

Addition and Subtraction of Decimal Numbers

Adding or subtracting with decimals is similar to adding or subtracting with whole

numbers. The important difference is the decimal point. The simplest way to add or
subtract is to first line up the decimal points.

You may find it easier to write extra zeros to the right of the decimal point so that the
numerals have the same number of decimal places. Carrying figures from column to
column in the presence of a decimal point does not affect the procedure.

Multiplication of Decimal Numbers

1. Location of the Decimal Point

To multiply using decimals, multiply as though both factors were whole numbers and
then place the decimal point in the result. The sum of the decimal places in the factors
is the number of decimal places in the product.

For example:

0.105
0.035 x 3 =

4.9
0.7 x 7 =

0.005904
0.0984 x 0.06 =

0.0073
0.073 x 0.1 =
2. Multiplying by 10 and Power of 10

To multiply by 10, merely move the decimal point one place to the right. To multiply
by 100 (100 = 102), move the decimal point two places to the right. To multiply by 10
000 (10 000 = 104), move the decimal point four places to the right.

Division of Decimal Numbers

The best method of division by the beginner is to move the decimal point in both the
divisor and dividend so that the divisor becomes a whole number.

In this case, the decimal point was moved four places to the right. The decimal place
must always be moved the same number of places in both the numerator and
denominator.
Notice that the quotient is written over the dividend so that the quotient decimal point
comes over the dividend decimal point. As many zeroes as are required can be added to
the dividend without affecting its value.

Write large numbers in groups of three starting with the decimal point. Four digit
numbers that are not placed in a column of larger numbers need not be so spaced. Thus 1
234 567.890 98 is acceptable. If necessary, 0.7854 may be written as 0.785 4 if it is in a
column of large numbers.

Objective Three
When you complete this objective you will be able to…

Evaluate equations involving combinations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and

division, and powers in the proper sequence.

Learning Material
Operations with Signed Numbers

It was stated earlier in the chapter that the " + " and " - " signs have two meanings: " + "
may indicate the operation of addition or it may indicate a positive number; " - " may
indicate the subtraction operation or it may indicate a negative number.

Signed numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided. A few examples will be
looked at first, then the rules pertaining to signed numbers will be summarized.
Summarizing the rules relating to operations with signed numbers:

1. When adding numbers which have the same sign, add the numbers and place the
common sign in front of the sum.
2. When adding numbers which have opposite signs, subtract the smaller number
from the larger number and assign to the difference, the sign of the larger number.
3. When adding more than two numbers, there are two different techniques which
can be used. The numbers can be added "two at a time" from left to right; or, the
positive numbers can be added, then the negative numbers can be added, and finally
rule 2 above can be used.
4. When subtracting signed numbers, first change the sign of the number to be
subtracted. Then change the subtraction sign to an addition sign. Finally, use the rules
of addition to evaluate the expression. (A shorter version of this rule is "change the
sign of the number to be subtracted and then add.")
5. When multiplying signed numbers, if the numbers have the same sign, their
product is positive. If the numbers have opposite signs, their product is negative.
6. When multiplying several signed numbers, if there is an even number of negative
numbers, then the product is positive. If there is an odd number of negative numbers,
then the product is negative.
7. If a negative number is raised to an even power, then the result is positive. If a
negative number is raised to an odd power, then the result is negative.
8. When dividing signed numbers, if the numbers have the same sign, their quotient
is positive. If the numbers have opposite signs, their quotient is negative. It should be
noted here that zero divided by any number is zero, and any number divided by zero
is undefined.

that is:

Order of Operations

In the previous section, examples showed situations involving only one basic operation:
addition, subtraction, multiplication or division. When evaluating an expression that
involves all operations, the order of the operations is most important.

The order of carrying out the operations is as follows:

1. First, all powers (exponents) should be evaluated.

2. Secondly, carry out all operations within brackets. If there are brackets within
brackets, work from the innermost set of brackets to the outermost set of brackets.
3. Then, carry out any multiplication or division operations working from LEFT to
RIGHT.
4. Finally, carry out the addition and subtraction operations.

Some examples will help to illustrate the use of these operations in the proper and stated
order.