STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Consciousness Sleep
marked by relatively low
describes our awareness of levels of physical activity and
internal and external stimuli. reduced sensory awareness

Wakefulness
characterized by high levels of
sensory awareness, thought,
and behavior.
4
 1 Biological rhythms are internal rhythms of biological activity.
BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS

Circadian Rhythm is a biological rhythm that takes place over a period

2 of about 24 hours.

Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level,

3 within a biological system.
The brain’s clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus
4 known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

The brain’s clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus

5 known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

5
PROBLEMS WITH CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Problems
One important regulator of sleep-
wake cycles is the hormone
melatonin released by pineal gland.
Person’s Chronotype

Disruptions of Normal Sleep

-jetlag; rotating shift work;
insufficient sleep
SLEEP AND WHY WE SLEEP
Distinguished by low levels of physical activity
and reduced sensory awareness.
Sleep rebound refers to the fact that a sleep deprived
individual will tend to take a shorter time to fall asleep
during subsequent opportunities for sleep.
Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple
brain areas acting in conjunction with one another-
Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pons

WHY DO WE SLEEP?
Adaptive Function of Sleep- . Evolutionary
psychology
Cognitive Function of Sleep- for cognitive function
and memory formation
12
 STAGES OF SLEEP
These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one
another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves

RAPID EYE MOVEMENT

characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids.
no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal
individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of
this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone.

NON-RAPID EYE MOVEMENT

subdivided into 4 stages
 STAGES OF NON-REM
STAGE 1

transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep,

the period during which we drift off to sleep.
During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of
respiration and heartbeat.
In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both
overall muscle tension and core body temperature.

In terms of brain activity:

sleep is associated with both alpha and theta waves.
 STAGES OF NON-REM
Stage 2
the body goes into a state of deep relaxation
Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted
by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles
A sleep spindle is a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be
important for learning and memory
In addition, the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2
sleep.
 STAGES OF NON-REM
Stage 3 &4
often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because these stages are
characterized by low frequency (up to 4 Hz), high amplitude delta waves
an individual’s heart rate and respiration slow dramatically.
More difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 and stage 4 than
during earlier stages
 
DREAMS
Manifest content is the actual content, or storyline, of a
dream.
Latent content, on the other hand, refers to the hidden
meaning of a dream. For instance, if a woman dreams about
being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this
represents the woman’s fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake
serving as a symbol of a man’s penis.
The collective unconscious, as described by Jung, is a
theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared
by everyone. According to Jung, certain symbols in dreams
reflected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar
for all people regardless of culture or location.
 
DREAMS
The sleep and dreaming researcher Rosalind
Cartwright, however, believes that dreams simply
reflect life events that are important to the dreamer.

Lucid dreams are dreams in which certain aspects of

wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. In a lucid
dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are
dreaming, and as such, they can control the dream’s content (
sLEEP PROBLEMS
AND DISORDERS
 INSOMNIA
consistent difficulty in falling or staying
asleep
experience long delays between the
times that they go to bed and actually
fall asleep.
may wake up several times during the
night--difficulty getting back to sleep.
criteria for insomnia involves
experiencing these symptoms for at least
three nights a week for at least one
month’s time
Insomnia to experience increased levels of anxiety about their
inability to fall asleep
Increased anxiety + increased arousal= difficulty falling asleep
Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired
and may be associated with symptoms of depression.

Factors that contribute to insomnia

Age, drug use, exercise, mental status and bedtime routine.

Approaches iin treating Insomnia

Limitations on drug use, increased physical activity, purchase OTC sleep
meds (should be taken sparingly)
If insomnia continues, seek professional treatment. CBT is an effective type
of psychotherapy. which includes stress management techniques and
problematic behaviors which lead to insomnia.
 PARASOMNIAS
unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/ or
experiences during sleep play a role
can occur in either REM or NREM phases of
sleep.

Sleepwalking
also called as somnambulism
the sleeper engages in complex behaviors-
wandering to driving a vehicle
During the sleepwalking, sleepwalkers have their
eyes open but remains unresponsive.
Sleep walking occurs most often during slow
wave sleep, but may happen at any time during
sleep.
Treatments

Historically, somnambulism has been treated with a variety of

pharmacotherapies ranging from benzodiazepines to
antidepressants. However, the success rate of such treatments is
questionable
Target treatment is the breathing problems.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD)

Individuals who suffer from RBD have high levels of physical activity during
REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams.
Behaviors may include kicking, punching, scratching and yelling which may
can injure themselves or their sleeping partners.
Individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred
This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases
such as Parkinson’s Disease.
Treatments

Clonazepam, an antianxiety medication with sedative properties, is

most often used to treat RBD. It is administered alone or with
doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal gland). As
part of treatment,
the sleeping environment is often modified to make it a safer place
for those suffering from RBD

Restless Leg Syndrome

has uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of
inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. This discomfort is relieved
by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes
to difficulty in falling or staying asleep.
Common for people with chronic kidney disease and diabetes.
 Treatments

benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants

Night Terrors
result in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied
by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate
environment
appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the
events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective
will fall back asleep again within a short time. Night terrors
apparently occur during the NREM phase of sleep
treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is an
underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing
to the night terrors
 SLEEP APNEA
episodes during which a sleeper’s breathing
stops for 10–20 seconds or longer and often
are associated with brief periods of arousal
It is much more common in overweight people
and is often associated with loud snoring but all
individuals who snores loudly or gasps for air
while sleeping, should be checked for sleep
apnea.
2 types of Sleep Apnea
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Central Sleep Apnea
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
occurs when an individual’s airway becomes blocked during sleep,
and air is prevented from entering the lungs.
Central Sleep Apnea
disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing
cause periods of interrupted breathing

Treatment
A continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device includes a
mask that fits over the sleeper’s nose and mouth, which is
connected to a pump that pumps air into the person’s airways,
forcing them to remain open
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME SIDS
an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies
onset involves infants younger than 12 months
Boys have a higher risks for SIDS than Girls

Risk Factors
premature birth,
smoking within the home, and
hyperthermia.
Recommendations to Parents to avoid SIDS

infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep

their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation
threats such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions
that cover the bars of a crib)
.Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down
to sleep in order to prevent overheating
people in the child’s household should abstain from smoking
 NARCOLEPSY
a person with narcolepsy cannot resist falling
asleep at inopportune times
are often associated with cataplexy, which is a
lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in
some cases involves complete paralysis of the
voluntary muscles.

Treatment
narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor
stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines,
.Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of
the signaling molecule hypocretin in some areas
of the brain
 Substance use disorders
In individuals diagnosed with a substance use
disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug
use that is often associated with both physical
and psychological dependence.

Physical Dependence
the user will experience withdrawal from the
drug upon cessation of use

Psychological Dependence
has an emotional, rather than physical, need for
the drug and may use the drug to relieve
psychological distress.
Tolerance
linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person
requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously
experienced at lower doses.

Drug Withdrawal

includes a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug

use is discontinued. These symptoms usually are opposite of the
effects of the drug. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs
often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation.
DRUG CATEGORIES
Alcohol and Other Depressants

Ethanol, which we commonly refer to as alcohol,

is in a class of psychoactive drugs known as
depressants
Depressant is a drug that tends to suppress
central nervous system activity.
Other depressants-Barbiturates and
Benzodiazepines
stimulants

drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural

activity
Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine
neurotransmitter system.
Drugs in this category include cocaine, amphetamines
(including methamphetamine), cathinone (ecstasy),
nicotine, and caffeine.
Dopamine activity is associated with reward and
craving.
Cocaine
can be taken in multiple ways- snort, inject and ingest
crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug.

Amphetamines
While amphetamines are often abused, they are also commonly
prescribed to children diagnosed with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Metamphetamines
a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are
readily available (e.g., medications containing pseudoephedrine, a
compound found in many over-the-counter cold and flu remedies)
Caffeine Nicotine
people use caffeine to maintain Nicotine is highly
increased levels of alertness and addictive, and the use
arousal. of tobacco products is
Commonly found in weight loss associated with
drugs, beverages, food and even increased risks of heart
cosmetics disease, stroke, and a
While caffeine is generally variety of cancers.
considered a relatively safe drug, Nicotine exerts its
high blood levels of caffeine can effects through its
result in insomnia, agitation, muscle interaction with
twitching, nausea, irregular acetylcholine receptors
heartbeat, and even death
its primary action involves
antagonizing adenosine activity
OPIOIDS

Drugs that includes heroin, morphine,

methadone, and codeine
Opioids have analgesic properties; they
decrease pain
Heroine

Because heroin is often administered via intravenous injection,

users often bear needle track marks on their arms and, like all
abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction
of both tuberculosis and HIV.

While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-

threatening. Still, people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be
given methadone to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult.
Methadone

a synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar

drugs. Methadone clinics help people who previously struggled
with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the
use of methadone. Other drugs, including the opioid buprenorphine,
have also been used to alleviate symptoms of opiate withdrawal.

Codeine is an opioid with relatively low potency. It is often

prescribed for minor pain, and it is available over-the-counter in
some other countries. Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse
potential.
Hallucinogens

one of a class of drugs that results in profound

alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences
, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. It is also
common for these types of drugs to cause
hallucinations of body sensations
other states of consciousness

HYPNOSIS

a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which

minimal attention is given to external stimuli.
 .In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and
suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a
patient.
Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to
be buried deeply in someone’s memory.

How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of

hypnosis?
1. The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the
hypnotist’s words or a ticking watch.
2. The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed
and sleepy.
3. The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust
the hypnotist and let go.
4. The participant is encouraged to use his or her imagination.
Meditation

is the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a

repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment.
Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the
central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to
achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus
SENSATION AND
PERCEPTION
sENSATION
Occurs when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor

TRANSDUCTION
The conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential

Absolute threshold
the minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the
stimulus to be detected 50% of the time

subliminal messages messages that are presented below the

threshold for conscious awareness
PERCEPTION

refers to the way sensory information is organized,

interpreted, and consciously experienced.

Bottom-up processing
perceptions are built from sensory input

Top-down processing
how we interpret those sensations is influenced by
our available knowledge, our experiences, and our
thoughts.
SENSORY ADAPTATION
Although our perceptions are built from sensations, not all sensations
result in perception. In fact, we often don’t perceive stimuli that
remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time.

INATTENTIONAL BLINDNESS
Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a
lack of attention
Motivation can also affect perception. The
signal detection ability to identify a stimulus when it is
theory embedded in a distracting background
WAVES AND WAVELENGTHS

refers to the way sensory information is organized,

interpreted, and consciously experienced.

Bottom-up processing
perceptions are built from sensory input

Top-down processing
how we interpret those sensations is influenced by
our available knowledge, our experiences, and our
thoughts.
Two physical characteristics of a wave are amplitude and wavelength

Amplitude
the height of a wave as measured from the highest point on the
wave (peak or crest) to the lowest point on the wave (trough).

Wavelength
refers to the length of a wave from one peak to the next.
FREQUENCY
refers to the number of waves that pass a given point in a given time
period and is often expressed in terms of hertz (Hz)
Longer wavelengths will have lower frequencies, and shorter
wavelengths will have higher frequencies
SOUND WAVES
The frequency of a sound wave is associated with our perception of
that sound’s pitch.
High-frequency sound waves are perceived as high-pitched sounds,
while low-frequency sound waves are perceived as low-pitched
sounds
Loudness is measured in terms of decibels (dB), a logarithmic unit of
sound intensity.
A typical conversation would correlate with 60 dB; a rock concert
might check in at 120 dB
WAVES AND WAVELENGTHS

refers to the way sensory information is organized,

interpreted, and consciously experienced.

Bottom-up processing
perceptions are built from sensory input

Top-down processing
how we interpret those sensations is influenced by
our available knowledge, our experiences, and our
thoughts.
There is the
potential for
hearing damage
from about 80
dB to 130 dB: