Unit 1-3

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INDIAN CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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Contents
Title Prepared by Edited by Pg. No.

Unit-I
Vyasa, Selections from
The Mahabharata
(a) ‘The Dicing’ and ‘Sequel to Usha Anand Dr. Neeta Gupta 1
Dicing’
(b) The Temptation of Karna Ratika Anand Nalini Prabhakar 25
(c) Krishna’s Peace Proposal Bharat Choudhary Dr. Neeta Gupta 38
Unit-II
Kalidasa, Abhijnanasakuntalam Dr. Sundari Siddartha Dr. Seema Suri 58
Unit-III
Ilango Adigal “The Book of Shriya Pandey Nalini Prabhakar 85
Vanci”, Silappadhikaram
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U N I T
I(a)
The Mahabharata: ‘The Dicing’
and ‘Sequel to Dicing’
Usha Anand
Structure
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.2.1 Prescribed Sections of the Mahabharata
1.2.2 The Scope
1.2.3 Evolution of the Mahabharata
1.2.4 Narrative Technique
1.2.5 How do Stories Add Meaning to a Narrative?
1.2.6 The Organic Unity of the Mahabharata
1.2.7 The Moral Framework of the Mahabharata
1.3 ‘The Dicing’: A Detailed Study
1.3.1 The Game of Dice in the Assembly Hall
1.3.2 The Status of Women
1.4 ‘Sequel to Dicing’
1.4.1 The Scheming Duryodhan Plans a Sequel
1.4.2 The Second Game of Dice
1.5 The Game of Dice in Relation to the Plot
1.6 Summing Up
1.7 Suggested Readings

The main objectives of this study material are to:
Enable the student to get an overview of the general narrative of the Mahabharata
and an idea of how to go about interpreting all the complex themes, imagery,
incidents, philosophical concepts of destiny, the Vedic point of view, dharma etc. in
the prescribed text.
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Specifically enable him/her to interpret episodes and characters not just literally but
from a symbolic and moral point of view.
See the link between the individual’s interests and those of the larger world around
him/her, introduce him to the concept of the microcosm and the macrocosm.
Provide an analysis of the episode of the game of dice, a pivotal episode in the
narrative of the Mahabharata, and to see how it is crucial to the entire story of the
epic.
Introduce students to modern interpretations of major pivotal characters of the
Mahabharata as representing human traits as well as gender-oriented roles. In other
words, to link the epic with modern life.
1.2 Introduction
1.2.1 Prescribed Sections of the Mahabharata
A look at the syllabus shows that you have to closely examine three excerpts from the
epic. This part of the study material takes up ‘The Dicing’ and ‘The Sequel to Dicing’
from Book 2, Sabha Parva Section XLVI-LXXII for a detailed study. It is an extract from
K.M. Ganguli’s translation, one of the most widely accepted English translations of the
complete epic. When you read this section, you will get a glimpse into the real world of the
Mahabharata as was probably intended by the composer Vyasa and subsequent bards who
recited the epic in the oral tradition. It has all the human drama, action, insight into human
behaviour, realpolitik, intrigue, cunning, that make this Indian epic such a favourite with
all those people who engage with art forms like literature, dance, drama, and also culture.
Moreover, these two sections are vital to the plot of the epic and have tremendous
bearing on both, the causal chain of events in the epic, and the behaviour of the protag-
onists.
Wronged Draupadi seeks revenge and Bhim’s anger motivates him to perform gory
deeds of murder and killing, several years after this incident.
Draupadi is a woman who through her intelligence combined with a remarkable sense
of integrity raises a legal issue which becomes a moral dilemma for those present at the
sabha. Whether Yudhishtira, a man who has already lost himself in the game of dice, had
the power to stake his wife, is a question which none present in the assembly can answer
satisfactorily. And, till today, the dilemma seems unresolved.
Draupadi lives by the social norms and conventions of her times. But when she is
wronged, she protests even though her protests, her intelligence, her moral integrity are of
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The Mahabharata: ‘The Dicing’ and ‘Sequel to Dicing’
no avail in her hour of crisis. In the present times, our sense of gender- awareness helps
us to sympathize with Draupadi far more than her contemporaries might have sympathized
with her. The feminist point of view however always conflicts with the male point of view.
With some of these guidelines before you, please read on.
1.2.2 The Scope

The Mahabharata is usually accepted as an encyclopaedia of ancient Indian culture and
civilization, next in importance only to the Vedas, and is often referred to as the fifth
Veda. Although the central narrative of the epic is the struggle for power between the
Kauravas and the Pandavas, the content of the poem is vast and varied. Its structure is
very intricate. Its content has passages of philosophical poetry, poetry of the metaphysi-
cal imagination, and its appeal ranges from the purely literal to the highly symbolic and
spiritual. There is the physical Kurukshetra and there is the Kurukshetra of the mind. In
certain passages of great depth, it speaks of the subtle form of the soul and sets forth in
detail, the many paths that are open for soul experience.
Vyasa who is considered the composer of the Mahabharata unravels the mystery
of the creation, of the Veda, which is wisdom itself, of Yoga with all its metaphysical
background of wealth, Desire and Duty. He includes the wisdom of various disciplines
or sciences like Ayurveda, Dhanurveda or the science of the bow, Sthapatyaveda or the
science of architecture and engineering, and many others.
That the Mahabharata was intended as a grand treatise on life is indicated when
Vyasa tells Brahma in the Mahabharata itself:
“O divine Brahma, by me a poem hath been composed which is greatly respected.
The mystery of the Veda, and what other subjects have been explained by me; the
various rituals of the Upanishads with the Angas; formed by me and named after the
three divisions of time, past, present, and future; the determination of the nature of
decay, fear, disease, existence, and non-existence, a description of creeds and of the
various modes of life; rule for the four castes, and the import of all the Puranas; an
account of asceticism and of the duties of a religious student; the dimensions of the
sun and moon, the planets, constellations, and stars, together with the duration of the
four ages; the Rik, Sama and Yajur Vedas; also the Adhyatma; the sciences called
Nyaya, Orthœphy and Treatment of diseases; charity and Pasupatadharma; birth celes-
tial and human, for particular purposes; also a description of places of pilgrimage and
other holy places of rivers, mountains, forests, the ocean, of heavenly cities and the
kalpas; the art of war; the different kinds of nations and languages: the nature of the
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manners of the people; and the all-pervading spirit;—all these have been represented.
But, after all, no writer of this work is to be found on earth.”
Brahma replies to Vyasa and pays his own tribute to the encyclopaedic epic,
saying:
“I esteem thee for thy knowledge of divine mysteries, before the whole body
of celebrated Munis distinguished for the sanctity of their lives. I know thou hast
revealed the divine word, even from its first utterance, in the language of truth. Thou
hast called thy present work a poem, wherefore it shall be a poem. There shall be no
poets whose works may equal the descriptions of this poem, even, as the three other
modes called Asrama are ever unequal in merit to the domestic Asrama. Let Ganesa
be thought of, O Muni, for the purpose of writing the poem.” (The Mahabharata,
Book 1: Adi Parva: Section I).
1.2.3 Evolution of the Mahabharata

You are aware that the Mahabharata is an epic – a ‘Mahakavya’. But as students of lit-
erature, we must remember that this epic began as an itihasa, a primarily historical work.
Only, the method of its transmission was oral. It was passed on from generation to gen-
eration. Bards, minstrels, rhapsodists are all people associated with the tradition of oral
transmission in times when the written form was rare and difficult to prepare or procure.
An eminent scholar Dandekar, talking about the Mahabharata says:
“It appears to me that the historical basis of the Mahabharata is quite slender,
diffuse and not easily identifiable. A commonplace family feud is subjected to
epic magnification with all its hyperboles, miracles, mystification, symbolization,
idealization and universalisation. The Mahabharata, I submit, is essentially an epic
poem- with emphasis on both the words ‘epic’ and ‘poem’ - and not a historical
document in the restricted sense of the term. So, in a sense, it is an epic born out
of an ‘itihasa’” (Dandekar, p.16).
Now, when we look at it as an epic poem, we need to understand its evolution. In
order to come to terms with the vastness of the epic we would do well to remember that
the Mahabharata is over eight times the combined length of the western epics of classi-
cal literature, the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is, in its present form perceived as a blend of
history and mythology and constitutes an outstanding record of the collective conscious,
unconscious and sub-conscious of man. However, it is generally accepted among scholars
that it evolved over three stages of composition and compilation. An eminent scholar,
Professor U.K. Gokak tells us that “Jaya” was the name given to Vyasa’s itihasa. The text
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composed by Vyasa was named Jaya referring to the triumph of good, the victory of the
Pandavas (Dandekar, p. 2). This original composition had about eight thousand stanzas
and was recited by Vyasa to his son Suka. As part of the narrative technique, providing
a listener is a literary device that offers an audience or listener for the narrator, adding
plausibility to a poetic composition in line with the prevalent oral tradition.
Vyasa the sage composer also had a disciple called Vaishampayana. This disciple was
given the task of expanding the epic Jaya into Bharata, containing many more sections,
legendary stories and treatises.
These additions led to the Bharata being considered an Itihasa Purana, a step ahead
of the itihasa. Jaya was recited to Suka, while Vaishampayana recited Bharata to Janme-
jaya and others during a Yagya at Takshashila, conducted for a snake sacrifice to avenge
the killing of Parikshit by snakebite.
At this point it is important to remember that this audience is the lineage of Arjuna,
one of the Pandavas. Arjuna’s son was Abhimanyu; Abhimanyu’s son was Parikshit and
Parikshit’s son was Janmejaya who wanted to avenge his father’s death by killing all the
nagas but was persuaded not to do so. So, while the original Jaya, was only 8000 stanzas,
the poem recited to Janmejaya was Bharata, a poem of 24,000 stanzas. Bharata tells about
the glory of Janmejaya’s ancestors. It is also called the Bharatsamhita. In the language of
scholarship, a new, revised version of a text is called a recension. So, the Bharata is the
second recension of the primary epic Jaya. Scholars believe that this second recension, like
Jaya, was pro-Pandava and pro-Krishna in its themes and the treatment of these themes.
Among the listeners present at the recitation of the Bharata was a bard Romaharshana.
He recited the further expanded third recension of the story to his son Ugrasravas. This
third verse version called the Mahabharata was recited at the twelve-year sattra in the
Naimisa Forest in the presence of several sages.
The existence of several recensions is typical of the oral epic. The bard or singer
improvised with the help of formulae and patterns of expression and themes while rhap-
sodists recited songs learnt by heart.
1.2.4 Narrative Technique

The evolution of the Mahabharata described in the preceding segment has a direct bearing
on the narrative technique of this epic. Considering the immensity of its inclusive range,
the Mahabharata is considered the Book of Books. The vastness of its time frame which
includes several generations justifies the many narrators of the poem. You may note that
in a sense, it begins with the end. Descendants of the Pandavas, having been persuaded
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not to perform the Yagya for mass killing of serpents wish to hear about the glory of their
ancestors. The Mahabharata is a highly enhanced narrative of the glory of the entire clan,
the descendants of Shantanu and Satyavati. The two rival factions, the Pandavas and the
Kauravas, stand for two polarized aspects of the moral perception of life, material and
spiritual. In the process of expressing this expansive world view, the epic has to resort
to multiple narrators and narrative methods.
The most obvious aspect to be noted is that the final narrator Ugrasravas refers every
now and then to the person whose recitation he depends upon. “Vaishampayana said”, is
his way of telling the listeners that his narrative is an old narrative of history, folklore,
mythology that has come down to him through generations. Having listeners ask questions
is a method of giving the narrator/ rhapsodist a chance to bring in more content, philo-
sophical, spiritual or material. More stories, more characters, a greater range of material is
thus included in the recitation. This is often described by critics as the practice of having
stories within stories and yet more stories. There are plots and sub-plots and sub-sub-plots.
At this point it is pertinent to recall the names of the known narrators of the epic
narrative.
There is Vyasa–the original composer and narrator for whom Ganesha was the scribe.
The next significant narrator was Vaishampayana–who narrated Vyasa’s tale to
Janmejaya, the great-grandson of the Pandava, Arjuna.
This narrative was overheard by a Santi or bard called Romaharshana who passed
it on to his son Ugrasravas–who narrated it to Shaunaka and other sages of the
Naimisha forest.
Coming to the narrators within the narrative itself, we have the very interesting role
of Sanjaya who is endowed with the divine gift of divyadrishti which enables him to
describe, in great detail, the action taking place on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. He de-
scribes the war to the blind Dhritarashtra and indirectly to us too as modern day readers/
listeners. Within the framework of lineage and caste, Sanjaya himself was a bard. The
minstrels who narrated the epic were known as ‘sutas’.
‘Sutas’ were the illegitimate offspring of Kshatriya royalty. For instance, Karna and
Vidura are intelligent people, sons of royalty, but are called Sutas. ‘Karna is a major
character in the epic. He is the son of Kunti and the Sun god but, abandoned by Kunti,
is raised by a charioteer. Vidura, the most dispassionate royal advisor to the Kauravas,
half-brother of Dhritarashtra, is the son of a royal maid and Vyasa. Both these characters
are examples of ‘Sutas’.
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1.2.5 How do Stories Add Meaning to a Narrative?

A popular yet serious narrative like the Mahabharata necessarily contains abstract ideas.
Stories enable a narrator to convey those abstract ideas in situational terms so that in the
event of an oral recitation they are understood immediately and instantly. Critics who try to
explain the power of stories say that like fiction or poetry, stories enable us to experience
feelings, thoughts, emotions and images which may lie dormant in our subconscious mind.
In a sense, stories reflect a part of our inner selves, helping us to understand and heal
ourselves. Complex and difficult experiences of life can be conveyed through stories. So
can a great deal of wisdom.
To understand the power of a rich yet simple story, let us briefly recall the story of
the Yaksha in the Mahabharata. Yaksha is the Lord of a lake. Nakula, the youngest Pan-
dava is out in the forest to hunt a deer when he suddenly feels very thirsty. Approaching
the lake, he hears a mysterious voice say that he can only drink water from the lake
after answering the Yaksha’s questions. However, seeing no one around, Nakula using
his cupped hands drinks water from the lake but immediately drops down dead. One by
one all the brothers come to the lake, looking for the one who has gone before. The last
one to reach is Yudhishtira who is taken aback to find his four brothers lying dead on
the ground. Like his brothers before him, Yudhishtira is also addressed by the Yaksha but
unlike his brothers, he immediately lets go of the water.
Appearing before Yudhishtira, the Yaksha asks him a number of questions which
Yudhishtira answers very wisely. The questions encompass the Vedas, society, the nature
of the world, philosophy, death; almost anything under the Sun. Impressed with Yudhishti-
ra’s answers, the Yaksha reveals his true identity. He is Yama, also known as Dharma,
Yudhishtira’s father. As a reward, all four brothers of Yudhishtira are restored to life.
This brief recapitulation of a story is intended only to show you how a vast range
of wisdom can be effectively conveyed and encompassed through a story of a few pages.
1.2.6 The Organic Unity of the Mahabharata

There has been endless comment on the diversity of the Mahabharata. There are no lim-
itations of time, place or action but it has also been conceived as a tree which grows out
of a seed and grows with its roots spreading underground and its branches spreading in
every direction.
In his commentary on the Mahabharata, Vidya Niwas Misra gives a detailed analogy:
“The conceptualization as a tree signifies one thing, namely, that all material within
the epic is organically related and is one totality. Nothing is grafted from outside.
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The main trunk of the story lends itself to branch out into sub-stories. The seed of
poetic structure remains one. The trunk is one, the major branches are defined and
well developed, only they continue to leaf out and blossom. When the fruit forms,
the tree achieves its final shape- the tree of the Mahabharata. Whatever additions or
deletions take place, they happen before fruition” (Dandekar, p. 20).
Check Your Progress
1. List the three stages of the evolution of the Mahabharata.
2. Would it be correct to say that the Mahabharata is a record of a historical event?
3. List the various narrators of the Mahabharata in the correct order.
4. What is the purpose of having stories within stories in the epic?
1.2.7 The Moral Framework of the Mahabharata

1.2.7.1 Dharma
David Crystal in the Cambridge Paperback Encyclopaedia describes dharma as, “the uni-
versal law that applies to the Universe, human society, and the individual is both a general
code of ethics applicable to all, and a moral law specific to an individual’s station in life.”
Yudhishtira, the protagonist of the Mahabharata, is the son of Dharma and also an
incarnation of Dharma himself. He is constantly faced with dilemmas but always applies
the test of dharma to his actions. Critics have pointed out that this epic is not essentially
about courage, valour or physical prowess but about spiritual strength, flexibility and the
ability to face life courageously. Yudhishtira’s judgment and commitment to Dharma are
tested time and again but he always abides by Dharma. The Yaksha of the lake puts him
through a trial but in both thought and action, he is able to satisfy the embodiment of
Dharma: his answers to the Yaksha are steeped in acceptance of the universal law and his
choice of his youngest step brother, Sahdev, Madri’s son, as the one to be brought back
to life, reveal his commitment to the principles of Dharma.
This commitment is also revealed by his willingness to bear the consequences of his
choice, even if it is an unfairly inflicted and unfairly won game of dice. The episode of
Yudhishtira standing at the gates of heaven in his earthly body with a dog in tow is known
to all. His refusal to enter without the dog is an act of dharma. He refuses to abandon
his companion, thus abiding by Dharma.
Coming back to the “universal law” of Crystal’s definition, the Mahabharata shows
us that the truth of an individual, of a society, of a community or of a nation has to be
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in consonance with cosmic and universal truth. It cannot be merely theorized. Dharma is
put to test in everyday life, and there is no absolute dharma. The dharma of crisis situa-
tions is different from the dharma of everyday life. If an action contributes to universal
good, it conforms to dharma even if it does not conform to societal norms. When choices
are to be made between conflicting dharmas, a great deal of thought, concentration and
judgment have to be exercised.
1.2.7.2 Destiny
The Mahabharata depicts the suffering of the righteous man. While, on the surface,
the epic may seem to suggest that the inevitable fate of humans is to endure suffering,
scholar Vidya Niwas Misra astutely notes that the concept of destiny is presented in the
narrative primarily to emphasize human vulnerability. A person unwilling to confront the
consequences of their own actions often uses destiny as a scapegoat. In times of unbear-
able suffering, attributing it to fate provides significant solace. When Draupadi comes to
Kunti for blessings, Kunti says: “Daughter, give birth to sons with good fate and stars.
Do not give birth to the ones who are merely brave and learned. My sons are both brave
and learned, but not fortunate. They are wandering in the jungles helplessly.” This ad-
monition does not mean that Kunti wants cowards and dullards as her grandsons. It only
points to her unbearable anguish at the fate her sons have met. Won’t they ever know
peace and happiness, she wonders! This instance is not a validation of destiny. It is only
an expression of anguish.
If destiny does take its course in the Mahabharata, it is due to some karmic deed of
one’s own. If a curse is inflicted, that curse is self-earned by some slip or folly. Acting
judiciously brings peace of mind and makes suffering bearable. A conscientious person
introspects to see if he has made a compromise or bowed to someone who is unjust, for
personal promotion. He experiences contentment even if he gets a little without causing
suffering to others, without aligning with villains or giving up the path of virtue.
In the Mahabharata,Yudhishtira’s willingness to accept just five villages for himself
and his Pandava brothers is a case in point. But his efforts to avoid a full-fledged conflict
with the Kauravas prove futile as Duryodhana is unwilling to give them even a needle
point worth of land.
The Mahabharata teaches us that the vices of envy, lust, anger, greed, pride and at-
tachment are quick to propagate but produce impermanent results. Godly virtues, though
slow to grow, are lasting. In the ultimate analysis, the path to Moksha lies through for-
titude and forbearance.
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Check Your Progress

1. Briefly explain the concept of Dharma as explored in the Mahabharata. Is it
absolute or does it vary according to one’s situation in life?
2. Would you agree with the view that destiny is directly linked to the consequences
of one’s actions?
3. If one is destined to suffer, how can he/she make that suffering bearable?
1.3 ‘The Dicing’: A Detailed Study
1.3.1 The Game of Dice in the Assembly Hall

This is one of the sections of the epic listed for detailed study. Therefore, you should be
capable of elucidating any lines or episodes, even if encountered in isolation. To achieve
this, it’s important to recall the information provided in the introduction. Keep in mind
that what we are reading is Ugrasravas’s rendition of the Mahabharata. That is why you
often see, “Vaishampayana again said—.” Ugrasravas is quoting Vaishampayana who is
repeating what Yudhishtira, Draupadi, Duryodhana, Dhritarashtra, Vidur, or any of the
other characters said in the assembly. To get the reference of the narrators of the three
recensions of the Mahabharata right, please refer to section 2.3 of the ‘Introduction’ to
this study material.
Coming to the book itself, let us place it in a sequential perspective. Having set up
a capital in a new city at Khandavprastha, which they rename Indraprastha as opposed
to Hastinapur over which the Kauravas preside, Yudhishtira establishes suzerainty over
a very large number of barons (rulers) in north India. He then seeks to legitimize his
authenticity by performing a Rajsuya Yagya to which all the barons of various Kingdoms
are invited and pay tribute in acknowledgement of Yudhistiras supremacy. The only two
states/rulers from whom tribute is not received are king Dhrupada (father of Draupadi,
and an ally, by marriage, of the Pandavas) and Krishna who had helped the Pandavas to
slay Sisupala, the powerful king who had subdued 86 out 101 barons of Aryan lineage
in Northern India of those times, i.e. in the second millennium B.C. When the Pandavas
hold such an important ceremony as a Rajsuya Yagya, it is natural that their Kaurava
cousins from Hastinapur are also invited. However, the visit leaves the Kauravas jealous
at the sheer wealth amassed and the splendour of the new capital, its palace and hall.
After all, Dhritrashtra had sent them away to build a new life for themselves from scratch,
in Khandavaprastha. They had done well and with the help of Maya, a demon who was
also an architect, set up a splendid capital. It is after this visit that Duryodhana descends
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into a sulk and when asked, reveals to Sakuni, his maternal uncle, the cause of his un-
happiness. As it is revealed that jealousy over the wealth and property of his Pandava
cousins is the cause of Duryodhana’s unhappiness, the cunning, scheming Sakuni devises
the ploy of inviting them to a game of dice to defraud them of their wealth. The plan is
conveyed to Dhritrashtra who has to give permission for the game of dice to be held in
the assembly hall in the presence of the family elders and other important people. He is
initially hesitant but is subsequently prevailed upon to dispatch Vidura with the invitation.
Many questions have been asked about why Yudhistira accepted, but the answer seems
to be that he was simply following a code of conduct or a social convention which dictated
that a game of dice could not be declined. Van Buitenen in his introduction to the Ma-
habharata indicates that dicing is a part of the Rajasuya rituals when he says “Yudhishtira
had not so far been at all fond of gambling—we have seen quite a bit of him now—and
can hardly be regarded as under a private compulsion to rise to any game”. Nevertheless,
he submits, though grudgingly: “Once challenged, I cannot refuse.” Once we accept the
dicing as an integral part of Rajasuya, in the Assembly Hall, as well as the ritual man-
uals, Yudhishtira is not at all the statue with the clay feet, the paragon of rectitude with
the sudden tragic flaw. The text itself does not condemn Yudhishtira for his gaming. Of
course, if the gambling had been outside Yudhishtira’s universe of law, the authors could
easily have dropped the game from their version of the Rajasuya, but in a way this would
have gone against the spirit of the Mahabharata as a whole. It has often been remarked
that the epic is a series of precisely stated problems imprecisely and therefore inconclu-
sively resolved, with every resolution raising a new problem, until the very end, when the
question remains: whose is heaven, and whose is hell? The point counterpoint is typical
of the assembly hall as well: suzerainty achieved, and then gambled away.
Rather than dropping the Dicing or treating it as perfunctorily as the ritual manuals
do, the authors have seized upon the dicing rite of the vedic ceremony as a ritually le-
gitimate, even prescribed, way of swinging the doubt from Yudhishtira’s apparently un-
assailable position to the claims of the Kauravas. With a masterly stroke of composition,
the dead letter of the Vedic game is dramatically revived. Meanwhile, Yudhishtra remains
the king Dharma he had not been too happy about before. For his ambition to become
Samrat (supreme ruler), he is now prepared to go the bitter end.
It is bitter for Yudhishtira. After an epic losing streak, he finds himself obliged to
stake his brothers, himself, and his wife Draupadi—obliged, it seems, by the rules of the
game, which unfortunately are never explained. What we do gather, however, is that two
parties, rather than the two individuals are involved, for Duryodhana’s uncle Sakuni may
play on his behalf; it is Duryodhana paying the stake. Both parties contribute equally to
PAGE 11

the initial stake, and the loser adds to their stake while the winner’s presumably remains
the same. It is not clear whether the entire stake stays in the game or the winner takes
the loser’s last stake after each play.
Never stated but implicit is this game’s rule that it will go through twenty plays which
are presented as two phases of ten each. In the first ten plays Yudhishtira forfeits most
of his possessions. After the tenth, Vidura, the benevolent uncle of the Pandavas makes
an impassioned plea that the game be stopped. Vidura appeals not to Yudhishtira but to
Duryodhana’s father to stop it and vilifies Duryodhana for persisting in it. This would
make no sense if Vidura considered Yudhishtira a free agent; it makes excellent sense if
Yudhishtira is bound by the rules of the Rajasuya and must rise to the challenge.
The game is carried on for another session of ten plays. Yudhishtra first loses untold
millions in the eleventh play, in the twelfth all his cattle, in the thirteenth all his land, in
the fourteenth the sons of Draupadi by the five Pandavas, in the fifteenth Nakula, in the
sixteenth Sahadeva, in the seventeenth Bhima, in the eighteenth Arjuna, in the nineteenth
himself. At the twentieth and final play of the game, Yudhishtira stakes Draupadi. The
audience groans and protests but does nothing to stop the play; evidently the game is
intended to have a complete winner and a total loser. But our authors, masters of doubt,
have already sown seeds of uncertainty. Draupadi is lost, subjected to indignities that cry
out for vengeance, and disrobed. Yet, the power of her virtue miraculously replaces her
sari, and she also poses the ultimate riddle.
Had Yudhishtira staked and lost himself, she asks, before he staked me? If so, he had
lost his freedom and, as a slave of the Kauravas, no longer owned her to stake.
Just then there begin many bad omens that portend a grim future for the Kauravas.
“Vaisampayana continued,—”Just then, a jackal began to cry loudly in the
homa-chamber of king Dhritarashtra’s palace. And, O king, unto the jackal that howled
so, the asses began to bray responsively. And terrible birds also, from all sides, began
to answer with their cries. And Vidura conversant with everything and the daughter
of Suvala, both understood the meaning of those terrible sounds. And Bhishma and
Drona and the learned Gautama loudly cried,—Swashti! Swashti! Then Gandhari and
the learned Vidura beholding that frightful omen, represented everything, in great
affliction, unto the king.
When Dhritrashtra listens to the dreadful omens and is warned by Gandhari and
Vidur, he becomes cautious. He realizes now that matters have gone too far and tries to
retrieve the situation thus:
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“And the king (Dhritarashtra) thereupon said,—‘Thou wicked-minded Duryodhana,

thou wretch, destruction hath already overtaken thee when thou insultest in language
such as this the wife of these bulls among the Kurus, especially their wedded wife
Draupadi. And having spoken those words, the wise Dhritarashtra endued with knowl-
edge, reflecting with the aid of his wisdom and desirous of saving his relatives and
friends from destruction, began to console Krishna, the princess of Panchala, and
addressing her, the monarch said,—’Ask of me any boon, O princess of Panchala, that
thou desirest, Chaste and devoted to virtue, thou art the first of all my daughters-in-
law.” (Sabha Parva, Book II Section LXXII).
With the boons given to her, Draupadi is able to free the five Pandavas from slavery
and get back their lost wealth and kingdom. So, the Pandavas depart, free and still rich men.
1.3.2 The Status of Women

Having tried to understand the socio-cultural context of dicing, we are still left puzzled by
Draupadi’s plight in this episode. To understand how she is affected by Yudhishtira’s losing
her, we need to take a look at the status of women in Aryan society of these times. The
Aryans who settled in North India after arriving there from Central Asia took the darker
skinned nativescaptive and made them their slaves. In the Atharvaveda, dasi is the term
used to describe alien domestic help. There is reference to the black dasi too. The term
dasa or dasi thus originally had ethnic connotations although enslaved women in addition
to domestic help could also be asked to provide sexual services.
In the Mahabharata, the ethnic dimension is not in evidence. A dasa/dasi denotes a
human being under the complete control of a master. How did people become dasas or
dasis? The Mahabharata tells us about enslavement as a result of bet or as a result of
defeat in gambling as is the case of Draupadi in the Sabha Parva. Women who were born
in the family of slaves were also treated as such. Draupadi laments in the Sabha Parva
that with the enslavement of the Pandavas, their children too would be considered slaves.
Dasa-bharya is the term used (Dhritarashtra uses this term for Draupadi) for the wife of
the slave. This phrase probably implied the reduction into slavery of a free woman if she
got married to a slave or was, by circumstances (like Yudhistira’s) reduced to slavery. A
dasi was in no way protected from the unreasonable demands of her master. Dushasana
tells Draupadi in the Sabha Parvan, “Your husbands have lost you, henceforth you are
only a dasi and you will have to serve the Kaurvas now. He further says, “It does not
matter whether you are badly dressed or not dressed at all, you will have to come with
me.” Duryodhana could openly invite Draupadi to come and sit on his lap.
PAGE 13

Draupadi’s question of whether Yudhishthira had staked and lost himself before he
staked her, has a background to it. A dasa/dasi had no right to personal belongings. So
even in a culture where wives were ‘owned’ by their husbands, Draupadi could spot a
“loophole” to avoid the disgrace in store for her. A dasi had to perform all types of tasks
for her master and his household. Duryodhana demands that Draupadi take off her rich
attire and assume the attire of a menial and clean his palace.
What sets the dasi apart from male slaves is that the dasi could also be asked to pro-
vide sexual services. That this fear of sexual violation of a dasi was very real is evident
from Yudhistira’s concern about how Draupadi would fare in Virata’s palace where she
would be under the guise of Sairandhri.
Another significant problem that the wise Draupadi touches upon is regarding her son
Prativindhya. When she is offered a boon by Dhritarashtra she asks for the freedom of her
husbands. One of the reasons she mentions is that she does not want her son to be known
as the son of a slave. He has been the son of a king and it seems unbrearable that he might
be reduced to being the son of a slave. The first boon procures the freedom of Yudhishthira,
the second that of Bhimasena, Arjuna, Nakul and Sahdev. She declines a third boon. Even
in that patriarchal society, a woman becomes the last refuge of her five husbands.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the cause of Duryodhan’s unhappiness when he attends the Rajasuya
Yagya organized by the Pandavas?
2. Why does Yudhishthira accept the challenge for a game of dice?
3. What are the rules of the game?
4. Why does Vidur appeal to Dhritrashtra and not Yudhishthira to stop the game?
5. At which stage is Draupadi put up as a stake?
6. What is her question to the Sabha?
7. Why is Draupadi called a dasi by Dushasana?
8. Why does Draupadi use her two boons to free her five husbands?
1.4 ‘Sequel to Dicing’
1.4.1 The Scheming Duryodhan Plans a Sequel

In this section of the epic, there follows the anudyuta, the follow up game, in which
Duryodhana, with his father’s consent decides to stake Hastinapur against Indraprastha. It
14 PAGE

is the final moment of truth: this time not the slow attrition of possessions but an instant
play of identity. Yudhishtira cannot refuse, for he is under the ritual obligation. But the
authors keep the story going. The play is not quite an all or nothing play, but close enough.
This section, as you can see, is much shorter than ‘The Dicing’. While the earlier
section is a vital one in the plot of the story, this one gives us a number of clues to the
direction the story will take. Also, it is a peculiar combination of psychological traits,
human behaviour and weaknesses and a great deal of philosophising about life and hu-
man wrong doing. There are passages which contain expositions of Hindu ritual and the
vows and prophecies of the Pandavas and Draupadi give us clues about the future. Vidu-
ra, endowed with divyadrishti foretells a gloomy future and Dhirtrashtra is torn between
paternal love and fair play.
Draupadi having used two of the three boons given to her by Dhritrashtra, has been
able to free her husbands and they return to their kingdom with all their wealth and free-
dom. Duryodhan however paints a horrific picture in words for the blind Dhritrashtra and
makes him believe that the Pandavas will return to avenge the indignities and humiliation
to which they were subjected in the Assembly. The might of Bhima and Arjuna would
wipe out the whole Kuru clan and the only way to pre-empt that is to call them back for
a final decisive game of dice where the stake would be a twelve-year exile to the forest
for the loser and another year living incognito. If discovered, they would have to face
another twelve years in exile. This is a plot that has been carefully planned with the help
of Sakuni and Karna.
Two reasons become instrumental in Dhritrashtra giving his consent for a sequel to
dicing. It is said that on the one hand he gets convinced by Duryodhana that the Pandavas
would certainly attack the Kauravas to avenge their humiliation and would thus kill them
all. On the other hand, it is also said that it is Dhritrashtra’s blind love for his son that
makes him give his consent for a second game of dice. He goes against the advice of all
his kinsmen. The belief in destiny too plays a part here for he tells Gandhari that if the
line of Kauravas is to end, he cannot avert it:
“The king, thus addressed by Gandhari who pointed out to him in such language
the path of virtue, replied unto her, saying,—’If the destruction of our race is come,
let it take place freely. I am ill able to prevent it. Let it be as they (these my sons)
desire. Let the Pandavas return. And let my sons again gamble with the sons of
Pandu.” (Sabha Parva, Book II Section LXXIV).
Gandhari however warns Dhritrashtra against believing his wicked son and to follow
the law. Her behaviour is more reasonable and is neither fatalistic nor clouded by blind
PAGE 15

love for her son. Gandhari like other women in the epic (Kunti, Draupadi) is the one
sane voice who knows her son Duryodhana very well and is apprehensive because of
the terrible portents that had accompanied his birth. Dhritrashtra’s frequent references to
destiny however, add to the fatalistic perspective which surfaces from time to time in the
epic. Even the mighty Drona with whom the entire Kaurava clan seek refuge, seems like
a victim of his own destiny condemned to die at the hands of Drupada, a king whom he
had deprived of his kingship.
Duryodhan’s plan is to stop the Pandavas before they reach their kingdom. Dhritrash-
tra sends a word to Yudhishthira to call them back for a second decisive game of dice.
Yudhishthira’s acceptance is based on two things. The fact that he follows the path of
law and dharma and knows that he cannot disobey the king makes him accept the pro-
posal even though he is acutely aware of the fact that he would be staking everything on
it once again and might lose it all. The second view that emerges from the text is that
he thinks that whatever is to happen will happen and he takes it to be the will of God.
The Pandavas resign to their fate. Thus, the stage is set for a second game of dice – the
sequel to dicing.
1.4.2 The Second Game of Dice

The Pandavas return to the assembly hall. The stake is victory against twelve years of
exile in the forest followed by one year of living in the open without being discovered.
The game begins and Yudhishthira loses to Sakuni. The Kauravas win with their deceit
and trickery. The Pandavas once again lose their wealth, their kingdom and also their
comfort. They have to now dress up in deer skin and set off to live a life of exile for
twelve years in the forest. They appear to be burdened by the unfolding of destiny in
this manner. Dushasana’s insulting comments on the Pandavas and his demeaning offer
to Draupadi to leave the destitute Pandavas and come over and choose a husband from
amongst the rich Kurus is enough to rile the agitated Bhima. He warns Dushasana and
pledges to drink his blood in the war.
“As thou piercest our hearts hear with these thy arrowy words, so shall I pierce
thy heart in battle, recalling all this to thy mind. And they also who from anger or
covetousness are walking behind thee as thy protectors,—them also shall I send to
the abode of Yama with their descendants and relatives.” (Book 2: Sabha Parva:
Section LXXVI)
The Pandavas accept the verdict and prepare to depart for the forest. They have followed
the path of dharma and have submitted to the rule of law. But the anger seething in each
16 PAGE

of their hearts is palpable and finds manifestation in the manner of their departure. When
Dhritrashtra asks Vidur to describe for him the manner in which each of the Pandavas
left Vidur speaks thus:
“Yudhishthira, the son of Kunti, hath gone away covering his face with his cloth. And
Bhima, O king, hath gone away looking at his own mighty arms. And Jishnu (Arju-
na) hath gone away, following the king spreading sand-grains around. And Sahadeva,
the son of Madri, hath gone away besmearing his face, and Nakula, the handsomest
of men, O king, hath gone away, staining himself with dust and his heart in great
affliction. And the large-eyed and beautiful Krishna hath gone away, covering her
face with her dishevelled hair following in the wake of the king, weeping and in
tears. And O monarch, Dhaumya goeth along the road, with kusa grass in hand, and
uttering the aweful mantras of Sama Veda that relate to Yama.” (The Mahabharata,
Book 2: Sabha Parva: Section LXXIX).
On being asked, Vidur gives the reasons behind the behaviour of each one of the Pandavas
as they leave. Beginning with Yudhishthira he says that after being deprived of his kingdom
by dishonest means he goes with closed eyes to save people from his anger. Bhim flexes
his mighty arms desiring to use their strength against their enemy. The grains that Arjun
scatters as he follows the footsteps of Yudhishthira signify the arrows he would rain on
his enemies in the battle. Sahdev doesn’t wish to be recognized in his day of trouble and
Nakul smears his face with dust lest the ladies looking at him lose their hearts to him.
Vidur’s description of Draupadi is heartrending and at the same time instills fear in the
onlookers. Vidur describes her thus:
“And Draupadi goeth, attired in one piece of stained cloth, her hair dishevelled, and
weeping, signifying—“The wives of those for whom I have been reduced to such a
plight, shall on the fourteenth year hence be deprived of husbands, sons and relatives
and dear ones and smeared all over with blood, with hair dishevelled and all in their
feminine seasons enter Hastinapore having offered oblations of water (unto the manes
of those they will have lost).” .” (Book 2: Sabha Parva: Section LXXIX)
He next speaks of Daumya, the Panadava priest who with kusa grass in his hand, in a
terrifying manner, goes chanting the mantras of Sama Veda that relate to Yama the God
of death. His manner, says Vidur, signifies that when the battle will be over, the priests
of the kauravs will chant these mantras for their dead.
As the Pandavas leave, all signs indicate that a disastrous war is imminent now!
PAGE 17

Check Your Progress

1. Why does Duryodhana call the Pandavas back for a second game of dice?
2. What are the reasons for Dhritrashtra consenting for a second game of dice?
3. Why does Gandhari oppose it?
4. Why does Yudhishthir accept the challenge?
5. What role does destiny play here?
6. In the ‘Sequel to Dicing’ what kind of future does Vidur foretell?
1.5 The Game of Dice in Relation to the Plot

The question that often comes to mind is, “Why does the game of dice have such a crucial
significance in the Mahabharata?” After all, anywhere, anyone who knows the least bit
about the Mahabharata also knows about the game of dice, about Yudhishthira, Duryo-
dhana, Shakuni and the loss of the Kingdom, the brothers, and the beloved wife Draupadi.
Everyone also knows that Shakuni was a trickster, Duryodhana a greedy cruel prince,
Dhritarashtra, a partisan guardian, Bhishma an impotent head of a disintegrating clan.
Let us look at the various reasons which render this episode so crucial. The first thing
to note is the absence of Krishna during the game of dice. Krishna has been a visible
and significant presence during the Rajasuya yagya and has been the guest of honour. He
has been present in the earlier part of the book of the assembly hall but is absent during
the climax, the game of dice. His absence is explained by his required presence to settle
important war business with Sambha who had attacked Dvaraka. This whole sequence of
Krishna’s presence and absence can be seen as the work of poet contributors who wished
to glorify and deify him. After all the historical Krishna was just a chieftain, brother of
Balram, and lord of Dwarka. The religious deity can be seen here in the process of evo-
lution. When Krishna is absent, things go horribly wrong and even the desperate calling
out to him prevents, somewhat, Draupadi’s shame.” The Rajasuya of Yudhishthira has
been made an occasion to glorify Krishna. He is not quite the God yet—at least not by
Bhagavad-Gita standards—but his incipient godhead already requires his absence from
situations that he cannot dominate.” (van Buitenen). Had he attended the dicing no doubt
he would have interfered on behalf of the Pandavas, which would have meant the end of
the game, and thus, in effect, the end of the Mahabharata.
18 PAGE

To examine this question, we have to remind ourselves that the epic is an itihas pu-
rana—a work of art—a poetic composition. However, the poetic skills of the composer/
composers are so highly developed that we have before us a very dramatic climax. It is
like the climactic scene or episode of a play. The plot hinges upon this scene. The trag-
ic action is precipitated henceforth. All the major characters are exposed for what they
are. Their dialogues are revelatory. Whatever hypocrisy might have lain dormant in the
self-righteous Bhishma or Dhritarashtra is revealed, as is their impotence in the face of a
rash and impatient Duryodhana. So, while on one hand this scene exposes the male char-
acters, on the other hand, it makes us acutely aware of the limitations of women, even
royal women like Draupadi.
It is also a scene which brings together Draupadi & Krishna conveying a double lesson,
as subsequent myths of sati Draupadi indicate. Draupadi is depicted and worshipped in later
cults as the model of an intelligent and loyal wife. Her chastity (satitva) has the power to
prevent her shame. On the other hand, it enables the performance of a miracle by Krishna,
the endless lengthening of her sari as Duryodhana tries to strip her in the Sabha. This episode
actually provides drama, thrill, villainy, excitement, which are very obvious to us because
of the advantage of media exposure which we have unlike earlier readers of the epic.
So far, we have seen the tangible ways in which the Dicing is crucial to the rest of
the Mahabharata. There is yet another vital point to note on the matter. That relates to
the philosophy and the religious dimension of the epic.
If there had been no game of Dice, there would have been no humiliation of the
Pandavas and molestation of Draupadi. Had these not taken place, the provocation for all
the vows of bringing destruction upon the Kauravas and their allies would have been lost.
Draupadi’s violent curses and Bhima’s vows of revenge are rooted in this episode. Within
the larger context of the epic there is a large number of characters who have to fulfil their
destiny and it is the Mahabharata war, that provides this opportunity. The Shikandi—
Bhishma struggle, Drona’s death and various other scores are settled in the war resulting
from the Kauravas’ refusal to handover legitimate power and property to the Pandavas.
It is in this war, whose seeds were sown at the game of Dice, that the most profound
religious discourse of all times was recited. The Bhagavadgita, the ultimate treatise on
man’s conduct in life, was actually a counselling lecture to Arjun by Lord Krishna when
Arjun is reduced to inaction at the prospect of fighting his own brethren. I’m certain you
haven’t overlooked the transformation of Krishna, who initially appeared as a political
manipulator and chieftain in the early books of the epic, into a figure of religious stature.
PAGE 19

Check Your Progress

1. Why is Krishna absent in the game of dice?
2. How does the episode help build Krishna’s stature as a God?
3. Why is the game of dice structurally important to the Mahabharat?
4. Can we say that without the game of dice the Mahabharat would not have happened?
5. How does this episode shed light on the male characters in the epic and on the
position of women in those times?
1.6 Summing Up
‘The Dicing’ and the ‘’Sequel to the Dicing are two crucial episodes in the epic on which
the entire narrative hinges. In these two episodes we see how the conniving and scheming
Duryodhana along with Shakuni, Karna and the Kauravas not only defeat Yudhisththira in
a game of dice but reduce the Pandavas to the level of slaves and leave them penniless.
Draupadi’s humiliation is the last straw and her two pertinent questions force the Assem-
bly to think. Dhritrashtra then grants her three boons, two of which she uses to get back
the Pandavas their freedom, their wealth and kingdom. Duryodhana, however, plans a
sequel and true to his dharma, Yudhishthira cannot refuse the challenge. The Mahabharata
narrates a second game of dice, which the Pandavas lose as well. Consequently, they are
compelled to undergo a twelve-year exile in the forest, with the additional condition of
spending the thirteenth year incognito.
In these two episodes we observe the virtue and righteousness of the Pandavas and
the deviousness of the Kauravas. We also witness the helplessness of people like Gandhari
and Bhishm who fail to counsel Duryodhana. They see how destiny plays its part when
Duryodhana is able to convince Dhritrashtra to give his consent for a second decisive
game of dice.
From the broader perspective of the entire epic, this episode not only picks up
narrative threads from earlier books but also serves as a crucial setup for the events in
the subsequent books. It acts as a catalyst for the resolution of conflicts that have been
alluded to in the earlier parts of the epic. Furthermore, its impact extends across gener-
ations, affecting and being influenced by more than two generations. Bhishma, spanning
a considerable period of time, is a prominent character who has witnessed the lives of
Satyawati, Vichitravirya, Dhritarashtra, Duryodhana, and their descendants. Importantly,
the repercussions of the game of dice continue to influence the characters until their final
moments, even at the gates of heaven.
20 PAGE


Buitenen, J. A. B. van, The Mahabharata. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978.
Chaturvedi, Badrinath. The Mahabharata: An Inquiry in the Human Condition. New
Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2006.
Crystal, David. Cambridge Encyclopedia in Paperback. Cambridge: Cambridge
University press, 1997.
R. N. Dandekar: Mahabharata Revisited. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2011.
Ganguli, Kisari Mohan, Trans. The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa.
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2008.
G. C. Pande. “Socio-cultural Milieu of the Mahabharata: An Age of Change”.
Reflections and Variations on ‘The Mahabharata’. Ed. T R S Sharma. New Delhi:
Sahitya Akademi, 2009.
Gupta Kanav and Meha Pande Ed. The Mahabharata: Selections from Sabha Parva
and Udyog Parva. Trans. J.A.B. Van Buitenen. Delhi: Worldview, 2016.
Karve, Irawati. Yuganta: The End of an Epoch. Hyderabad: Orient BlackSwan, 2007.
McGrath, Kevin “Speaking of Truth”. Stri: Women in Epic Mahabharata. Boston:
Ilex Foundation, 2009. Pp 153-184.
Rajagopalchari, C. Mahabharata. Calcutta: Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, 1951.
Sinha, J P. The Mahabharata: A Literary Study. New Delhi: Meharchand Lachhmandas,
1977.
Thapar, Romila, “War in the ‘Mahabharata’”, PMLA, Vol. 124, No. 5, Special Topic:
War (Oct. 2009), pp. 1830-1833.
Woods, Julian F. Destiny and Human Initiative in the Mahabharata. New York: New
York State UP. 2001.
PAGE 21

U N I T
I(b)
General Introduction to The Mahabharata
The Epic Conventions and Indian Epic Poetry in Sanskrit

An epic is defined as a long narrative poem depicting heroic deeds of great characters,
usually showcasing their great gallantry and bravery on a grand scale. An epic is broadly
classified under the genre of poetry as one of the major forms of narrative literature. It
comprises of both oral and written work. The word epic is derived from the Greek ad-
jective epikos which translates to poetic story. The epic poems grew out of heroic poetry
which was about characters from history or legend. The epic genre deals with subjects
such as myths, histories, superhuman capabilities, glorifying legends, histories, religious
tales, philosophical and moral ideas. It is a means to pass on traditional values, heritage
and culture from one generation to another without the need to write. An epic usually
celebrates the life and actions of national heroes who showed exemplary courage and
conviction with a sense of moral duty. The primary function of epic poetry is to celebrate
the exploits, victories of illustrious ancestors, trace and respect the lineage to which one
belongs, to provide role models, and to pass on the rich heritage and historical knowledge
to the forthcoming generation. An epic is the oldest and one of the most popular genres
which reflects into the national ideals, value system and sociohistorical domain. It is
known for the projection of deities who are seen to intervene in human life and also for
its use of exalted language to add the element of awe.
Aristotle ranked this genre as second only to tragedy, though many Renaissance
critics place the position of epic at the top of all other genres. Most of the famous epics
contain a ceremonial narrative style pertaining to a grand subject. The Greek epics such
as the Iliad and the Odyssey, written by Homer, narrate the story of the Trojan War and
the accomplishments of Ulysses, Achilles and other heroes of the Greek world while Vir-
gil’s Aeneid presents the Roman history in Latin. The great epic of Dante called Divine
Comedy captures the ascent of the soul from hell to heaven through the painful experience
of purgatory. Milton’s greatest work the Paradise Lost deals with the reworking of the
biblical stories and focuses on the subject of Man’s first disobedience.
Indian epic poetry is popularly known as Mahakavya. The epic poems that mark the
beginning of this tradition in India comprises of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata which
were originally composed in Sanskrit. They form a part of the canon of Hindu scriptures.
The idealization of the hero and placing him on a pedestal is central to these writings.
22 PAGE

General Introduction to The Mahabharata
They establish the values of human civilization and highlight moral teachings such as the
importance of truth and self-sacrifice. They were performed orally before transforming the
words into the written form in Sanskrit and later translating it in several other languages.
Along with the above, The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature and Sangam Literature
helped lay the cultural foundation of India. These are some of the oldest surviving epic
poems.
An Indian epic is also called Itihasa in Sanskrit as it portrays events of the past cen-
turies. The greatness of the Indian epic cannot be understood without learning about the
Epic Period, its political environment, functioning of the royal palace and its association
with arts and literature. The initial glimpses of epic poetry in India can be seen in Vedic
Sanskrit literature particularly in the hymns of the Rig Veda. The recital of poetry was
an integral part of religious events at festivals. The themes generally revolved around the
stories of gods and heroes. The narrators, authors and preservers of this form of ancient
poetry were the bards who lived at the king’s court and recited these compositions during
feasts. Indian epic poetry finds its roots in the circle of such bards or poets. The Ramayana
and the Mahabharata are a collection of variety of poems which existed throughout cen-
turies and have undergone additions, alterations, and revisions.
The following are the epic conventions which define broad characteristics common
to this genre:
a) Invocation to the muse at the start of an epic. In the Mahabharata, Vyasa invokes
Nara and Narayana, avatars of Lord Vishnu, and Goddess Saraswati.
b) Epic begins in ‘media res’ that is, in the middle of action. The Mahabharata follows
this technique.
c) The hero of the epic has supernatural attributes overshadowing the characteristics of
common people. The action displays the courage, bravery, moral duties of the hero.
The heroic traits are put through a trial by the circumstances surrounding him. The
Mahabharata has many central heroes like Krishna, Bhishma, Arjuna, Karna among
others.
d) Formal speeches by main characters. Book V of the Mahabharata has speeches by
its central characters like Krishna and Karna.
e) The epic style follows a grand narrative with vast setting and broad dimensions
where the actions of characters can be applied in a universal context.
f) Supernatural intervention – In the Mahabharata, Krishna is said to be the avatar of
Lord Vishnu. Also, in Book V the birth of Karna has supernatural elements.
PAGE 23

g) Use of epic simile and repetition of stock phrases because epic poetry was passed
on orally and this aspect helped in remembering the important lessons. In the
Mahabharata too, lots of events and speeches are repeated.
Indian Sanskrit epics, such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, exhibit several distinctive
features that set them apart from other literary traditions. Some of these specific features
include:
a. Indian Sanskrit epics are incredibly vast and complex in their scope. They encompass a
wide range of characters, storylines, and philosophical discourses. The Mahabharata,
for example, is one of the longest epics in the world.
b. These epics often interweave multiple narrative threads and sub-stories. Various
characters’ lives and adventures are interconnected, creating a comprehensive and
intricate narrative structure.
c. Alongside the narrative, the epics contain significant didactic and philosophical
content. They explore complex moral and ethical dilemmas, provide insights into
the nature of existence, and discuss principles of dharma (righteous duty).
d. The Sanskrit epics feature extensive “slokas,” often delving into profound discussions
on philosophy, morality, and the nature of life.
e. These epics hold immense cultural and religious significance in the Indian subcontinent.
They have inspired various art forms, literature, and philosophical traditions and
continue to play a crucial role in shaping cultural identity.
f. Dharma, the concept of righteous duty and moral order, is a central theme in Sanskrit
epics. Characters often grapple with ethical choices and moral obligations, reflecting
the importance of dharma in Hindu philosophy.
The Mahabharata is considered as the longest epic poem. Sage Ved Vyas is credited
with the authorship of this extensive work. The oldest surviving parts of the text is about
400 BCE. It deals with the struggle for power between two groups of cousins, the Kau-
ravas and the Pandavas in Greater India. It contains more than 1,00,000 slokas (couplets)
in 18 (Parvas) sections.
24 PAGE

U N I T
I(b)
The Temptation of Karna
Ratika Anand
Structure
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Synopsis
1.4 Detailed Summary
1.4.1 Part I: The Advice of Krishna
1.4.2 Part II: The Confession of Kunti
1.5 Themes
1.5.1 The Question of Dharma and Morality
1.5.2 The Subject of Caste
1.5.3 Identity Crisis in Karna
1.5.4 Karna: The Tragic Hero
1.6 Summing Up
1.7 Model Questions (From Previous Years’ Paper)
1.8 Glossary
1.9 References

Throughout your reading, you will:
Gain insights into Krishna’s counsel to Karna.
Explore the temptation faced by Karna and his response to it.
Examine the moral dilemmas confronted by Karna.
Uncover the truth about Karna’s birth and identity through Kunti’s revelation.
1.2 Introduction
The Mahabharata stands as a monumental work of art, preserving socio-cultural heritage
and traditions of learning. Referred to as itihasa, it is considered as endless as the Vedas.
PAGE 25

This epic, both prescriptive and descriptive, transcends time by presenting the past, present,
and future. It weaves together elements of culture, history, philosophy, cosmology, and
ethics on a grand scale. Categorized as a kavya, a poem of extraordinary significance, it
is elevated to the status of the fifth Veda.
This lesson discusses sections from Book V titled “The Temptation of Karna” which
unfolds the truth behind the birth of Karna who is caught in a moral conflict between his
obligation to his good friend Duryodhana and his duty towards his birth mother Kunti
who appeals to Karna.
Karna plays a central role in the epic the Mahabharata. He is the son of Kunti and
Surya, the sun god. Kunti received a mantra from sage Durvasa as a reward for taking
good care of him. The mantra is meant to enable her to invoke a deity of her choice and
have a son with him. To test the mantra she conjures the Sun God, with whom she has
her first son Karna. However, Kunti was a maiden at the time of his birth and she had
to abandon him in order to preserve the reputation of her father.
The name Karna is a Sanskrit word meaning the ear. It is said that Karna was born
out of Kunti’s ear. He was born adorned with splendid earrings and a majestic armour
which signifies power. They are for his protection and are symbolic of his immorality.
His demeanour at the time of his birth is said to be glorious and divine. After he was
abandoned by Kunti in the Ganges river, he was found by a charioteer Adhiratha and his
wife Radha who take him to be their son and name him Vasusena.
Karna grows up to be a successful warrior, he possesses a gift of gab and is a loyal
friend to Duryodhana. Karna’s mastery in martial abilities was known to Duryodhana and
he knew that only Karna can match the skill and military prowess of Arjuna. But since
Karna was from a lower caste it was against the moral codes to challenge a kshatriya.
Duryodhana thus appoints Karna as a king of Anga so he can go against Arjuna and prove
his valour.
Karna is truthful in his words and generous in his actions. Despite being forewarned
by his father Surya, Karna sacrifices his earrings and breast plate to Indra who was dis-
guised as a brahmin. Karna was then no longer invincible, yet his action was of heroic
disposition. He is an upholder of integrity, principles, moral and ethical norms.
Until Book V he is oblivious about his kshatriya birth. In Book V, Krishna and Kunti
try to persuade Karna to join the Pandavas in the war of Kurukshetra. Krishna visits him
first and tempts him by offering several benefits which he could gain by joining the Pan-
davas, to which Karna refuses, for he has different perspective on this issue. He follows
his Dharma by being loyal to his friend Duryodhana who gave him protection and position
26 PAGE

when he was insulted. When Kunti confesses to Karna that she is his mother and Surya
god confirms the words of Kunti, he tells her about the hardships and struggles he faced
to reach here. He understands that she has come because of her love for the Pandavas so
out of respect he makes a promise to spare all her sons except for Arjuna. In the event of
the death of either him or Arjuna, the number of her sons will remain five. Despite being
faced with such a difficult choice, his faith did not falter. The temptation of power and
gold did not distract him from his duties and moral obligations. He showed confidence
in his decision to be faithful towards those who supported him in his struggles.
1.3 Synopsis
The segment deals with the attempt of Krishna and Kunti to convince Karna not to
participate in the battle. Karna finds out that Kunti is his biological mother. Krishna is
an envoy of peace and aims to prevent the war. He warns Karna that the defeat of the
Kauravas is preordained and the destruction of the world after the battle is inevitable.
Krishna advises Karna to join the Pandavas as they are his brothers and accept the offer of
kingship since he is the eldest son of Pandu and thereby the rightful heir to the Pandava
dynasty. The confession of Kunti reveals the truth about the birth of Karna. She attempts
to persuade Karna to forsake Duryodhana and unite with the Pandavas. However, Karna
is not tempted by the offer of obtaining a royal status and series of material pleasures
that will be granted to him on joining the lineage of the Pandavas. He refuses to betray
his well-wishers and vows to honour his commitment towards his friend, Duryodhana and
his foster parents, Adhiratha, and Radha.
1.4.1 Part I: The Advice of Krishna

1.4.1.1 Section CXL
The section begins with Dhritarashtra asking Sanjaya why Krishna has invited Karna to
his chariot. Dhritarashtra is keen to find out what Krishna tells Karna. Sanjaya repeats the
words of Krishna for Dhritarashtra. There are certain facts surrounding the birth of Karna
that are ambiguous in nature. Krishna reveals that Karna is not a suta son. Karna was born
to Kunti when she was a maiden. Krishna tells Karna that in the scriptures it is stated that
a son born to a woman prior to her marriage is also counted as the son of the wedded
husband just like the other sons born out of a wedlock. So, Karna is in fact the oldest
born son of Pandu and the Pandavas are his brothers. Since Karna is the eldest son, he is
PAGE 27

the rightful heir to the Pandavas. Krishna attempts to convince Karna to turn his back on
Duryodhana and to unite with the Pandavas. Krishna further paints a picture to lure Karna
into submitting to his plan. Karna is told about the respect and warm regards he will re-
ceive from his five Pandava brothers and his kinsmen, the elaborate rituals that would take
place to welcome him and is also reminded by Krishna that in the course of joining the
Pandavas he will have Draupadi as his wife. Krishna advises Karna to rejoice and be a part
of the celebratory ceremonies that behold him which will be observed to welcome him to
the throne. Krishna gives a vivid description of the admiration Karna will receive and the
festivities which would commence to honour him if he decides to take the offer of kingship.
Check Your Progress
1. What does Krishna say to Karna?
2. How did Krishna try to tempt Karna?
3. What was Krishna’s motive behind tempting Karna?
1.4.1.2 Section CXLI

Karna holds Krishna’s words and advice in high esteem. He expresses his gratitude to
Krishna for showing concern. Karna understands that the suggestions of Krishna are in
his interest and welfare, and he expresses gratitude for the advice. However, he politely
refuses to accept the offer and he provides broadly two reasons for his decision. First,
he voices his agony at the very thought of being abandoned by his birth mother Kunti at
the command of Surya. In accordance with the scriptures, morally he is the son of Pandu
but has been raised by the charioteer Adhiratha and his wife Radha. They took him in as
their son, performed all the necessary birth rites as a suta and raised him amidst immense
love and abundance of affection. He has performed all his domestic and marital rites with
sutas. Karna feels morally obligated to Adhiratha and Radha for the hardships they have
endured to raise him. He was named Vasusena by his father Adhiratha. Karna married
according to their will and is blessed with sons due to the selfless deeds of his parents
for him. He cannot imagine breaking the bond with his parents neither in exchange for
heaps of gold nor for the sake of the whole world.
Secondly, he expresses his sense of moral duty towards his friend Duryodhana be-
cause of whom Karna enjoyed fifteen years of royal power without any trouble. Karna is
indebted to Duryodhana for helping him gain a social status. Duryodhana is responsible
for the position of Karna and has always shown confidence and belief in Karna. He is
relying on Karna for his victory and Karna cannot let him down. He refuses to be a traitor
and cheat his own sympathisers. Duryodhana has challenged the Pandavas to a battle and
28 PAGE

Karna has invited Arjuna to face him in a single combat. He considers it his duty to stand
by Duryodhana in his hour of need. Karna says that even if he gets the empire, he will
pass it on to Duryodhana. He requests Krishna not to disclose this secret to the Pandavas
otherwise Yudhishthira will refuse the throne because the truth will stand between him and
his dharma. Karna sees Yudhishthira as possessing the proper traits and qualities needed
to be a ruler. Yudhishthira also has the support of his earnest and sincere kinsmen. Karna
can foresee that the mighty kingdom will be won by Yudhishthira.
He knows the victory of the Pandavas is predestined and the sacrifice of the Kauravas
is inevitable. Karna repents his insulting behaviour and the use of harsh words towards
the Pandavas for the appeasement of Duryodhana. He can envision that the Kauravas will
pay a hefty price which will begin with Arjuna slaying Karna in the duel and end with
the sacrifice of Duryodhana at the hands of Bhimasena. Karna prays to Krishna not to let
the kshatriyas die a useless death in misery and awful conditions. He appeals to Krishna
to let Kshatriyas face their death by weaponry in the most sacred place among the three
worlds, the land of Kurukshetra, so that they all can attain heaven. Their courage and
bravery shall be celebrated and passed on by the holy brahmins who will keep the glory
of the kshatriya alive as they will continue to recite the great battle of the Bharatas till
there exists mountains and rivers.
Check Your Progress
1. Why does Karna refuse the offer of Krishna despite knowing the ill fate of the
Kauravas?
2. Why does Karna feel morally obligated towards his parents, Adhiratha and Radha
and his friend, Duryodhana?
3. Why does Karna request Krishna not to disclose the secret of his birth to the
Pandavas?
1.4.1.3 Section CXLII

Krishna questions Karna, probing whether the tempting offer of kingship and dominion
over the entire world holds any allure for him. He reassures Karna of the inevitable vic-
tory of the Pandavas, vividly describing the gruesome scenes on the battlefield where the
Kurus meet their demise at the hands of the Pandavas. Krishna predicts that this triumph
will signify the onset of the Kali Yuga. Instructing Karna to relay the message, Krishna
emphasizes that the war will commence in seven days on the auspicious Day of Indra.
He directs Karna to inform Drona, Santanu’s son, and Kripa that those who obediently
follow Duryodhana’s command will only find their own demise in the impending battle.
PAGE 29

1.4.1.4 Section CXLIII

Karna questions the omniscient Krishna that since he already knows everything, why
did he seek to beguile and tempt him. The destruction of the whole world at the hands
of Sakuni, Dussasana, Duryodhana and Karna himself is predetermined. He explains the
astronomical events and astrological happening that reinforce the impending doom. Karna
furthers elaborate the disturbing omens, fearsome dreams, abominable visions that are
a premonition of the imminent annihilation that awaits the world. He has observed that
all positive and favourable omens support the Pandavas which are an indication of their
victory. Karna bids farewell to Krishna and returns with Sanjaya.
Check Your Progress
1. What were the omens and visions fortelling the victory of the Pandavas and the
defeat of the Karauravs?
1.4.1.5 Analysis of Part I

Krishna approaches Karna as an ambassador of peace, seeking to prevent the impending
war and violence. He knows that the battleground marks their doom and will turn into a
deathbed of warriors. He approaches Karna to tell him about his high birth and disclose
that Kunti is his mother so that he will join the Pandavas. Krishna tempts him to join
his own family of Pandavas and lures him with all kinds of riches, wealth, respect and
honour. Krishna wants to captivate the thoughts and senses of Karna so that he would
give in to the temptation and the world may witness the great reunion of Karna with his
mother Kunti. Krishna, at his end, puts in efforts to stop the war from happening. He was
impressed with Karna’s knowledge of Vedas and scriptures.
Karna makes a virtuous decision of declining the proposal. He raises pertinent issues
before Krishna. One, Karna realizes that death and destruction of the Kurus is preordained
but he cannot abandon his ethical and moral duty towards his parents, Adhiratha and Radha
and his best friend, Duryodhana. Two, he makes an insightful request to Krishna to keep
this conversation a secret and the truth about his identity should not reach the Pandavas
otherwise Yudhishthira will refuse to accept the throne. Three, he further appeals to
Krishna that a Kshatriya should have a respectable death and find heaven. This thoughtful
response of Karna and his intuitive pleas show his noble side. He had to decide between
the two alternatives of either adhering to the suggestion of Krishna to join the Pandavas
which may have led Duryodhana and therewith the Kauravas to withdraw from the war,
or to abide by his moral duties and ethical codes dictated by his conscience, belief and
principle to support Duryodhana. This is one of the dilemmas faced by Karna.
30 PAGE

Check Your Progress

1. What were the reasons behind the temptation of Karna and why does Karna refuse
the proposal of Krishna?
1.4.2 Part II: The Confession of Kunti

1.4.2.1 Section CXLIV
This section begins with the narrator who delineates the conversation between Kshatri
(Vidura) and Kunti where Kshatri expresses his despair and helplessness over the failure
to prevent the impending battle, even with Krishna’s efforts proving futile against the
determination of the Kurus. He talks about his incompetence at persuading Duryodhana
against the thought of the war. Yudhishthira, despite being a man of great strength, ap-
pears weak in his judgement of fighting the battle. King Dhritarashtra fails to comprehend
the motivation that drives his son to the battlefield. He takes immense pride in his sons
which has deprived him of judgement. He chooses to tread an unscrupulous path to his
destruction.
Kunti is grief stricken at hearing the words of Vidura and thinks about the absurdity
of fighting over wealth which is going to result in mass slaughter of their own family
and kinsmen. But her heart seems to be divided as she also believes that the Pandavas
have no option but to participate in the battle. She is constantly thinking about the re-
percussions of the war. On one hand, she feels that if they refuse to fight, they will end
up in poverty and face disgrace which is worse than death itself. On the other hand, she
believes that there is no victory in killing one’s own kinsmen either. She is mostly afraid
of the power and might of Drona, Bhishma and Karna. She is hopeful that Drona may not
attack his own pupils and grandfather Bhishma may favour the Pandavas but the biggest
threat to them is Karna who abhors the Pandavas especially Arjuna for whom his heart
is filled with hatred. She decides to share her secret with Karna and to reveal that she
gave birth to him. She recalls the days when she was devoted to the service of the holy
sage Durvasa who was pleased with Kunti and taught her a mantra that would enable her
to have sons from any god that she wished to invoke. Unfortunately, Kunti did not fully
understand the power and future implications of the boon. She was overwhelmed with
curiosity to test the mantra and summoned the sun god, Surya. The mantra was potent,
and she conceived Karna. Remembering her past, she reaches the shore of river Ganges
to find her son Karna chanting Vedic hymns and praying before the sun god. Kunti was
certain that her son Karna will not disobey her words.
PAGE 31

Check Your Progress

1. Why was Kunti feeling restless and worried for her sons?
2. What was the inner turmoil taking place within Kunti?
3. When does Kunti decide to tell Karna that she is his biological mother? What
were the intentions behinds Kunti’s big revelation?
1.4.2.2 Section CXLV

Karna respectfully greets Kunti, introduces himself as the son of Adhiratha and Radha,
and asks what service he could do for her. Kunti reveals her big secret to Karna and tries
to explain her predicament. She tells Karna of his majestic birth as he was born with
radiant earrings and a breast plate. Karna is advised to unite with his brothers and enjoy
the glory that would follow. Kunti reminds him of his duty as her son. She wants the
Kauravas to witness the union of Karna and Arjuna. She knows that together they can
accomplish the world.
1.4.2.3 Section CXLVI

Karna hears the voice of his real father Surya who validates the words of Kunti. He ad-
vises Karna to follow the path that his mother shows and assures Karna that it will lead
to his prosperity. Karna disapproves the commands of the kshatriya law as he has been
deprived of the rites of a kshatriya. He is filled with contempt at Kunti’s negligence when
she abandoned him for her own interest and ignored the wellbeing of her child as he could
have lost his life. He questions the actions of Kunti and asks her why she has reached out
for him on the eve of the battle. He realises that she has her own vested motive behind
telling Karna about his birth. Karna raises a poignant question, questioning the ethical
implications of going back on his word at the eleventh hour and whether such an action
would violate the principles of kshatriya dharma. He expresses concern that reneging on
his promise would brand him as a coward, dishonoring both his commitment and betraying
the Kurus. Duryodhana has always respected him and has been attentive to his needs. He
has been a dutiful friend who has obliged Karna in many ways. Karna cannot think of
abandoning them in their hour of need. Karna is indebted to him and it would be against
his own principles to go against someone who stood by him during his worst times. Karna
however takes a pledge before Kunti that he will fight only Arjuna and not harm any of
her other sons. Under any circumstance, either him or Arjuna will survive along with the
rest of her four sons. Thus, the number of her sons would continue to remain five.
32 PAGE

Check Your Progress

1. How did Karna respond to Kunti’s confession?
2. What reasons did Karna cite for his refusal of Kunti’s offer?
3. How did Karna show respect and prove his regard for Kunti?
1.4.2.4 Analysis of Part II

Kunti was worried contemplating the outcome of the war of the Kurukshetra. She was
mostly afraid of the gnawing hatred of Karna towards the Pandavas especially Arjuna. By
revealing the truth about his parentage to Karna, Kunti wanted to secure the lives of her
sons. She was confident that Karna will not disappoint her and will join his brothers in
the battle. Her intentions though questioned by Karna are not entirely wrong. As a mother
she wanted do to the best for the protection of her sons. At the same time, the refusal of
Karna to accept her proposal was conscious and self-righteous decision of Karna. He had
to decide between his duty towards his birth parents and his moral obligations towards his
friend, Duryodhana. The decision to choose one duty over another can be a challenging
and Karna was bound by his ethical codes. His regard for Kunti’s sentiments is seen when
he promises not to kill any of her sons in the battle except for Arjuna.
Check Your Progress
1. What did Kunti confess before Karna? Why did she decide to tell Karna the secret
of his birth on the eve of the battle?
2. What were the duties that held back Karna from accepting Kunti’s offer?
1.5 Themes
1.5.1 The Question of Dharma and Morality

Dharma is a multifaceted concept deeply ingrained in Indian philosophy, religion, and
spirituality. It embodies a doctrine with intricate layers, urging individuals to uphold
moral duties, ethical principles, and practice virtue, righteousness, and good behavior to
maintain the cosmic order. This will guide one to follow the path of the duties and actions
as defined by one’s birth. Karna places more importance on his loyalty to Duryodhana
as compared to the recommendation of Krishna to switch sides to join the Pandavas and
become the king in accordance to Dharma-sastra, the sacred book of Hindus in Sanskrit
pertaining to dharma, religious and legal duty.
PAGE 33

There are primarily three dilemmas which are faced by Karna. First, the moral con-
flict within Karna whether to join his brothers and reunite with the Pandavas or to show
allegiance to Duryodhana who has supported Karna in his trials and tribulations. Second,
Karna is a dutiful son and is seen to be torn between his obligation and responsibility
towards his foster parents, Adhiratha and Radha, and his birth parents, the sun god and
Kunti. Third, there exists a latent conundrum in the mind of Karna if he should adhere
to the ethical duties and principles of kshatriya dharma or fulfil the expectation of Suta
varna. Each dilemma reveals a different side of the character who is faced with complex
choices. It is difficult to arrive at one right decision because both the choices are right
in their own premises, and it is almost like holding one duty as more important against
the other. Karna is thus faced with a complex challenge which is not to decide right from
wrong but to choose one duty over another.
1.5.2 The Subject of Caste

Karna is resentful of the discrimination he faces for being the son of a charioteer. He
wanted to learn the art of warfare from Drona who refused Karna due to his caste. He
disguised himself as a brahmin to become a student of Parashurama. He was stopped from
participating in Draupadi’s Swayamvar due to his caste. His suta status came in the way
of showcasing his martial skills. According to the scriptures, a suta due to his lower caste
was not allowed to fight a kshatriya. When Karna challenged Arjuna, instead of accepting
it he insulted Karna by calling him a suta. Duryodhana saw in Karna the potential equal
to that of Arjuna. He found Karna to be someone to befriend in order to balance out the
power of combatant Arjuna. Karna is made the king of Anga by Duryodhana so he can
challenge Arjuna. Karna proved to be a better archer than Arjuna. Karna in his hatred
vowed to defeat and kill Arjuna. In Book V, Kunti confesses to Karna that she is his birth
mother and asks him to follow his Kshatriya duty of protecting his brothers and appeals
to Karna to side with the Pandavas in the war. This stirs more bitterness in Karna as he
realizes that he was denied his inherent status of a kshatriya. He discerns that the reason
behind the invocation of the kshatriya code by Krishna and his mother Kunti is the pre-
vention of the war of Kurukshetra and protection of the Pandavas respectively. Despite
his hatred for the Pandavas, he shows reverence to Kunti and promises not to harm any
of her sons except for Arjuna. In this way, regardless of whether he or Arjuna meets their
end, the number of her sons will always remain five.
1.5.3 Identity Crisis in Karna

Karna was born into a Kshatriya family, part of the ruling class. However, he quickly
found himself relegated to a lower caste. Caste is intricately linked to an individual’s social
34 PAGE

identity. Karna, insulted and considered a social outcast, grappled with an alternate identi-
ty, feeling ill-fated and segregated. He doesn’t give up and continues to fight in order to
establish his place in the society, but his hopes are crushed repeatedly. He is intrigued by
the earrings and the armour with which he was born. Family, kin, caste, class are closely
connected to formulation of an identity. However, Karna does not receive any support from
the above mentioned domains, to strengthen his position. It was Duryodhana who made
Karna a kshatriya by merit, not birth, and for this gesture Karna was eternally grateful to
him. Despite receiving the royal title from Duryodhana, Karna was still seen as a misfit.
Despite learning about his birth and receiving advice from Krishna to accept kingship
within the Pandava dynasty, Karna chose dharma. He did not yield to the temptation of
material wealth and held on to his principle and strong sense of ethics. He always knew
that defeat of the Kurus is destined yet he stood his ground which shows he is strong
not just physically but mentally too. He could have shed the identity of a suta son and
gained his worth in the world through proclaiming his royal descent and accepting his
birthright to rule his kingdom. However, instead of being carried away, he embraced his
own identity and thrived to prove his worth through his actions and not birth.
1.5.4 Karna: The Tragic Hero

Karna is born with a majestic demeanour, with gold earring and celestial armour. Despite
all odds he was an accomplished warrior. Duryodhana perceived his martial abilities to
be equivalent to Arjuna’s. According to Julian Woods, Karna is a “tragic antihero” of the
epic. He is both generous to the Brahmins yet arrogant and cruel to the Pandavas. Karna,
like the other characters in the Mahabharata, exhibits a combination of both good and bad
behaviour. The character of Karna provides an insight into human nature and its psyche.
It is often his anger which is manifested in his speech; for instance, he makes bitter com-
ments towards the Pandavas and insulted Draupadi which he later regrets when he finds
out that Pandavas are his half-brothers. Despite being born a Kshatriya he was not able
to enjoy the status of a Kshatriya. He was brought up by a charioteer and his wife. He
faced rejection from his own mother who abandoned him at birth. Despite being a great
warrior and a distinguished archer, he was humiliated by the Pandavas and turned down
by guru Dronacharya for being a sutason. He pretended to be a brahmin so that he can
acquire martial skills from Parshurama. When Parshurama called his bluff and realized
he is not a brahmin, he cursed Karna which cost him his life. The reason for his feelings
of hatred and enmity is that life has been unfair to him. He is a victim of circumstances
that bred discontentment within him. Yet he lived to be a noble man who followed the
path of self-righteousness and practiced dharma and believed in karma (actions).
PAGE 35

1.6 Summing Up
Karna values the contribution and sacrifices of his parents, who raised him, giving them
the credit for everything he has achieved. He is also grateful to Duryodhana for the respect
and position he bestowed on him. Karna is honest with Krishna about his true motives,
stating that even if granted kingship, he will pass it on to Duryodhana. He proves his
loyalty and friendship towards Duryodhana.
Upon discovering that the Pandavas are his brothers, he regrets using harsh words
and repents for his insulting behaviour towards his brothers and their wife Draupadi.
He respects Kunti and shows reverence for her by taking the pledge. Karna is also seen
fighting a difficult internal battle between his duties as a suta and as a kshatriya. He
shows confidence in himself and his decisions which are self-righteous in nature. Karna’s
character reflects on the notion of dharma and discusses duty and code of ethics in his
attempt to resolve his moral dilemmas.
1.7 Model Questions (From Previous Years’ Paper)

Q1. C
ritically analyse the relationship between Karna and Kunti in The Temptation of
Karna. (15)
Q2. Analyse the ethical dilemma/s in the episode “Temptation of Karna”. (15)
Answers
A1. Refer to Part II: The Confession of Kunti, Summary and Analysis.
A2. Refer to the section on themes.
1.8 Glossary
Suta : lower caste in Indian Caste or Varna System
Aristotle : Greek philosopher and thinker
Mahakavya : genre of Indian epic poetry in Sanskrit literature
Itihasa :
meaning history stating the religious traditions and cultural heritage
of the past generations.
Kurus : another term for the Kaurava clan
36 PAGE

1.9 References
McGrath, Kevin. The Sanskrit Hero: Karna in the Epic Mahabharata. Leiden: Brill,
2004. Print.
Tripathi, Radhavallabh. “Aesthetics of the Mahabharata: Tradition Interpretations.”
The Mahabharata: Selections from the Sabha Parva and Udyoga Parva. Ed. Kanav
Gupta and Meha Pande. Delhi: Worldview Publications, 2016. Print.
Woods, Julian. Destiny and Human Initiative in the Mahabharata. New York: SUNY
Pres, 2001. Print.
Tattwasarananda, Swami. “Kunti.” Hindupedia: The Hindu Encyclopaedia. Web. 10
Oct 2019, en. http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Kunti
PAGE 37

U N I T
I(c)
Krishna’s Peace Proposal
Udyog Parva – Book V – Section - LXXXIX-CXXXI
Bharat Choudhary
Structure
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Synopsis
1.4.1 Krishna’s Arrival and His Peace Proposal (Sections LXXXIX – XCV)
1.4.2 The Stories of Dambhodhbhaya and Matali (Sections XCVI-CV)
1.4.3 The Story of Galava (CVI – XXIII)
1.4.4 Renewed Attempts to Counsel Duryodhana (CXXIV - CXXIX)
1.4.5 Krishna’s Godliness Revealed (CXXX – CXXXI)
1.5 Analysis
1.6 Themes
1.6.1 Dharma
1.6.2 Storytelling
1.6.3 Importance of Virtues and Righteousness
1.6.4 Treatment of Women Characters
1.7 Summing Up
1.8 Glossary
1.9 References

In this Unit, you would:
Be introduced to one of the most celebrated epic tales, Mahabharata, and its
significance in the Indian culture and Literature.
38 PAGE

Take an in depth look at a specific section of the epic dealing with the peace
proposal of Krishna.
Analyse and learn about the human behaviour through the different characters in
the story.
Take a critical look at the concepts of dharma and destiny in the context of the
prescribed section from the Mahabharata.
1.2 Introduction
The Mahabharata is an ancient Sanskrit poem describing the mythical Kurukshetra War
between two groups of brothers descended from King Bharata: the Pandavas and the
Kauravas. The authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Ved Vyasa. It is immensely
popular in India and throughout Southeast Asia. The Mahabharata holds significant his-
torical importance in the Hindu tradition, often being referred to as the “fifth Veda.” The
four Vedas are the foundational texts of Hinduism, outlining tenets of faith and doctrines
for living, but none of them discuss the tenet of dharma. The work inspired many ancient
works of art, such as Indian miniature paintings and the elaborate sculptures of the ancient
temples of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thorn in Cambodia. Today, The Mahabharata remains
an important Hindu epic and continues to serve as the foundation for the Hindu religious
faith and mythology.
The text we are studying in this unit is an excerpt from Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa’s
The Mahabharata, translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli. This Unit deals with Udyog Parva
(Book-5), Section – LXXXIX-CXXXI.
1.3 Synopsis
This segment focuses on the moment when Krishna assumes the role of a mediator be-
tween the Pandavas and Kauravas in an attempt to prevent the impending war, which,
if unleashed, will result in widespread destruction. Despite the unanimous desire among
all, except the Kauravas, to avert the war, Duryodhana remains unwilling to reconcile
with the Pandavas and allocate them their rightful share of the empire. Krishna arrives
in Hastinapur to plead the Pandavas’ case, yet Duryodhana remains obstinate and refuses
to acknowledge his errors. Despite counsel from others, including Dhritrashtra, Bhishma,
and Drona, Duryodhana persists in his refusal to grant the Pandavas their portion of the
kingdom, thereby paving the way for the imminent war.
PAGE 39

1.4.1 Krishna’s Arrival and His Peace Proposal (Sections LXXXIX – XCV)
Section LXXXIX (89)
Lord Krishna prepares to go to Hastinapur as a peace messenger from the Pandavas’ side
and leaves Vrikasthala (province and town were situated in the southern part of Kuru
Kingdom). In Hastinapur, everyone is preparing to welcome Krishna except Duryodhana
(eldest Kaurava). All the citizens of Hastinapur come out of their houses to get a glimpse
of lord Krishna. Upon arriving at the mansion, Krishna is welcomed by King Dhritrashtra
and everyone else. After the welcome ceremony and rituals, Krishna duly greets all the
Kurus and then goes to the delightful abode of Vidura (the prime minister of the Kuru
Kingdom and the paternal uncle of both the Pandavas and the Kauravas) and updates him
about the situation of the Pandavas.
Section XC (90)
Next, Krishna goes to meet his paternal Aunt, Pritha (Queen Kunti, wife of Pandu and
mother of Pandvas). With teary eyes and motherly concern in her heart, she inquires
about the Pandavas and Draupadi. She still remembers the dishonour that her daughter-
in-law had to go through. She asks about the wellbeing of her children one by one with
great affection and worry. Pritha is aware of the possible war in future and what great
destruction it can bring to the family as well as the empire. Krishna tries to console his
aunt, assuring the wellness of the Pandavas and then bids farewell.
Section XCI (91)

Following that, Krishna proceeds to Duryodhana’s opulent palace, where he encounters
the eldest Kaurava seated on the throne amid the presence of numerous kings and all the
Kurus in the court assembly. After the customary welcome rituals dedicated to Krishna,
Duryodhana extends an invitation for him to dine at his residence, which Krishna polite-
ly declines. When Duryodhana inquires about the reason for Krishna’s refusal, Krishna
elaborates on how he can only partake in a meal and accept worship once his mission
is successfully accomplished. Despite Duryodhana’s persistent insistence, Krishna, com-
mitted to his role as a messenger, departs from the royal court and proceeds towards the
dwelling of Vidura.
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Section XCII (92)

Vidura imparts to Krishna information concerning the transgressions of Duryodhana,
highlighting how obstinately he disregards the counsel of his elders and well-wishers.
Duryodhana’s actions, driven by his ego and insatiable desire for power, go against the
wisdom offered to him. Vidura tells Krishna about Duryodhana’s vain and firm belief that
with the support of Karna (a great warrior and Duryodhana’s greatest friend), neither the
Pandavas nor even the god Indra can ever defeat him, reinforcing his resolve to never
make peace with the Pandavas. Vidura is afraid that Duryodhana’s ego, greed and lust for
power would make peace unattainable. All the kings who have joined him, have done so
out of fear. In the end Vidura expresses his love and concern for the Pandavas.
Section XCIII (93)

Having heard Vidura’s account, Krishna affirms his awareness of Duryodhana’s intentions
but expresses his determination to undertake the task of persuading him for the greater
good. Krishna is resolute in his commitment to promoting the welfare of Dhritarashtra’s
sons, the Pandavas, and all Kshatriyas globally. Even if Duryodhana remains unyielding to
Krishna’s entreaties, Krishna is satisfied with upholding his own conscience. His intentions
are altruistic, aiming to serve both parties and ultimately save mankind.
Krishna remains undeterred by the potential consequences, showing no fear of Duryo-
dhana’s reaction or any harm he might face. He asserts that Duryodhana, despite his power,
is no match for Krishna—a comparison likened to a herd of deer incapable of standing
before an enraged lion. This statement underscores Krishna’s unwavering confidence in
his own abilities and his commitment to the path of righteousness.
Section XCIV (94)

The next morning, Krishna is awakened by a band of choristers and bards singing me-
lodious songs. Krishna, after taking a bath and performing the morning prayer rituals,
receives Duryodhana and Sakuni (Duryodhana’s maternal uncle). They invite Krishna to
join the royal court. The citizens eagerly come out to catch a glimpse of Krishna, while
kings and royal guests gather in the court to meet him. Everyone is seated when Krishna
enters. After greeting everyone, Krishna makes a request to invite the Rishis inside the
court. Once the Rishis settle, the much awaited meeting begins.
Section XCV (95)

Krishna starts his case by stressing on the dire necessity of peace to be established be-
tween the Kurus and the Pandavas to avoid manslaughter and destruction at such a great
PAGE 41

scale. Krishna addresses King Dhritarashtra, reminding him that the Kauravas, led by
Duryodhana, have abandoned virtue and profit, ignored morality, and, driven by avarice,
are acting in an unrighteous manner. If this results in a war then it will inevitably lead
to great destruction of both the parties. Krishna emphasizes that regardless of who wins,
the King will suffer as the Pandavas are the sons of his dear brother Pandu, making them
as dear to him as Kurus. Krishna requests the king and the Kuru clan to abandon the
wrath and enmity and let these kings, great warriors and armies return to their respective
homes. He emphasizes the king’s duty as a father to guide his children to the right path.
The Pandavas are only asking for their share of the paternal kingdom. Krishna reminds
every one of the great misery that the Pandavas have endured by living in the woods for
twelve years and living in hiding in the last year of their exile as was decided. They have
completed their side of the bet and now it’s time for the Kurus to honour their words.
Check Your Progress
1. What was the reason for Krishna’s visit to Hastinapur?
2. Why does he persist in his peace efforts despite knowing Duryodhana’s intentions?
3. How does he present his case in the court of Dhritarashtra?
1.4.2 The Stories of Dambhodhbhaya and Matali (Sections XCVI-CV)

Section XCVI (96)
The assembly falls into silence, with no one daring to reply to Krishna’s speech. Jama-
dagnya (Parashurama) recites the story of a King named Dambhodbhava who once ruled
the earth and enjoyed immense power. In pride, he regularly gathered Brahmanas and
Kshatriyas, amusingly questioning whether there was anyone more powerful than him on
earth. Once the Brahamanas revealed two names Nara and Narayana and claimed that
these two were superior to everyone, including the great king. The king brought his army
to the mountains of Gandhamadana and found the two rishis, Nara and Narayana. After
much denial, the two rishis defeated the king and ordered him to relinquish his pride and
follow the path of righteousness. Jamadagni’s son claims that these two rishis are Arjuna
and Krishna in this birth, and no one can defeat them.
Section XCVII (97)

Rishi Kanwa also speaks in the assembly and reminds Duryodhana and others about the
divine Vishnu and his eternal power. He urges Duryodhana to make peace with Yudhishthi-
ra and suggests that the Pandavas and the Kauravas can both rule. The Rishi then tells a
story of Matali’s (great charioteer of God Indra) search for a bridegroom for his beautiful
42 PAGE

daughter, Gunakesi. From this point on a narrative within a narrative begins and we are
told the story of Matali. The story is about how Matali struggles to find a husband for
his daughter. After considering the Daityas and Gandharvas, men and numerous Rishis,
none appeals to Matali as an eligible husband for his daughter. He then starts his journey
to the world of Nagas to find a suitable match for his daughter.
Section XCVIII (98)

Rishi Narada, on his way to visit Varuna (God of the waters), meets Matali and finds out
about his quest to find a suitable husband for Gunakesi. Rishi Narada asks Matali to let
him join his quest. Both of them meet Varuna and inform him about their search and leave.
Throughout their travels in the world of Nagas, Narada shares detailed descriptions of various
encounters, including meeting Varuna’s son Pushkara and witnessing formidable weapons
such as Vishnu’s discus and the umbrella of the Lord of Waters. Narada advises Matali to
move on from their current location to ensure the success of their primary objective.
Section XCIX (99)

Narada then starts telling Matali about the city of Patalam, situated at the very centre of
the world of the Nagas and worshipped by Daityas and Danavas. He informs Matali about
the Asura Fire, sustained by water, and the horse-headed son (Vishnu) of Aditi, along with
the elephant Airavata, which carries cool water from the city to provide it to the clouds.
It is that water which Indra pours down as rain. It was here in the city of Patalam where
Mahadeva (God Shiva) practised severe ascetic austerities for the benefit of all creatures.
Matali is unable to find any eligible match for his daughter and they move forward.
Section C (100)
They reach Hiranyapura, a city filled with various illusions belonging to the Danavas.
Narada informs Matali about the Asuras, Rakshasas and Danavas who live there. Their
homes are made of silver and gold, with fine architecture decorated with gems. Matali
tells Narada that he cannot consider a Danava to be his daughter’s husband as he and his
daughter belong to heaven and there can never be a union between the Devas and the
Danavas. Having said this, they both continue their journey to another location.
Section CI (101)
Narada and Matali reach a place which belongs to the birds, the descendants of Garuda
(charioteer of Sun god, Surya) who possess excellent feathers and sustain themselves by
feeding on snakes. Born of Kasyapa’s lineage and enhancing the glory of Vinata’s race,
PAGE 43

these winged creatures, preeminent in their species, have founded and proliferated a thou-
sand dynasties of birds, all distinguished by the nobility of their blood. Although they
worship Vishnu and may be said belonging to the Kshatriya order due to their actions,
their lack of compassion, as they subsist on snakes, prevents them from attaining spiritual
enlightenment. Upon realizing that Matali is not keen to find a mate for his daughter in
this region, Narada takes him to another land.
Section CII (102)

The next region they visit is Rasatala, the seventh stratum below the earth. This region
belongs to Surabhi, the mother of all kine (Cows), and the one who was born of the
Amrita. A single stream of her milk, falling on the earth, created what is known as the
sacred and the excellent “Milky Ocean.” From her are born four other kine named, Surupa,
Hansika, Subhadra and Sarvakamadugha. They all support the four quarters (Dikpali) of
the ocean. When the gods, uniting with the Asuras, used the Mandara mountain as their
pole and churned the ocean’s waters, they obtained the wine called Varuni, the Goddess
of Prosperity and Grace named Lakshmi, Amrita, the prince of steeds called Uchchhais-
rava, and the best of gems called Kaustubha. Those waters, which yielded these precious
things had all been mixed with the milk of these four cows. Those who live in Rasatala
consider it to be the happiest place of all.
Section CIII (103)

They enter the city Bhogavati, ruled by Vasuki (the king of the Nagas). The Shesh also
dwells here, who supports the vast earth with ‘ascetic austerities’, his thousand heads and
great strength. The city is home to innumerable Nagas (sons of Surasa). Some having
a thousand heads, some five hundred, and some three, all of them are possessing huge
bodies that resemble the mountains stretching over the earth. Matali notices a Naga named
Sumukha, a prince who belonged to the Airavata race. Matali shows keen interest in him
to be his Son-in-law. Narada informs him of the prince’s noble parentage. He is born in
the race of Airavata and is the grandson of Aryaka and son of Chikura.
Section CIV (104)

Narada introduces Matali to the king of Nagas with great respect and honour. Listening
about their proposal and identity of Matali, the king becomes extremely happy but ex-
presses regret in not being able to accept the offer due to a dire situation- the prince’s
life is already in danger. The king’s son i.e., Samukha’s father, Chikura, has recently been
killed by Garuda, the son of Vinata and now it is Sumukha’s turn to get similarly killed in
44 PAGE

a month. Upon hearing this, Matali decides to take Sumukha with them to heaven. They
reach heaven and meet Sakra, the chief of the gods attending Vishnu in the court. After
listening to the whole matter, Vishnu suggests that Amrita should be given to Sumukha
to make him immortal. Sumukha obtains the boon and marries Gunakesi.
Section CV (105)
Rishi Kanwa continues the story by telling Garuda’s reaction, who becomes extremely
angry after hearing the news. He quickly comes to Vasava (another name of Indra) and
shows his anger and disappointment in the utmost respectful manner to the celestial God.
Garuda compares himself to Vishnu in power but when Vishnu places his arm on Garuda’s
shoulder, the latter is unable to bear the weight and falls down and realizes his foolish-
ness of comparing himself to the divine Vishnu. His pride and his vanity are both put in
place. From that time, Garuda lives in friendship with Sumukha. Rishi Kanwa ends the
story with the message of friendship and repentance that should be followed by the eldest
Kuru as well. Duryodhana dismisses the whole argument with a loud laugh.
Check Your Progress
1. Who is Mitali and what is his quest?
1.4.3 The Story of Galava (CVI – XXIII)

Section CVI (106)
Seeing Duryodhana’s reaction, Krishna, Bhishma and Narada try to counsel him. Narada
stresses on the importance of listening to the counsel of friends and close ones. Narada
warns against obstinacy which should be avoided as it is fraught with evil. In this con-
nection he narrates the story of Galava who suffered a lot due to his obstinacy. The story
begins with how Viswamitra was once tested by Dharma. Dharma disguised himself as the
great Rishi Vasishtha and came to Viswamitra asking for food. Viswamitra, struck with
awe, began to cook Charu (rice and milk). In excitement and concern he took a lot of
time in preparing the food and could not properly wait upon his guest. When he finally
brought the dish, the Rishi had already dined. He told Viswamitra to wait there until he
comes again. Viswamitra waited for hundred years standing at the same spot. An ascetic
named Galava waited upon him. Finally, Dharma came back and blessed Viswamitra with
the status of a Brahmana. Viswamitra was pleased with the services of his disciple and told
him that he was free to go where he wished. Galava, before leaving insisted repeatedly
on giving a gift to Viswamitra, for being his preceptor. He also said that by doing so he
will himself obtain emancipation and enjoy the fruits of heaven. Viswamitra felt angry at
PAGE 45

Galava’s obstinacy and asked for eight hundred steeds, each one of which should be as
white as the rays of the moon, and each one of which should have one ear black.
Section CVII-CXII (107-112)

Narada continues the story describing how Galava was filled with such anxiety that he
could not sit, lie down or even take his food. In desperation, ready to take his own life
and finding no solution, he cried to the gods. His friend Garuda appeared and took him
to the celestial realm where he presented the four quarters (eastern, southern, western
and northern) and asked which quarter they should explore first in search of the steeds.
Galava faced a choice: Purva (Eastern), The most auspicious one, or Dakshina (southern)
which Vivaswat (the current Manu – the progenitor of humans) gave away as a present
(Dakshina) unto his preceptor. Or the Paschima (Western), the favourite one of King
Varuna, the ruler of the ocean, And lastly, Uttara (Northern), the quarter that saves from
sin and where one attains salvation. After carefully listening about every quarter, Galava
requested Garuda to take him to Purva (eastern quarter). Garuda took Galava on his back
and the journey began.
Section CXIII (113)

They found a mountain called Rishabha and decided to rest there. They met a lady named,
Sandili. She offered them food and inquired about their quest. After taking rest, Garuda
found that his wings had fallen off. He realized that it was due to the impure thought of
taking this lady to heaven with them. Sandili forgave Garuda and he got his wings back.
After they took leave from Sandili, they were unable to find the kind of steeds they were
looking for and stumbled upon Viswamitra. The Rishi inquired about the steeds which
made Galava sorrowful.
Section CXIV-CXIX (114-119)

Seeing his friend worried and hopeless, Garuda pointed out to Galava that without wealth,
there is no chance of acquiring the promised steeds. He took Galava to King Yayati who
had immense wealth. After finding out Galava’s problem, King Yayati suggested to take
his daughter who possessed beauty equal to the celestial beings. The king tells them to
give his daughter’s hand to the king who will give those eight hundred steeds that Galava
is searching for. Galava takes Madhavi with him and offers her hand to King Haryyaswa
of Ikshaku’s race. After seeing Madhavi, Haryyaswa becomes ready to marry her and
produce a child with her. But King Haryyaswa could only provide two hundred steeds of
46 PAGE

kind that Galava was looking for. Madhavi informed Galava about the boon she received
from the reciter of Brahma that would make her a maiden after every child delivery.
After she gave a son to Haryyaswa, Galava took her to King Divodasa. The king settled
with the same condition as the previous king and married Madhavi to beget a son. The
same arrangement was made with King Usinara but by the fourth time Garuda stopped
Galava to make another deal as there were no such steeds now available with anyone. He
advised Galava to take six hundred steeds and Madhavi to Viswamitra and offer Madhavi
as a compensation for the rest of the two hundred steeds. Galava did so and Viswamitra
accepted the steeds and Madhavi. She bore him a son named, Ashtaka. Galava then re-
turned Madhavi to her father in the end and went into the woods.
Section CXX-XXIII (120-123)

King Yayati with a wish for her daughter to settle permanently, arranged a grand swayam-
bar for her which was attended by Nagas, Yakshas and humans. Madhavi, however, chose
to live a life of celibacy and adopted the deer’s mode of life. King Yayati after living
for thousands of years left the earth for heaven and stayed there for thousands more.
Until one day, due to his vanity, ignorance and pride, he mentally disregarded all the
gods, Rishis and all human beings. He was thrown out of the heaven as a punishment
and ended up on earth once again. On earth, four kings (Madhavi’s sons) - Pratardana,
Vasumanas, Sivi (the son of Usinara) and Ashtaka had assembled together in the woods
of Naimisha when king Yayati fell amongst them. Madhavi, in the guise of a deer also
arrived there and saw her four sons and father. After realizing her father’s state, she
suggested that due to the virtue that she has gained in the woods and the virtue of her
four sons, Yayati can again attain a place in heaven. Galava also arrived and happily
agreed to help Yayati just like Madhavi and her four sons. The king regained his celestial
form and went to heaven once again. The king realized his mistake when the heavenly
being told him how the heaven region can never be rendered eternal by vanity, pride of
strength, malice, deceitfulness, or deception. He told Yayati to never disregard those that
are inferior, superior or in the middle station. There is not a greater sinner than he who
is consumed by the fire of vanity.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the story of Galawa?
2. What was the reason for King Yayati’s fall from heaven and what brought him
back to the celestial world?
PAGE 47

1.4.4 Renewed Attempts to Counsel Duryodhana (CXXIV - CXXIX)

Section CXXIV (124)
After listening to the story, Dhritarashtra speaks that he agrees with Krishna and others
but has no power over the matter as his eldest son disobeys his command and is not
ready to change his mind. Dhritarashtra requests Krishna to again counsel Duryodhana
and bring him on the right path. Krishna tells Duryodhana that it is for his own good to
avoid war and make peace with Pandavas. Krishna stresses on the fact that Duryodhana
should listen to all the wise men speaking today as they are all his well-wishers, and
their counsel is based on their wisdom, experience and the concern for humanity. Krishna
reminds Duryodhana that the Pandavas have always acted generously towards him, and
they are ready to forget the past and make peace with him. Krishna speaks of Arjuna
(Son of Pandu and one of the Pandavas), his skills as a warrior and how he has defeated
the powerful warriors in the past. Making peace with the Pandavas and acting according
to all the wise men’s counsels, Duryodhana will save himself from the biggest mistake
he would ever make.
Section CXXV-CXXVI (125-126)

Once Krishna completes what he has to say, Bhishma (Supreme commander of the Kaurava
forces and the son of Santanu) speaks next and requests Duryodhana to follow Krishna’s
advice and make peace with Pandavas. Bhishma tries to make an emotional appeal to
Duryodhana by asking him to think about his parents, Dhritrashtra and Gandhari. All the
destruction that the war will bring upon the Kauravas will be a matter of unthinkable grief
for them. Drona (royal preceptor to Kauravas and Pandavas) agrees with Bhishma and
tells Duryodhana that he also believes that Arjuna is the superior warrior on the opposing
side of the war and Krishna is a force even the gods would hesitate to fight with. Thus,
Duryodhana should do what is best for Kauravas and that is to follow Krishna’s advice.
Vidura also speaks in favour of peace and shows his concern towards Dhritarashtra and
Gandhari. Dhritarashtra advises Duryodhana not to let the opportunity for peace go by and
to drop the idea of war with the Pandavas. Bhishma and Drona again address Duryodhana
and emphasize on each of the Pandava’s unmatchable skill as a warrior and the skills of
all those who are on the Pandavas’ side.
Section CXXVII (127)

After listening to everyone in the assembly, Duryodhana blames Krishna and others for
being harsh on him. He is unable to see any of his fault as according to him, the Pandavas
48 PAGE

were the ones who staked everything in the game of dice. Duryodhana’s excuse is that
being a Kshatriya it is his duty to prove himself in the field of war and never bow down
to anyone but the Brahmanas. Blinded by power and his self-destructive ego, Duryodhana
stubbornly refuses to give anything to the Pandavas - not even a speck of land as small
as the point of a sharp needle.
Section CXXVIII (128)

In reply to Duryodhana, Krishna angrily asks him whether he genuinely believes he hasn’t
done anything wrong. He reminds the assembly how the Kauravas and Sakuni cheated
and trapped the Pandavas in the game of Dice and the sin they committed by insulting
the honour of their sister-in-law. He asks them to recall what Draupadi had to go through
and the coarse language that was used to address the royal queen from the noble family
with highest of the virtues. Krishna reminded the assembly of another incidence where
the Kauravas tried to burn the Pandavas and Kunti, additionally narrating other events
where the Pandavas’ lives were endangered. Krishna advocates for Pandavas when he
reminds the assembly that even after going through so much, the brave Pandavas are
trying to solve the matter with peace. Krishna puts Duryodhana to shame for not listen-
ing to his parents and other great advisors in the assembly thus disrespecting them in
front of everyone.
Krishna reminds the assembly about the fate of Kansa (son of Ugrasena and Krishna’s
maternal uncle), who just like Duryodhana lived a life of vanity, sin and vices. He talks
about the superior divine’s decision of separating the Devas and Asuras and putting Devas
in heaven due to their virtues. Krishna again raises concern on the futility of war.
Section CXXIX (129)

After listening to Krishna, King Dhritarashtra asks Vidura to bring Gandhari to pacify
Duryodhana and urge him to follow the right path. Gandhari does what is required of
her and brings Duryodhana back to the assembly and warns him to not let lust, wrath
and delusion take charge over him. She appeals to Duryodhana to listen to the counsel of
all the wise men in the assembly and follows Krishna’s instruction. She suggests that if
Duryodhana truly wants to be the greatest then first he needs to listen to the great minds
and follow their teachings. According to her, there is no good in battle, no virtue, no
profit. She tells Duryodhana to make peace with the Pandavas and give them back what
is rightfully theirs.
PAGE 49

Check Your Progress

1. Why does Dhritarashtra requestKrishna to counsel Duryodhana once again?
2. What does Krishna say to Duryodhana at this stage?
3. Do you think Bhishma is in favour of war? What does he say to Duryodhana?
4. What does Duryodhana say in his defence?
5. What is the difference between the Pandavas andDuryodhana as pointed out by
Krishna?
6. What is Gandhari’s advice to her son?
1.4.5 Krishna’s Godliness Revealed (CXXX – CXXXI)

Section CXXX (130)
Duryodhana disregards his mother’s advice and goes away from the assembly once again.
Sakuni suggests to Duryodhana that they should seize Krishna. He conspires with other
Kauravas that once Krishna is captured the Pandavas will lose heart and become incapable
of exertion. While they are discussing the plan, Satyaki (Yadava warrior of Vrishni clan)
finds out about it and informs Krishna and others in the assembly. Everyone laughs over
it, knowing very well that no one will be able to seize the divine Krishna. Dhritarashtra
is filled with anger and wants to school his son. He asks Vidura to bring Duryodhana
in the assembly. When Duryodhana arrives, Vidura reminds him how, in the past, many
others like Dwiveda, and Naraka had tried to seize Krishna but had failed. Vidura sings
the praise of Krishna who held up the mountains of Govardhana on his little finger for
protecting the kine from a continuous rain.
Section CXXXI (131)

In response to the escalating tension and Duryodhana’s continued resistance to peace,
Krishna laughs and reveals his divine form. His body emanates a blazing fire, and myriad
gods appear, with Brahman on his forehead and Rudra on his chest. The regents of the
world, Agni, Adityas, Sadhyas, Vasus, Aswins, Marutas, Indra, and Viswedevas manifest
from his arms. Arjuna stands on his right, Rama on his left, Bhima, Yudhishthira, the
two sons of Madri, and other chiefs stand behind him. Before him are all the Andhakas
and the Vrishnis with Pradyumna and other chiefs bearing mighty weapons. Sparks of fire
emanate from his body like the rays of the sun. Beholding this form of the high souled
Krishna, all the awestruck kings close their eyes with affrighted hearts, except Drona, and
Bhishma, and Vidura. Celestial drums beat in the sky and a floral shower falls upon him.
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The whole Earth starts trembling and the oceans are agitated. Krishna leaves the court and
everyone in the assembly follows him. Before taking leave from the king Dhritarashtara,
Krishna reminds everyone about what has happened in the assembly. How Duryodhana
in his wickedness has disregarded everyone and left the assembly in anger many times.
Krishna also acknowledges King Dhritarashtra’s helplessness over the matter. On his grand
chariot, Krishna proceeds to meet his paternal aunt, Pritha.
Check Your Progress
1. What is Sakuni’s plan in order to defeat Pandavas?
2. Who is Satyaki and what does he find out about the Kauravas?
3. What does Krishna do after finding out about Sakuni’s plan?
4. What are Krishna’s parting words to the assembly?
1.5 Analysis
The above segment belongs to that part of the epic Mahabharata when the Pandavas re-
turn after completing their twelve years of exile to which they had been sent after losing
everything in a bet while playing the game of dice with the Kauravas. The Pandavas now
desire to get their share of kingdom back failing which they are willing to wage a war to
get what is rightfully theirs. Duryodhana on the other hand is in control of his ego and
lust for power. In pride and vanity, he disregards everyone who tries to bring him to the
right path. He is determined to wage a war and destroy the Pandavas.
The Pandavas, though ready for war with all the skills and manpower to win it, still
want to adopt a peaceful path as the enemy is none but their own family and a war would
mean they would have to raise their weapons against their own blood relations. People on
both the sides are aware that the war will bring nothing but destruction on a grand scale.
This war will lead to millions of deaths, devastation all around, unprecedented suffering
of man and beast and in the end, if victory comes it will be at the cost of annihilation of
their own kith and kin. As a last resort, Krishna comes to Hastinapur bearing the message
of peace. Though completely aware of Duryodhana’s intentions and also of the outcome
of the meeting, Krishna still decides to perform his dharma by trying to avert war and
save millions of lives that would otherwise be lost.
The concept of Dharma plays a crucial role in Mahabharata. Dharma guides one
towards the path of righteousness. It teaches you the way in which you are intended to
live your life, based on your individual temperament and constitution. This has nothing
PAGE 51

to do with the concepts of good or bad. It concerns itself with living according to your
life’s purpose and being fully aligned with your innate nature. All the characters have their
own model of Dharma in this epic. As a messenger from the Pandavas’ side, Krishna is
fulfilling his dharma by proposing peace between the Kauravas and Pandavas. The impli-
cation of Dharma is that there is a right or true way for each person to conduct their life
in order to serve both themselves and others. On the other side, Duryodhana advocates
his Kshatriya Dharma which allows him to fight against an opponent in war. This is prob-
lematized here because Duryodhana’s intention is not to fulfil his Dharma as a warrior but
to seize everything from the Pandavas. He is ready to sacrifice the whole Kaurava clan,
other members of the family and army, not realizing that even if he wins, he would be
ruling over devastation. The war would bring nothing but death and destruction on both
sides. Both the parties have their own understanding of Dharma and the respective paths
they choose are based on their “free will.”
Free Will is our capacity to make decisions in life and express our desires to the
universe. What we do with our free will, shapes our Karma. Karma literally represents
cause and its effect. In this sense karma can be explained as, what you do in life comes
back to you. Whatever situations you face in life result from what you did previously for
that situation to be brought to you. Duryodhana’s way of living and his actions towards
others brings him face to face with his Karma in the end. His actions bring the Kauravas’
to their doom. From cheating the Pandavas, dishonouring Draupadi in the royal court to
being governed in life by deceit, vanity, treachery injustice and other vices, the fate of
the Kaurava clan is sealed by their Karma.
There are references to Fate in the narrative. Dhritrashtra expresses his inability to
stop the course of events because he says it is fated to happen. Fate, however, dominates
only when you have weak will-power and lack of ability to follow what you know is
right and best for you. When Duryodhana uses his free will to make bad decisions, his
Karma brings about his fall. The drive inside him to fight a war against Pandavas is not
derived from his Dharma as a Kshatriya but his jealousy towards them and his endless
hunger for power. He fails to follow his Dharma as a brother, a son, a Kshatriya and
even as a human being. Fate, not to be confused with destiny is the result of our actions.
Modern writers and scholars have given us various insights into the discussions in the
Mahabharata.Ramdhari Singh Dinker’s poem “Krishna Ki Chetavni” has dealt with the
concept of fate where Krishna declares Duryodhana’s defeat after he tries to seize Krishna,
the peace messenger, in the assembly. Another example, is King Yayati’s fall from heaven
52 PAGE

where his fate is a consequence of his Karma. Garuda losing his wings on a mountain
is the outcome of his impure thoughts regarding Sandili. Fate catches up with a person
as a consequence of his/her Karma. Fate should however not be confused with destiny.
Destiny has two meanings attached to it. On an individual level, it is the greatness
that comes to you in life, based on how well you navigate your karma and dharma through
free will in order to live your life’s purpose. Destiny happens when you learn the lessons
from karma and use all of your life’s experiences as a way to support your life’s purpose.
From Garuda’s realization of Vishnu’s power after being defeated by the divine, to the
Pandavas’ ultimate victory, as they consistently followed the path of Dharma, truth, and
virtues, we witness Destiny in play. Duryodhana fails again and again when he doesn’t
learn from the outcome of his actions. People close to Duryodhana such as his father
(King Dhritrashtra), mother (Queen Gandhari), Bhishma and Vidura try to counsel him
but Duryodhana disregards everyone as he is blinded by his ego. All these people know
that he is making a dire mistake which can bring profound destruction and they advise
him against it several times.
In universal terms, Destiny stands for what has already been decided by the divine.
Something that is bound to happen. Many writers have discussed the play of destiny in
the Mahabharata. It is interesting to see how some modern writers and readers interpret
and understand the concept. Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni for instance, in her novel, The
Palace of Illusions (also known as Panchaali’s Mahabharata) calls all the characters
resting in heaven in the end as “actors who have successfully concluded their roles in
a great drama.” (Divakaruni, 358) Here the concept of destiny indicates that everything
that happened in the epic was predestined and everyone was playing their already decid-
ed part. In this context the whole concept of free will is challenged. John Calvin in his
seminal work of systematic theology, Institutes of the Christian Religion has discussed
the concept of free will and predestination where he argues that it is boastful to imagine
that man is the master of his will. He advocates that free will is not the only force that
governs human life. Calvin believes in a moderate approach, where he accepts that free
will exists, but as a gift from God. When we focus on the Mahabharata, again we can
notice that everyone’s fate was a result based on his/her actions. Krishna comes to offer
peace instead of war, but it was Duryodhana’s will to choose war and the outcome is
the consequence of his actions. Even if the great war was predestined then the fate of
Kauravas and Pandavas is the result of their Karma. Pandavas always followed the path
PAGE 53

of Dharma and virtues whereas Kauravas ignored it and were driven by jealousy, ego and
lust for power. Their destiny was designed by their own Karma.
1.6 Themes
1.6.1 Dharma
Dharma as a theme plays a crucial role in Mahabharata. This principle is discussed at
length in the portion known as the Bhagavad Gita. Every character in the epic has to
deal with the responsibility of fulfilling his/her Dharma. Krishna plays his role as a peace
messenger with an utmost dedication to fulfil his Dharma. Dhritarashtara and Gandhari,
though parents of Duryodhana, adhere to righteousness and favour Krishna’s advice when
they go against their own son’s wishes and counsel him to make peace with the Pandavas.
On the other hand, Duryodhana fails to fulfil his Dharma when he lets his ego and lust
for power control him which results in the disastrous war. He advocates for the dharma
of a Kshatriya by choosing war over peaceful resolution but his excuse is a cover for his
obsession with power and revenge. A Kshatriya’s dharma is not just to fight but to fight
for what is right. Duryodhan on the other hand wants to go to war with the Pandavas to
deny them what is rightfully theirs. Thus, Duryodhana is not fulfilling his Dharma as a
Kshatriya. He is not going to fight for honour and righteousness.
1.6.2 Storytelling
As the Mahabharata itself is a framed story, dictated by Vyasa, storytelling is founda-
tional to the epic’s unfolding. But even within it, all manner of parables are recited to
clarify moral matters and all the major events of the epic are recited by a character as
either a first- or a second-hand account. Storytelling anchors the Mahabharata in the oral
narrative tradition, providing multiple perspectives that necessarily shape the narratives
of world’s important events. In the above discussed portion of the epic, many stories are
being told by several characters to educate, inform, warn or to make a point. For example,
Jamadagnya (Parashurama) recites the story of a vain King Dambhodbhava. Rishi Kanwa
tells a story of Matali’s (great charioteer of God Indra) search for a bridegroom for his
beautiful daughter, Gunakesi. Narada tells the story of Viswamitra, his disciple, Galava,
King Yayati and his daughter Madhavi. All these stories are geared towards highlighting
the importance of virtues and righteousness in one’s life.
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1.6.3 Importance of Virtues and Righteousness

With the stories of Dambhodbhava, Matali and Galava, Mahabharata highlights the im-
portance of virtues in men. Any human who lets vanity, greed, lust for power or anger
control him, is destined to fall from the grace of God. Mahabharata delivers a lesson for
the readers to practice virtues and righteousness in their lives. On one hand, one can see
the victory of Pandavas who followed the path of Dharma and were always on the side of
righteousness and then on the other, defeat of Kauravas who never listened to the voice
of reason and dharma, but practiced deception and lived a life filled with pride, vanity
and ignorance. This works as a teaching for the readers to follow the path that leads to
the divine and not to destruction.
1.6.4 Treatment of Women Characters

There are two women who are present in this portion of the epic. First one is Pritha (Kunti),
mother of the Pandavas and wife of Pandu and then second is Queen Gandhari, mother
of Kauravas and wife of King Dhritarashtra. Both women have very little to contribute
in this portion of the story. Queen Gandhari brings Duryodhana back to the assembly to
listen and pay heed to the counsel of his elders. Duryodhana disregards hers and everyone
else’s advice. Then, Pritha is shown in a state of grief and longing for her sons. Apart
from these two, Draupadi, Gunakesi, Sandili and Madhavi also appear at various points
in the narrative. Krishna reminds everyone in the assembly about how Draupadi, wife of
Pandavas, was dishonoured by the Kauravas in front of the whole assembly.
Madhavi is the only woman character who plays an active role in her story when she
eventually decides to choose celibacy over marriage. Madhavi, daughter of the King Yayati
obeys her father’s wish to help Galava. In Galava’s quest, she gets exploited repeatedly.
Galava gives her to three Kings each of whom marries her and has a son with her. Performing
her dharma, Madhavi silently obeys her father and Galava but eventually takes a decision
for herself by not marrying again thus not fulfilling her father’s wish and finally taking a
stand for herself. Women characters have truly little to do in this portion of the epic. They
are mostly in the background and do not play a very active part and rarely have a voice
of their own. Gunakesi marries where her father wishes; Madhavi helps Glalava because it
is a question of her father’s honour; she even helps her father regain heaven through her
virtue. Madhavi asserts herself only when she chooses a life of chastity for herself in the
end. A feminist reading of Madhavi’s story would certainly see the patriarchal oppression
at work in the exploitation of this woman in the name of filial duty.
PAGE 55

Check Your Progress

1. What aspects of Krishna’s character do we witness in this excerpt from the
Mahabharata?
2. How does this section of the epic help us see the difference between the material
and the spiritual approach to life?
3. Is Dharma linked to one’s destiny? Illustrate with a few examples from the prescribed
excerpt.
4. What is the purpose of the various stories within the narrative?
5. Critically comment on the story of Madhavi.
1.7 Summing Up
Mahabharata, as an epic text teaches humankind to follow the life of Dharma. It is one’s
responsibility as well as destiny to fulfil his/her Dharma. The distinction between the
Pandavas and the Kauravas, which also brings them to their respective end is whether
they follow the path of Dharma in their life. The Pandavas win the war and acquire what
is rightfully theirs and the Kauravas’ clan is wiped from the face of the earth. The fact
that the divine Krishna chooses to be with the Pandavas, signals that God supports only
those who practice virtue and righteousness in their lives.
1.8 Glossary
Dharma – religious and moral duty
Rishi – a hindu sage or saint
Danavas – demons
Kurus – Kaurava clan
Nagas – a member of a semi-divine race, part human, part cobra in form,
associated with water and sometimes with mystical initiation.
Kshatriya – a member of the second of the four great Hindu castes, the military
caste. The traditional function of the Kshatriyas is to protect society
by fighting in wartime and governing in peacetime.
Dakshina – In geographical terms, “dakshina” often refers to the southern direction.
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In a religious or cultural context, “dakshina” can also mean a gift, donation, or

offering made to a guru, priest, or during religious ceremonies as a symbol of respect,
gratitude, or support.
1.9 References
“Bhartiya History.” Mahabharat. The Vedic Foundation, Jan. 2006. Web. 02 September.
2022.
Buck, William. Mahabharata. 1’st ed. CA: University of California, 2000. Print.
Calvin, J., McNeill, J. T., & Battles, F. L. (1961). Institutes of the christian religion.
SCM Press.
Divakaruni, Chitra Banerjee. The Palace of Illusions: A Novel, Picador India, New
Delhi, 2018, p. 358.
Fitzgerald, James L. “A Brief Description of the Mahabharata.” A Brief Description
of the Mahabharata. N.p., 09 May 2009. Web. 1 September. 2022.
Ganguli, Kisari Mohan, and Vyāsa. The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa.
Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2008.
Hood, S. (2021, July 13). Connection between dharma and Destiny: Mahabharata
essay example for students. Artscolumbia. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
Kini, MD. “Sense, Non-Sense and Common Sense.” Mahabharata: A Story of Dharma.
N.p., 03 Mar. 2011. Web. 04 September. 2022.
Myra, J. J. (2020, February 19). Destiny, fate, karma and free will - everything you
need to know. The Official Website of Jaya Jaya Myra. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
Ranjan, N. (n.d.). कृ ष्णकीचे त ावनी ~ रामधारीसिं ह “िदनकर.” हिं द ीसाहित्यमार्ग द र्श न . Retrieved
September 18, 2022.
PAGE 57

U N I T
II
Kalidasa, Abhijnanasakuntalam
Dr. Sundari Siddartha
Structure
2.2 Kalidasa
2.3 Study Guide
2.4 An Introduction to Sanskrit Theatre
2.5 The Element of Rasain Sanskrit Theatre
2.6 A Critical Analysis
2.6.1 Abhijnanasakuntalam as a tragedy
2.6.2 Depiction of Women in the Play
2.6.3 The Prologue in a Sanskrit play
2.6.4 King Duhsanta
2.6.5 The Dramatic Function of the Ring and the Curse
2.6.6 The King’s Painting of Sakuntala
2.6.7 Sage Kanva
2.7 Self-Assessment Questions

This study material is based on one of the most popular Sanskrit plays in India, Kalidasa’s
Abhijnanasakuntalam. The play has been translated into many languages, and all references
to the text in this study material are to the following edition: Kalidasa, The Loom of Time:
A Selection of his Plays and Poems. Penguin Books: India, 1989. Students are advised to
read the play closely before going through this study material. Its main objectives are:
To help you appreciate Abhijnanasakuntalam as a Classical Sanskrit play;
To familiarize you with Sanskrit poetics;
To draw your attention to Kalidasa’s poetic expression; and
To critically analyze Kalidasa’s treatment of the popular legend from the Mahabharata.
58 PAGE

2.2 Kalidasa
Kalidasa enjoys an unparalleled reputation as a poet, not only in India, but also the
world over. Bound as they were in the ancient language of Sanskrit and the old dialects
of Prakrits, his works were nearly unknown beyond the peaks of the Himalayas and the
seashores of India till 1789 CE when Sir William Jones broke the barriers of language,
by translating Kalidasa’s Abhijnana into English. He was aware that the barrier was not
limited to the language. The vistas opened up by the play were different, new, and yet
intriguing in their universal pull. That was the beginning of globalization in this century.
Sir William Jones rightly remarked “The tastes of men differ as much as their sentiments
and passions and in feeling the beauties of art as in smelling flowers, tasting fruits, viewing
prospects and hearing a melody. Every individual must be guided by his own sensations
and the incommunicable association of his own ideas.” The charm of a great classic as a
work of art lies in its eternal freshness and novelty. To each mind, a great work reveals
a new meaning and charm, the source of joy derived from reading it.
This enjoyment is termed as Rasa, the soul of poetry. Though basically a subjective
experience, it depends to some extent on the props provided by the poet in his works; the
plot, the characters, and the descriptions of the environment, which are helpful in arous-
ing the emotions and sentiments of the readers/spectators. Hence the poets are termed as
Rasasiddah (adept in arousing conditions). Kalidasa’s fame as a poet and dramatist rests
on his ability and skill to take his spectators to the peaks of enjoyment and poetic relish.
This has resulted in the universal appeal of his play and eulogies from great scholars
like Goethe and Rabindranath Tagore. M.R. Kale, a great scholar, in his introduction to
the play Abhijnana Shakuntalam, succinctly describes his poetic merits. He asks, “What
is that in Kalidasa which establishes his undisputed claim to the highest honour which is
thus bestowed upon him?” And answers “His poetic genius has brought Sanskrit poetry
to the highest elegance and refinement. His style is peculiarly pure and chaste. It is in-
artificial and is characterized by brevity.” An unaffected simplicity of expression and an
easy-flowing language marks his writings, which are embellished with similes, unparalleled
for their beauty and appropriateness, and pithy general sayings. His diction is marked by
the absence of long compounds, involves constructions, overwrought rhetoric and artificial
puns; Kalidasa excels other poets in his description of the sublime and the beautiful. It
is a principle recognized by all modern critics that Nature must be the life and essence
of poetry and in this respect; Kalidasa is essentially a poet of Nature (of course in the
limited sense of the term which it is possible to attach to it, in those times of gay luxury
and general prosperity). He describes with most effective touches the gorgeous scenery
of the Himalayas; it’s snow-clad and mineral covered summits, the peaks where sunshine
PAGE 59

ever reigns, the fragrant cool breezes blowing there; the wilds with the hunters, the musk
deer, the potent herbs shedding lustre at night, the chamara deer, and the Manasa Lake.
His description of the Ganges and the peaceful hermitage life is very striking and life-like.
His descriptive prowess is remarkable, evident in the enchanting scenes of Shakuntalam,
Meghaduta, and Raghuvamsa, captivating his readers. Regarding Suggestive poetry, a
dhvani-kavya form that implies more than it expresses, Kalidasa exhibits mastery.
We have very little knowledge about his personal life, that too not authenticated. The
poet has studiously observed complete silence about himself in his works. In the words of
Hazlitt; “He was the least of an egotist that it was possible to be.” His poetical productions
alone stand as an immortal monument to his poetic excellence. We can gather very little
information about Kalidasa from external sources; but a few incidents related here and
there in his works do have a distant bearing upon the history of his life. A time-honoured
tradition, supported by internal and external evidence, associates the name of Kalidasa with
that of the epoch-making King Vikramaditya of Ujjayini. The keen interest and admiration
with which the poet describes the Mahakala temple, the Sipra River and other beauties of
Ujjayini, unmistakably point to the conclusion that he must have been a native of that city.
Kalidasa also demonstrates considerable acquaintance with court life in his works. This
circumstance, coupled with the fact that there is no allusion in his writings to the goddess
of wealth having ever frowned upon him, shows that he was in affluent circumstances. He
was a Brahmana by caste and was a devout worshipper of Siva, though by no means a
sectarian. He seems to have travelled a good deal, at least in Northern India. For, as Dr.
Bhau Daji remarks, he is the only poet who describes a living saffron flower, a plant that
grows in Kashmir. His graphic description of the Himalayan scenes looks very much like
that of one who was an eyewitness. He admired field-sports, and describes their beneficial
effects with the exactness of a true sportsman. Though fond of pleasures, he was not the
unscrupulous voluptuary. He appears to have been against love-marriages, though always
actuated with the most generous sentiments towards the fair sex. His works bear further
testimony to his considerable acquaintance with the Vedas, the philosophy taught by the
Upanishads, the Bhagavad-Gita, the Puranas, and the systems of the Samkhya, Yoga and
Vedantic Medicine and the rudiments of Astronomy.
The poet’s excellent reputation inspired other unscrupulous poets to adopt his name
as ‘author’ for their works. Thus, in Sanskrit literary history, there are many poets who
bear the name Kalidasa. Generally, seven works are accepted as his: three plays, two epic
poems and two lyrical poems. Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashiya, Malavikagnimitram,
Raghuvamsam, Kumara Sambhavam, Meghadutam and Ritusamhara. The most convenient
and reliable method of studying the development of a poet’s mind and its relation to his
60 PAGE

productions would be to read his works in their chronological order. But we have no
external evidence to ascertain the chronology. A safe guess is to place the least refined,
Ritusamharaas the first and the most sophisticated, Abhijnana Shakuntalamas the last.
The play dealing with the recognition (Abhijnana) of Shakuntala is aptly called Shakun-
talam or Abhijnana Shakuntalam. It is a play in seven Acts, based on the well-known
love-story of King Duhsanta and the maiden Sakuntala, as given in the ancient Indian
epic, the Mahabharata. The scene of the first four acts is laid at sage Kanva’s hermitage
at the foot of the Himalayas, and later it shifts to the capital Hastinapura in Acts V and
VI. The final act depicts sage Marica’s hermitage on the Hemakuta Mountain. The story
of the play, act wise, will serve as a base for a critical analysis of the play.
2.3 Study Guide
ACT I
After the Benedictory stanza invoking Lord Shiva, the Manager of the play has a dialogue
with his consort. During the course of this interaction, the play is introduced, and then
King Duhsanta appears, in full hunting garb, followed by his charioteer. While the king is
about to shoot his arrow at an antelope pursued by him, he is interrupted by an ascetic,
who informs him that the animal belongs to the hermitage of sage Kanva (Kashyapa),
and the sanctity of the place must not be violated by its slaughter. The king refrains from
killing it and is then invited to receive such hospitalities as the hermitage could offer.
Sage Kanva is away, but his daughter Sakuntala is there, who will certainly look after
the guest’s comfort. The king accepts the invitation, and asking his charioteer to wait
outside, enters the hermitage. There he finds three girls of exquisite loveliness, watering
the flowering plants and shrubs. He at once falls in love with Sakuntala, who is one of
them. The other two are her companions Anasuya and Priyamvada.
The king, who was hitherto concealed in the background, goes forth at a suitable point
in their talk, and addresses them. In the course of the general conversation that ensues,
he learns that Sakuntala is Kanva’s adopted daughter, being born of the celestial nymph
Menaka by the sage Visvamitra, and deserted by her natural parents. He thus discovers that
she is of Kshatriya parentage, and therefore a suitable bride for him. He, however, does
not reveal his true identity to them, intending to remain incognito for the present. As the
conversation progresses, news arrives of an elephant running amok and causing damage;
prompting the girls to depart. Sakuntala too has fallen in love with the king and directs
longing glances at him while leaving. The king departs with a heart overpowered by love.
PAGE 61

Check Your Progress

1. How does King Duhsanta describe Sage Kanva’s hermitage to his charioteer?
2. What does Anasuya tell the King about Sakuntala’s parentage?
3. Why does the king offer Priyamvada his signet ring?
ACT II
The second act introduces the king in a lovesick condition. His companion, Madhavya,
who is the court-jester, is trying in his own way to soothe and divert his royal master’s
mind. The king first of all directs the General of his army to stop the hunt and to order
his followers not to disturb the hermitage. Then he tells the jester about his having fallen
in love with Sakuntala. The king asks his companion to find out some means by which he
can manage to stay in the vicinity, without arousing comment or suspicion. His problem
is solved, quite unexpectedly, when some ascetics come and request the king to stay and
look after the safety of their sacrificial rites, which are being disturbed by evil spirits.
The king readily accepts the invitation. At the same time, he sends off the Jester to the
capital, Hastinapur to be near his royal mother. To prevent Madhavya from disclosing his
forest-love affair to others, the king, with an appearance of sincerity, informs the jester
that the matter concerning Sakuntala was a mere joke and holds no significance.
Check Your Progress
1. Why does the king call off the hunt?
2. Why do the hermits request King Duhsanta to come and stay in sage Kanva’s
ashram?
3. Why does Duhsanta send Madhavya back to his court?
ACT III
In the interlude, it is stated that Sakuntala is now affected by the malady of love, and
is lying on a bed of flowers, with her two friends attending to her. Then the king is
introduced in a lovesick condition. He proceeds to the bower where Sakuntala and her
friends are seated. Sakuntala confesses her passion for Duhsanta to them. The king takes
advantage of this opportunity to enter and make a formal declaration of his suit. At this
union of the lovers, the friends discreetly withdraw. Duhsanta proposes that they have a
gandharva marriage. The lovers are alerted about the arrival of the elderly lady-ascetic,
Gautami, and bid adieu. The disconsolate king finds active work in his accepted occupation
of keeping the evil spirits away from the sacrificial altars.
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Check Your Progress

1. Identify and describe some figures of speech used to describe the love between
Sakuntala and Duhsanta.
2. What is a Gandharva form of marriage?
ACT IV
In the interlude, the conversation between the two friends reveals that Duhsanta has married
Sakuntala by the Gandharva form of marriage. Subsequently, he departs for his capital,
promising to send a suitable escort to bring his bride to the palace. When Sakuntala is
alone in the ashram, engrossed in thoughts of her absent husband, she fails to offer proper
hospitality to the choleric sage Durvasas, when he visits the hermitage. The hot-tempered
sage curses her, saying;
You who do not notice me,
a hoard of holy merit
standing at your door,
because you are lost in thoughts of one
to the exclusion of all else,
you shall be lost in his thoughts:
though you goad his memory hard,
he shall fail to remember you,
even as a drunk man remembers not
thereafter, the tale he told before. (p. 215)
Fortunately, her friends hear him, and Priyamvada pleads with him, obtaining a conces-
sion insofar that the curse would cease to have effect the production of some token of
recognition. Since the friends know that Sakuntala has Duhsanta’s ring as a token, they
are relieved. And so, they decide not to say anything about the curse, even to Sakuntala.
After the Interlude, there is a passage of a few days before the next act begins. Pri-
yamvada informs Anasuya that sage Kanva has returned to the hermitage. He has come
to know, through a spiritual voice, about Sakuntala’s marriage and pregnancy, and has
approved of it. The sage arranges to send her to her husband’s place. The whole scene,
depicting Sakuntala’s departure from the penance-grove, where she has resided so long,
and where ties of affection bind every plant, creeper and animal to her is very touchingly
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portrayed. It also contains Kanva’s well-known advice to Sakuntala on the duties of a

wife and a mother.
Check Your Progress
1. Why is sage Durvasa angry with Sakuntala?
2. Why don’t Sakuntala’s friends tell her about the curse?
3. What advice does sage Kanva give to Sakuntala before she leaves the ashram?
ACT V
The scene shifts to Duhsanta’s capital. The ascetics escorting Sakuntala arrive at the royal
palace. After an exchange of greetings, the escorting sage, Sarngarava, conveys Kanva’s
message, requesting Duhsanta to accept his wife, Sakuntala. The king, under the influence
of the curse, denies the whole affair, and even Sakuntala fails to rouse his curse-swept
memory. As a last resort, she wants to show him his signet ring as a means of recognition
but, as ill luck would have it, it had slipped off her fingers, into the river-waters. Mutual
recriminations lead to nothing. Her escorts leave her to her fate and depart. The Royal
priest takes the responsibility of her custody. But meanwhile a celestial lady descends
and carries Sakuntala away. The king is left musing in a gloom of vexatious uncertainty.
Check Your Progress
1. Why does Duhsanta feel sad on listeningto the song about the bee?
2. Why do Saradvata and Sangarava feel unwell on entering Duhsanta’s palace?
3. What message does sage Kanva send for Duhsanta?
4. What happens to Sakuntala at the end of this act?
ACT VI
A fisherman, whom the police accuse of theft, discovers the king’s ring inside a fish. The
king, whose curse is removed at the sight of the ring, of course, lets him off. He remem-
bers his marriage with Sakuntala, whom he has repudiated. He is now deeply grieved, but
is helpless. In the course of his sorrow, Sanumati, a friend of Menaka’s, closely watches
him. The king seeks to divert his mind but at every moment he finds his grief harrowing
deep down into his soul. And to aggravate the situation, he receives a letter from his
minister, announcing the death of a merchant named Dhana-Vredhi, who dies childless and
whose property goes to the royal treasury. This leads the king to reflect pensively on his
own state, without an heir, until his grief makes him unconscious. Matali, the charioteer
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of Lord Indra, the king of the gods, creates a welcome diversion at this time. He arrives
with a message from his master to Duhsanta: to proceed forthwith to battle with certain
troublesome demons, the enemies of Indra. Duhsanta assents and leaves in Indra’s chariot.
Check Your Progress
1. Why is the fisherman arrested by the police?
2. Why had the king given his signet ring to Sakuntala?
3. Who is Dhana-Vredhi and what happens to him?
4. Why does Lord Indra send Matali to fetch King Duhsanta?
ACT VII
The king is successful in his expedition and Indra showers him with extraordinary honour.
While returning through the sky, in the chariot driven by Matali, Duhsanta alights on the
Hema-kuta mountains, where the holy sage Marica resides, and to whom the king wants to
offer his salutations. At that hermitage, while Matali goes to seek Marica, the king comes
across a young boy, the very image of himself, playing with a lion’s cub. He feels a strange
attachment to the child. In the course of talking with the boy’s attendant women, it emerges
that he belongs to the Puru race (Duhsanta’s race was Puru), and that his mother’s name
is Sakuntala. The king starts wondering whether the boy is his son. He picks up the boy’s
magical amulet, that only the parents could touch and, to the surprise of the ascetics there,
it doesn’t turn into a snake. In the meantime, Sakuntala enters. Mutual explanations follow
and the pair is reconciled. Matali comes and takes them to meet Marica. The sage explains
about the curse and the king is exonerated. A messenger is sent to inform sage Kanva of
the happy developments and sage Marica blesses the couple and child.
Check Your Progress
1. What does King Duhsanta notice on the palm of the little boy in sage Marica’s
ashram?
2. Describe Sakuntala’s appearance when she comes before the king?
3. What does sage Marica’s predict for Sakuntala’s son?
2.4 An Introduction to Sanskrit Theatre

Sanskrit dramas, identified as Drsya Kavyas or Rupakas, epitomize a refined literary tradition
celebrated for eliciting intellectual delight on the stage. The Natyashastra of Bharata, the oldest
dramaturgical work, acts as a comprehensive manual, embracing music, dance, and drama. It
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asserts a divine genesis for Sanskrit drama, blending elements from Vedas and contributions
of deities like Brahma, Siva, and Parvati. While some Western scholars suggest Greek influ-
ence on Sanskrit drama, the Mahabharata offers references predating the 2nd century B.C.,
and linguistic, structural, and thematic differences dismiss a direct Greek origin.
Sanskrit dramas, distinguished by their lyrical essence, often prioritize poetic fervour
over swift action. Nature plays a crucial role, serving as both a romantic setting and a
catalyst for emotional character development. Love remains a recurring theme, enabling
intricate portrayals of the lover’s heart. In contrast to Greek drama, Sanskrit disregards
classical unities, freely intertwining tragic and comic elements. Each Sanskrit play con-
cludes with the Bharatavakya, a tribute to Bharata, the visionary behind this dramatic art.
In every Sanskrit drama, there exists one or more benedictory stanzas known as Nandi,
followed by a prelude called prasthavana or amukha. In this section, the Sutradhara or
Stage director engages in a conversation with another actor or actress, providing prelim-
inary details about the play, the author, and a brief note on the author’s personal history.
The actual play follows, divided into acts ranging from one to ten, utilizing dialogues,
soliloquies, side comments, and stage directions for effective representation.
The prologue is intricately linked to the main drama that promptly ensues. Interludes,
known as pravesaka and vishkambhaka, maintain the connection between acts. These in-
terludes involve announcements from behind the curtain, indications by the last outgoing
character (Ankasya), or an unbroken continuity (Ankavatara). Pravesaka often involves
low characters like servants, conducting conversations primarily in the Prakrit language.
It is noteworthy that Pravesaka should not find a place in the first act.
The three crucial elements in a drama are:
- Vastu or Plot
- Neta or Hero
- Rasa or Sentiment
Vastu manifests in three forms: Prakyaata or well-known plots from ancient epics or history,
Udpaadya or those invented by the poet’s imagination, and Mishra or a combination of
both. The plot unfolds through five stages known as sandhis: mukhasandhi, pratimukha,
garbhasandhi, avamarsasandhi, and upasamharasandhi. Plots are often borrowed from
great epics and occasionally from well-known historical episodes.
The hero (Neta) can be categorized into four types: Dhirodaatta, Dhiralalita, Dhi-
roddhata, and Dhirasanta. While heroism and fortitude are common attributes, sublimity,
amorous gaiety, tranquillity, and boisterousness distinguish them. There are nine rasas or
sentiments employed in drama discussed in detail in the next section.
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Unlike classical drama, Sanskrit drama integrates both tragic and comic elements,
with joy and gloom freely intermingled. The role of Vidushaka, a jester, contributes to the
Hasya rasa. Typically, a Brahmin and a friend of the hero, the Vidushaka plays a crucial
role in love plays, often serving as the confidant. In many aspects, the Vidushaka parallels
the Fool or Clown in Shakespeare’s plays.
Sanskrit drama encompasses various types that showcase diverse themes, emotions,
and styles. The major types of Sanskrit drama include:
1. Nataka (Heroic Drama): This genre typically portrays stories from mythology and
epics, focusing on noble characters and their heroic deeds. Nataka often explores
themes of duty, honor, and the cosmic order, highlighting the moral and ethical
aspects of human existence.
2. Prakarana (Domestic Drama): Prakarana emphasizes everyday life and ordinary
characters, providing a more relatable and accessible narrative. This genre often
features intricate plots, social commentary, and explores the complexities of human
relationships.
3. Bhana (Farce or Comedy): Bhana is characterized by its comedic elements, satire,
and humorous situations. It serves as a form of entertainment, offering light-hearted
plots and amusing characters. Social satire and witty dialogues are common features
in Bhana.
4. Samavakara (Mixed Drama): This type combines elements of both Nataka and
Prakarana, offering a balanced blend of heroic and domestic themes. Samavakara
aims to provide a comprehensive theatrical experience by incorporating diverse
elements from various genres.
5. Vithi (Picaresque Drama): Vithi focuses on the adventures and exploits of a wandering
hero. It often portrays the protagonist’s journey through different regions, encountering
various characters and situations. Vithi incorporates elements of travel, romance, and
exploration.
6. Vyayoga (Historical Drama): Vyayoga draws inspiration from historical events and
figures, bringing to life episodes from the past. This genre serves both educational and
entertainment purposes, combining the allure of history with the dramatic elements
of performance.
7. Ihamrga (Fantasy or Utopian Drama): Ihamrga explores imaginary worlds and utopian
settings. This type of drama often delves into speculative and philosophical themes,
offering a departure from the realistic portrayals found in other genres.
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8. Dima (Mimicry or Imitation Drama): Dima involves imitating the speech and behavior
of various characters, often resulting in comedic effects. This form showcases the
actor’s versatility and skill in mimicking different personalities.
These diverse types of Sanskrit drama collectively contribute to the rich tapestry of Indian
classical performing arts, reflecting the cultural, social, and philosophical nuances of the
time. Each type caters to different tastes and preferences, offering a holistic view of the
human experience through the lens of theatrical expression.
2.5 The Element of Rasain Sanskrit Theatre

Dramatic art is basically visual but, according to Sanskrit poetics, the most important
element of drama is Rasa or sentiment. There are many components, which help to bring
out flavour in drama. Bharata, in his Natyashastra, has succinctly listed all these compo-
nents, which are varied and extensive.
The eight sentiments, or Rasas are the resultant of the cumulative and concentrated
effects of the eight Dominant states (sthayibhaava); the thirty-three Transitory states (Vy-
abhicharibhaava); the eight Temperamental states (Sattvika); the four kinds of Histrionic
Representation (Abhinaya); the two Practices of Representation (Lokadharmi and Natyadharmi),
the four styles (Vritti); the four Local Usages (Pravrtti); the two kinds of Success (Siddhi);
the seven Musical notes - vocal and instrumental types (Svara); the five kinds of Dhruvas
(songs to the accompaniment of rhythm and dance); and the three types of Playhouses.
The detailed explanation of this process is condensed into small and concise couplets
called Sutras (short rules). Thus, Bharata’s Sutra on Sentiment has become renowned as
its basic definition, which later scholars followed. Sentiment is an essential element of
any creative speech. This Sentiment is produced (rasa-nishpattih), from a combination
(samyoga) of Determinants (Vibhaava), Consequents (Anubhaava), and Transitory States
(Vyabhicharibhaava).
The presentation of these Dominant States and their appreciation is the cultural aspect
of every representation (Naatya), and forms the kernel of the dramatic composition and
the very soul of visual art. In human nature, there are numerous activities which give
rise to various feelings. These die and rise again, creating transitory states of the human
mind. Such transitory moods are varied and incapable of enumeration. So Bharata, with
psychological acumen, has identified the most prominent of these mental states, by form-
ing a group of thirty-three feelings, which are universal. These feelings are generated by
certain causes, known as Vibhavas (determinants) and create certain effects/consequents
(Anubhavas).
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The presentation of different mental states by the characters on stage, gives rise to
similar feelings in the hearts of the spectators. The symphonic reproduction of tones,
imitation of gesticulations and modes of action, and an appropriate representation of situ-
ations through costumes, manners, outward bearing, and environment, cause this harmony
of minds. This is what is termed as the Emotional Response, leading one to the realm of
bliss that springs from the enjoyment of Sentiment (rasa).
Bharata explains this fusion, leading to Sentiment, by giving an illustration from our
daily life. As ‘taste’ results from a combination of various spices, vegetables and other
articles, so does this Sentiment. Likewise, as ingredients such as raw sugar, spices or
vegetables produce the six tastes that can be sensed by the tongue, so do the Dominant
States produce Sentiment (rasa), when they come together with various other states (bhava).
After explaining the process by which the various ‘states’ come together, Bharata pro-
ceeds to describe the act of tasting, which is a very subjective experience. The illustration
is again that of food. “Just as well-disposed persons, while eating food cooked with many
kinds of spices, enjoy its taste (rasa) and attain pleasure and satisfaction; similarly, cul-
tured people taste the Dominant states (Sthaayi Bhaava) when they see them represented
through an expression of the various states, with words, gestures and temperament, and
derive pleasure and satisfaction. It is said that there is similarity between the taste of food
and the taste of drama. To differentiate one from the other, the taste of drama is called
the Naatya Rasa (Taste arising in the visual art).
In this emotional blooming, the Sentiment and State have a unique relation. It is, indeed
the Sentiment which comes out of the States and not vice-versa. Yet they are produced
due to their mutual relation. Bharata uses the method of Etymology (nirukta) to explain
the concept of Sentiment and State (bhaava). States cause the sentiments (Bhaavayanti)
to originate. Hence, they are called Originators (Bhaavas).
Bharata says, “Just as by many articles of various kinds, auxiliary cooked food
(vyanjana) is brought forth, so do the states along with different kinds of Histrionic
Representation (abhinaya), cause the Sentiments to originate.” But the fact is that, in
actuality, the States and the Sentiments cause one another to originate (bhaavayanti). It
is fittingly explained by the example of Seed-Tree and the Seed. Just as the tree grows
from a seed, and the flowers and fruits [including the seed] grow from the tree; similarly,
the Sentiments are the source (root) of all the States. Likewise, the States exists as the
source of all the Sentiments.
Rasa, as the Emotional Response, is only one. But when represented through the
components, it takes on various hues, according to the feelings of the heart and mind.
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Human emotions can be categorized into four types: Erotic, Furious, Heroic and Odious.
From these arise, respectively, the other four; namely, the Comic, Pathetic, Marvellous
and Terrible.
Each of these eight have their own colour and their own presiding deity.
Sringaara - Erotic - Light green - Vishnu
Haasya - Comic - White - Pramatha
Karuna - Pathetic - Ash coloured - Yama
Raudra - Furious - Red - Rudra
Vira - Heroic - Light orange - Indra
Bhayaanaka - Terrible - Black - Kaala
Bibhatsa - Odious - Blue - Siva
Adbhuta - Marvellous - Yellow - Brahman
Bharata has described the eight Sentiments (Rasas) separately in detail.
1. Erotic (Sringaara Rasa): This proceeds from the Dominant State of Love (Rati).
Its base is attire, which is bright, white and pure. Hence an elegantly dressed
person is called a lovely person (Sringaari). The Erotic is so named because of its
association with bright and elegant attire. It owes its origin to men and women, full
of youth. It has two aspects - Union (Sambhoga) and Separation (Vipralambhd).
The Determinants of the Erotic are the pleasures of the season, garlands, unguents,
ornaments, or going to a garden. The Consequents of the Erotic represented on the
stage are many - such as clever movement of eyes and eyebrows, soft and delicate
movement of limbs, or uttering sweet words. The Transitory States in the Erotic
do not include fear, indolence, cruelty and disgust. The Consequents of love in
Separation are indifference, languor, fear, yearning, dreaming and extremes like
fainting.
It is of three kinds: of Words, Dress and Action. [Though based on love, the Erotic
sometimes manifests itself through Pathetic conditions]. Bharata explains this apparent
anomaly. The ten conditions of the person-in-separation [from Indifference to Death-
like-condition] are indeed pathetic. But the two (Pathetic and Erotic-in-separation)
are different from each other:
(a) The Pathetic refers to a condition of despair, owing to affliction under a curse;
separation from dear ones, loss of wealth, death or captivity.
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(b) The Erotic is based on separation and relates to a condition of persistent

optimism, arising out of yearning and anxiety. [And this is the reason why
the Erotic Sentiment includes, to an extent, conditions available in all other
Sentiments.]
2. Comic (Haasya Rasa): Dominant State/Emotion is laughter. Its Determinants are
unseemly dress, impudence, greed, defective limbs and uncouth behaviour. The
Consequents are throbbing of the lips, nose, cheek; opening the eyes wide; perspiration,
colour of face etc. Transitory States are indolence, dissimulation, drowsiness etc.
This sentiment (comic) is of two kinds: (a) Self-centred; and (b) Centred on others.
This is mostly seen in women and persons of the inferior type. The nature of laughter
changes according to the type of person:
(a) To persons of superior type belongs Slight Smile (Smitd) and Smile (Hasitd).
(b) To those of the middling type, belongs gentle laughter (Vihasitd) and laughter
of Ridicule (Upahasitci).
(c) To those of the inferior type, belongs vulgar laughter (Apahasita) and violent
laughter (Atihasita).
Thus, the Comic Sentiment has six varieties. The Comic is of three kinds - of limbs,
dress, and words.
3. Pathetic (Karuna Rasa): The Dominant State is Sorrow. Its Determinants are
affliction under a curse, separation from dear ones, or death. Consequents to be
presented on the stage are shedding of tears, lamentation, dryness of the mouth, loss
of memory etc. Transitory States in it are indifference, languor, anxiety, dejection,
insanity, epilepsy, or loss of voice. It is threefold: that rising from obstruction of
lawful deeds; from loss of wealth; and from bereavement.
4. Furious (Roudra Rasa): Its Dominant State is Anger. [It owes its origin to Rakshasas,
Daanavas and haughty men and is caused by fights.] The Determinants are anger,
rape, abuse, insult, fighting, or drawing of blood. Consequents are red eyes, knitting
of eyebrows, or defiance. Its Transitory States are presence of mind, determination,
and energy; choking voice etc. [The reason for referring to Rakshasas in particular
has been explained by Bharata; “Rakshasas are naturally furious, for they have many
arms, many mouths, standing and unkempt hair of brown colour, and a prodigious
physical frame and of black complexion. Even their lovemaking is violent. Thus, the
people who imitate them, their fights and battles, give rise to the Furious Sentiment.”
It is threefold - of limbs, of dress and of deeds.
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5. Heroic (Vira Rasa): The Dominant State is Energy relating to superior persons. Its
Determinants are presence of mind, perseverance, diplomacy etc., and Consequents
are firmness, patience, heroism etc. The Transitory states are contentment, judgment,
pride, agitation etc. It is threefold - arising from giving gifts, from doing one’s duty
(dharma) and from fighting one’s enemy.
6. Terrible (Bhayaanaka Rasa): The Dominant State of this Rasa is Fear and the
Determinants are hideous noise, sight of ghosts; panic, untimely hooting of owls
etc. Its Consequents are trembling of hands, horrification, loss of voice etc., and
Transitory States are paralysis, perspiration, choking voice, palpitation etc. [This
is natural fear. In case of feigned fear, its representation should be milder.] It is of
three kinds - feigned fear, fear from a wrong action, and fear from an apprehension
of danger.
7. Odious (Bibhatsa Rasa): Its Dominant State is Disgust. The Determinants are hearing
of unpleasant, offensive and harmful words etc., and Consequents are vomiting,
spitting, shaking of the limbs in disgust etc. The Transitory States are epilepsy,
delusion, agitation, sickness etc. It is threefold - nauseating, simple, and exciting.
8. Marvellous (Adbhuta Rasa): The Dominant State is Astonishment and Determinants
are the sight of heavenly beings or events, attainment of desired objects, entrance
into a superior mansion, magical acts etc. Consequents are eyes opening wide,
looking with fixed gaze, crying incessantly, waving the end of the dhoti or sari etc.
The Transitory States are weeping, paralysis, choking voice, death etc. It is of two
kinds - celestial and joyous.
Thus, Bharata explains Sentiment (Rasa) and the various moods and feelings, through
which it is represented and enjoyed in Visual Art. This should help you appreciate
Abhijnanasakuntalam, from the perspective of Sanskrit poetics. In this context,
Kalidasa’s poetic descriptions of the flora and fauna in sage Kanva’s hermitage and
the elaborate similes and metaphors used to describe the love between Duhsanta
and Sakuntala acquire significance; they contribute to the erotic element (Sringaara
rasa) in the play.
Check Your Progress
1. Explain the concept of Rasa.
2. Scholars of Sanskrit drama have identified Sringaara rasa as the dominant rasa
in the play. Would you agree?
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2.6 A Critical Analysis
2.6.1 Abhijnanasakuntalam as a tragedy

Tragedy is sorrowful but Sakuntalam is a love-drama, where problems and obstacles create
worry and anxiety; the separation of the hero and heroine causes heartbreak, tears, and
sorrowful situations. But these dejections and deceptions are not long lasting. That is why
it is pointed out that real, hard-hitting sorrow is absent in this play. In Act II, the jester
is sad because he is physically and mentally tired, and wrecked because of the king’s
antics. The ascetics are sad because the evil spirits are disturbing their sacrifices. In Act
III, the two friends are sad and worried because their friend Sakuntala is lovesick. The
king’s anxiety about Kanva’s consent to the marriage; Sakuntala’s pregnancy; Durvasas’
curse; Sakuntala’s sorrow at leaving the hermitage; Kanva’s sorrow at the separation from
his foster daughter; the repudiation of Sakuntala by the king in Act V; real repentance and
suffering and mental torture suffered by the king in Act VI; his sorrow at being childless;
Vidushaka’s bodily torture suffered at the hands of the disguised Matali- all these cause
discomfort, anxiety, tears and pain. To that extent there is the sentiment of shoka but it
cannot be termed as the emotion of Karuna.
Thus Kalidasa, in keeping with the theme of the play, has kept sorrow within limits
and has juxtaposed it with joy and happiness, with the finale being the reunion of Duh-
santa, Sakuntala and Bharata. The reason is not far to seek. Sanskrit drama is bound by
convention and rules, which strictly maintain that drama is for entertainment and mental
elevation. Thus, a tragic end cannot be approved or accepted in a traditional drama.
Concept of Tragedy in Sanskrit Drama

The absence of formal tragedy is thus a peculiarity of Sanskrit drama. Tragedy, on the other
hand, is a Western concept, and in theory, it is a tale of disaster and death. It happens to
a hero who, by certain qualities of action, thought and spirit is above the ranks of com-
mon men, a noble or exalted personage in the Aristotelian sense. The hero is drawn into
a conflict of great magnitude because, by his intention and action, he places himself in a
position antagonistic to higher or superior powers. These may be external to the hero; like
destiny, divine will or the established rule of earthly power, as in the Greek tragedies, or
they may be internal forces, as in Shakespearean tragedy, representing a conflict of will
within the heart of the hero. Such an opposition creates conflict and tension in the story.
The essence of the tragic delineation is that the hero, caught in the conflict, never runs
away from it. The conflict may have originated from his initial error in doing a certain
action, which in a cool moment of practical reasoning, he realizes he could have possibly
PAGE 73

avoided, or there may not be any awareness of an error on his part, in opposing superior
forces pitched against him. Whatever it is, he has taken a step that he is not going to re-
trace. It leads to continuous struggle and acute suffering. But the hero goes through them
with consistency and courage. He does not turn back even when death stares him in the
face. The forces of opposition are mightier than the power of the hero. So, he is ultimately
crushed in the struggle. This is the framework of a formal tragedy in Western literature.
The suffering and sorrow which are a necessary part of the tragic action, stem from a
wilful, unwise or erroneous action on the part of a hero. They do create pity or compassion
in the mind of the spectator, who also experiences fear or awe at the terrible spectacle
to which the action is leading. But there are other emotional reactions too, which are
connected with such an experience. The uncommon courage, which the hero displays in
his death-struggle with antagonistic powers, raises him to an extraordinary human level.
While his suffering and death evoke our sorrow and sympathy, his courage in going down
fighting, fills our heart with deep admiration and sublimity. It is this emotional reaction
that lifts the sorrow and pity to the sublime level of art and assures aesthetic satisfaction.
It is obvious, therefore, that though sorrow is an integral part of the tragic experi-
ence, it alone does not make a tragedy unless the sorrow is not helpless suffering but is
born of fateful action, and unless it reaches the sublime level - through the undaunted
and courageous fight of the hero, unto death.
This type of tragedy has no place in the theory of Sanskrit drama. The story/drama,
according to Sanskrit aesthetics, just cannot culminate in the death of the hero. Sanskrit
writers have accepted this prescription, partly out of respect for theory and critical opin-
ion and partly because the spectators too, with their responses moulded by tradition and
critical opinion, would not have tolerated utter disaster and the death of their well-loved
and august heroes.
The concept of tragedy depends on what values the writers have and what their public
is prepared to accept. Sanskrit writers did not attempt formal tragedy, and judging from
critical opinion and actual dramatic practice, the readers and spectators too do not seem
to feel that they had missed anything.
2.6.2 Depiction of Women in the Play

The story of the love of Duhsanta and Sakuntala is narrated at length in the Adiparva of
the Mahabharat. There, Sakuntala is depicted as an assertive woman and one who stands up
for her rights and demands them. The story goes somewhat like this: Duhsanta, a king of
the lunar race, in the course of his hunting excursion, reaches the hermitage of Kanva. His
adopted daughter, Sakuntala being alone there, had to entertain the king, as was customary
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in those times. The king was fascinated by the matchless charms of the sage’s daughter,
from whom he learned the story of her birth and parentage. Her Kshatriya origin made
it possible for him to marry her. Without much ceremony, the king expressed his desire
to her, to which she yielded on his promise to appoint her son as his successor. He then
wedded her by the gandharva form of marriage and, having stayed with her for some time,
returned to his capital. Afraid of the sage’s anger, without whose knowledge the alliance
had been formed, and who was sure to pronounce a curse if displeased with the match,
the king did not send for his new wife. The sage, however, divining what had happened
in his absence, approved the choice of his daughter who, in due course, delivered a son,
and sent her to her husband without waiting for the king’s summons. Duhsanta, afraid of
public censure, disowned her. But a heavenly voice enjoined him to receive his wife and
son, and Sakuntala was soon raised to the dignity of the chief or the crowned Queen.
There is no denying the fact that this prosaic story, wanting in those dramatic elements
which give effect and life to a play, has been dramatized by Kalidasa with dramatic skill
and mastery over his art, making him immortal as the Shakespeare of India. One strange
similarity in the lives of these two poets is discernible. Shakespeare has nowhere originated
the main plots of his dramas, but in his hands, they received life and meaning, making
him what he is - the unrivalled master of his art. Kalidasa, too, selected a mythological
love story to serve as the basis of his drama; fully conscious that such a story would
have greater charm. His deep dramatic insight quickly saw that the story, though simple
and unromantic in its form, was pre-eminently fitted to be the nucleus of such dramatic
situations and incidents that would stir up the hearts of all men of poetic sensibility, and
produce a magical effect upon them. The German poet Goethe’s words of praise for the
drama are indeed justified; “The soul is charmed, enraptured, feasted and fed.”
This is the poetic aspect of the drama, which appeals to the heart. But every drama
has characters in the story, and the incidents connected with them are usually a reflection
of society. Viewed from this social point of view, we perceive that the characterization
of Sakuntala, over the years, was eventually adapted to the image of a woman suitable
to the ideals of the new middle class in the nineteenth century. The child of nature was
an innocent girl who was led astray, but she remained submissive, long suffering, patient
and devoted to her husband and was finally exonerated. Unfortunately, later centuries too
went along with Kalidasa. The Sakuntala of the Mahabharata, who was a liberated wom-
an, demanding to be justly treated, was sidelined. On the other hand, we have endorsed
the more submissive Sakuntala of Kalidasa, a woman waiting patiently for recognition
of her virtues.
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Male chauvinism is revealed in the adaptation and recreation of the Mahabharata

story in the play of Kalidasa, which conforms to contemporary vision. Probably, Kalida-
sa stopped at borrowing the kernel of the story and did not realise that his play would
contribute to a gradual eroding of women’s independence. After all, if society influences
literature, it is also vice-versa. Sakuntala, as described in the drama, became the role
model for an average Indian woman - patient, submissive, faithful even in the face of
adversity, and suffering in silence. Other members of society expected her to be like that;
and what’s more – the women themselves were convinced that their role in society is to
be good wives and mothers.
Though indirectly, this mindset was brought about by the literature of the times.
To that extent, we have to concede that while adapting the story of the Mahabharata,
Kalidasa has indeed contributed to the deterioration of the image of women. In the epic
version, Duhsanta’s refusal to accept Sakuntala is a tactical move, meant to precipitate a
situation wherein he can legitimize their union. But Sanskrit drama needed a hero who
is ideal. Around him revolve the sentiments that flower into emotions in the hearts of
the audience. The Duhsanta of the Mahabharata deliberately pretends ignorance of his
marriage and repudiates Sakuntala. This would suggest a ‘stain’ on the character of the
hero, which would not have been acceptable to the audience. So, the curse of the sage
is introduced. The irresponsible behaviour of Duhsanta is glossed over, as are the moral
implications of his refusal to recognize Sakuntala. To exonerate him, Kalidasa introduces
the curse; clearly to condone the king’s conduct. There is also a suggestion that Sakuntala
erred in agreeing to a Gandharva marriage and succumbing to her passion. The loss of
the ring also constitutes an impediment to the union of the two lovers. Kalidasa’s play
was influenced by the need to create an effective drama.
The advice of sage Kanva in Act IV, as he bids Sakuntala farewell, reveals a rather
subordinate position of women in society. Read these lines;
Serve your elders with diligence; be a friend to your co-wives;
even if wronged by your husband do not cross him through anger;
treat those who serve you with the utmost courtesy;
be not puffed up with pride by wealth and pleasures;
Thus do girls attain the status of mistress of the home;
Those who act contrary are the bane of their families. (p. 226-7)
These words may seem regressive to modern readers but remember that the culture de-
picted in the play is an ancient one. The historical context must be considered, in any
evaluation of the play.
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In spite of the introduction of two friends for Sakuntala, she is never shown as a
weakling. She is the daughter of a Kshatriya (warrior), Vishvamitra and time and again
Kalidasa has provided her with dialogues that reveal her dignity (Act I), propriety (Act
III), anger (Act V) and pragmatic mindset (Act VII). But one can argue that even in such
a setting, Sakuntala’s angry outburst in Act V stands out as an act of assertion. When the
King refuses to recognize her, her self-respect is wounded;
SAKUNTALA (in anger): Ignoble man! You who are like a well covered with
grass . . . . you judge every one by the measure of your heart . . . who would stoop
to imitate your conduct . . . practicing falseness while putting on the mantle of virtue?
(p. 239)
2.6.3 The Prologue in a Sanskrit play

Sanskrit drama was an integral part of the society and its values. It was not merely a
short-lived source of entertainment, but had a message to convey to the audience. As such,
a lot of preparation and precautions were taken in the presentation of the play.
Before beginning a show, the stage-manager (Sutradhaara) inspects the theatre and its
surroundings. All the accessories are checked, parts are assigned and the Supreme-power
is invoked for blessings for the completion of the enactment of the play, without any
hindrances. This serves as a psychological morale-booster for all concerned. All these
activities are carried out behind the curtain, away from the eyes of the audience.
The actual drama, that is visible to the audience, starts with the Invocation which
involves a benediction invoking the grace of a deity. This verse, which is usually sung,
serves as a point to rejoice and anticipate the beginning of the play.
What follows is the Prologue - a preamble to the actual drama. Either the stage-manager
or another person introduces the occasion of the enactment of the drama, its title and the
author. This person presents the prelude, in the course of which he introduces the subject
matter of the drama as well. He usually refers to the critical sense of the audience in order
to please them; and to the artistic skill of the actors to create interest in the performance.
Invariably, a song also forms part of the prologue in order to lend a musical back-
ground to the dramatic performance. This song is usually sung by the actress (nati) who
comes as a partner to the stage manager. The prologue is seldom a monologue. The actor
is accompanied by the actress or by another associate or by the clown/jester. By means of
the dialogues between the two, the preliminary information about the play is given. The
story is usually a historical piece or a well-known folklore, which is fairly familiar to
the audience. Coupled with this is the information provided in the prologue. This enables
the audience to comprehend the strain of the story and enjoy it, right from the beginning.
PAGE 77

This type of Prologue is seen in Goethe’s Faust (said to be influenced by Kalidasa’s

Sakuntalam). We see modified and truncated versions of the Prologue even in modern
plays, though the presentation is very different.
2.6.4 King Duhsanta

There were four castes in society at that time - Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra,
in that order of merit. According to the social codes of that time, a man could marry a
girl/woman of the same caste or one from the caste lower to his. This was called the
Anuloma marriage. But marriage with the female of a caste higher to one’s own, was not
permitted and hence it was termed as the Pratiloma marriage. Duhsanta, being an upright
king, would not trespass social norms and limitations. And yet, his heart was struck with
love for Sakuntala;
KING: I wonder . . . could she be the Patriarch’s daughter by a wife not of his own
class? Let’s be done with doubts:
She can rightly be a warrior’s bride,
For my noble heart yearns deeply for her. (p. 178)
In this context, he makes the above statement. The reason he gives for it is that a heart
which is purified, and culturally and ethically sensitized right from birth, is incapable of
harbouring any desire, which is improper or against moral standards. He means to say,
“My heart is noble and correct. If this heart desires her, then it can be safely inferred
that she is fit to be a warrior’s bride.”
He proves his point by saying that whenever men of nobility are in doubt, it is their
inner voice or their sixth sense, which serves as the determining authority. Duhsanta is
confident that in his case too, it is so. We see that further developments in the play prove
him right as Anasuya clarifies that Kanva is the foster-father of Sakuntala. The real parents
are Vishvamitra (a Kshatriya by birth) and Menaka (an apsara – a celestial being). This
statement of the king reflects the strong streak of confidence in his character, established
on the basis of his power and a result of the upright life led by him.
Throughout the play, we are reminded of the fact that King Duhsanta is a descendant
of the Puru clan. The references to his royal identity, duties, and responsibilities form
an important thread in the narrative. To cite one example, in Act V, the Bard sings King
Dushanta’s praises;
Grasping the rod of justice, you bring to heel
Those who are set on evil paths; you bring calm
Where contentions rage; and afford protection. (p. 231)
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Recall how, in Act II, the hermits from sage Kanva’s ashram seek his help to protect them
from evil spirits, bent on disturbing their sacrificial rites. Read this incisive observation
by Romila Thapar;
There is in the play a rhetoric of political power based on the monarchical state. The
fourth century A.D. was a period of well-established monarchies with their appurte-
nances of administration, revenue and coercive agencies. The court at Hastinapur is
now the focus of those in authority and kingly authority was expressed in various
ways, for example in the taking of impressive titles such as maharaja-adhiraja. This
would have a quite different effect from the epic, where Duhsanta is referred to as
the gopta and the raja. The duties performed by the king exceed that of simply pro-
tecting his subjects, as he is now responsible for their welfare, and for maintaining
equilibrium in society. The latter is accomplished through a hierarchy of administra-
tion, in which the court is central, and is provisioned through taxes. The centrality
of succession based on birth remained necessary to dynastic rule, and the legitimacy
of succession continued to be a major concern.
The up grading, as it were, of monarchy is also suggested in the closeness of
kings to deities, a feature common to many literary works of this time. Duhsanta
(as he is named in the play) is called upon for assistance by Indra when the latter
is threatened by asuras. The association between rajas and gods was earlier said to
derive from the king being constituted of divine particles - a step towards his being
seen as the human parallel to deity. Still later, claims would be made on occasion,
to kings being an incarnation of deity, frequently Visnu. This did not mean creating
an icon of the king to be worshipped as deity, rather such incarnations were often
attempts at manipulating the power of the king. (p. 127)
Dushanta’s yearning for a son is rooted in his anxiety of the Puru dynasty ending with him;
KING (overcome by sorrow): from earliest times:
This, the dynasty of Puru, pure from its roots,
descending in one uninterrupted succession,
will now have its setting in my life, unfruitful,
like Sarasvati’s stream lost in barbarous sandy wastes. (p. 261)
Succession is a major concern in the play and interwoven into the theme of romantic
love. Note how, when Sakuntala is in Duhsanta’s court, the issue of the paternity of her
unborn child takes precedence over the legal status of the gandharva marriage, and the
king accuses her of behaving like the kokila bird: “the cuckoo, as we know, has her young
reared/by other birds before they take to the air” (p. 239).
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To conclude this section, I would like to draw your attention to the end of the play.
Sage Marica predicts how Sakuntala’s son Bharata will rule over the world and blesses the
king; “May kings ever work for the good of their subjects” (p. 281). A play that begins
as a romantic love-story ends with the reinforcement of the power of the Puru dynasty,
through sage Marica’s predictions.
2.6.5 The Dramatic Function of the Ring and the Curse

The title itself highlights the importance of the ring in the drama - Sakuntala and the
ring of recollection. Thus, the ring has a very important function to play in the drama.
Kalidasa has used the ring motif in a very effective way. In Act I, the king offers it to
free Sakuntala from the debt of watering the plants that she owes to Priyamvada. This
results in him being recognised as King Duhsanta. Again, in Act IV, we learn from the
conversation of Anasuya and Priyamvada that the ring has been given to Sakuntala by
Duhsanta as a token of remembrance. At this point, the ring becomes especially signifi-
cant, as the sage Durvasas has cursed Sakuntala. On Priyamvada’s entreaties he relents a
bit and offers a way out of the curse: the king has to see some ornament of recognition
to remember Sakuntala. The ring fits the bill. But, unfortunately, for reasons, which seem
convincing to the two friends, they do not relate the details of the curse to Sakuntala. It
is only a vague warning - “if the king fails to recognize you, show him the ring” (p. 227)
Sakuntala takes it casually and fails to guard it safely. It falls into the river during her
ablutions.
The absence of the ring at the crucial moment, when it is most needed, results in the
brilliant exchange of words between Sarngarava and the king in Act V. It also depicts the
fighting spirit of Sakuntala and the upright character of the king. In Act VI, the fisherman
discovers the ring inside the belly of a fish that he has caught. He gets his reward and
the ring detonates the curse. Duhsanta is plunged in sorrow and a pall of gloom settles
over the entire scene. He remembers all the details of his union with Sakuntala and a
sense of guilt gores him. The king reprimands the ring for having deserted the finger of
his beloved. He recounts that he had promised to send someone to fetch her before she
finished counting his name on the ring: one syllable each day. But he did not send anyone!
This near-insane condition of the king, caused by the agony of separation, is emotionally
very touching. This has been made possible because of the ring-motif.
Rabindranath Tagore and many other scholarly critics of this play have accepted the
need for this suffering of the king. The love between Duhsanta and Sakuntala was pas-
sionate. It had to go through the fire of separation, to purify it and elevate it to represent
80 PAGE

it as the ideal of love. In Act VII, Sakuntala’s eyes fall on the ring on the king’s finger.
He offers it to her once again but Sakuntala is wary. She refuses to have anything to do
with it and it goes back on the king’s finger. Later, when Sage Marica explains the curse
as the reason for the king’s non-recognition, she realizes why her friends had warned her
and told her to use the ring.
Kalidasa based his play on the story from the Mahabharata; introducing the motifs
of the ring and sage Durvasa’s curse. The curse becomes an impediment to the union of
the two lovers and the signet ring is a token of recognition. Read this commentary by
Romila Thapar;
Were the curse and the ring also introduced because they gloss over the real
tension between Sakuntala and Duhsanta, namely, the paternity of her child? Sakun-
tala now does not have to defend the right of her son, since the flow of events is
beyond human control. Duhsanta cannot be blamed for his behaviour as he is under
a spell. On the king refusing to acknowledge Sakuntala as his wife, Sarngarava and
Saradvata - the disciples of Kanva accompanying Sakuntala to the court-angrily ac-
cuse the king of being a liar, a thief and a king who wilfully opposes that which is
his righteous duty. To all these accusations the king can innocently reply that he is
not guilty, since he has no recollection of Sakuntala. By extension therefore, he is
not going to allow a woman, however beautiful, to be imposed on him as his wife.
Is Kalidasa avoiding the moral issue of condemning Duhsanta’s action in rejecting
Sakuntala, and would such avoidance not have been regarded as contemptible in those
times? The epic version does at least raise the issue through the celestial voice; the
play, on the other hand, introduces extraneous elements, which detract from com-
menting on the injustice of Duhsanta’s treatment of Sakuntala. (p. 138)
2.6.6 The King’s Painting of Sakuntala

Abhijnanasakuntalam is basically a romantic play, with the erotic sentiment being dom-
inant. In such a play, the dramatic climax is usually the point that depicts the initial
union or falling in love of the hero and heroine. Obstacles and obstructions in the path
of love usually follow this. The final denouement comes after the successful removal of
all impediments. But this modus operandi is not a rigid or theoretical solution. It rather
involves a very subtle arrangement of incidents that the dramatist very skilfully manages.
This brings about the ecstasy and emotional enjoyment of the connoisseurs of dramatic art.
In the beginning of Act VI, Kalidasa presents a scene drawn almost raw from life -
the fisherman’s discovery of the ring. This is followed by the tragic outburst of the king.
PAGE 81

The sight of the ring brings back the memory of Sakuntala. The king realizes the wrong,
unwittingly done to her. His helplessness, agony, guilt and sorrow are depicted in a very
touching manner. The king seeks to console himself in various ways. One of them is his
attempt to paint a portrait of his beloved. As per his instructions, the attendant brings it
to the garden for him to watch her picture, and try to mitigate his heartache.
This painting is used by Kalidasa to highlight the depth of the king’s love and sat-
isfy Sakuntala’s well-wisher, Sanumati/ Mirakesi, that the king’s love for Sakuntala is
intact. The king feels that the portrait is not a worthy representation of the real beauty of
Sakuntala. Kalidasa’s knowledge of the fine arts is revealed a number of times in various
remarks of the king. “My tears have discoloured the picture,” “The discoloured part has
swelled up,” “It needs retouching.”
The extensive details that the king wants to put in and his desire to hold the paint-
ing in his own hand are indicative of his profound love. But what is really, tragically
marvellous, is the way he forgets that it is merely a painting and asks the jester to drive
away the “impudent bee.” And even more touching is the way the jester too goes crazy
and helps the king to carry on a conversation with and rebuke the bee in the painting.
The disillusionment that follows Vidushaka’s realization is even more pathetic.
For the king it is virtually the real Sakuntala. But now reality has again transformed
Sakuntala into a picture! The play of words is a verbal delight. But the king has to ac-
cept that his tears will not allow him to view her even in a painting. All the remarks of
wonder by Sanumati/Misrakesi at this lamentation of the king keep up the suspense and
wonder element of the drama.
Further, it is the painting motif that is used by the poet to bring out the noble aspects
of the characters of the king and the senior Queen Vasumati. When the king hears that
Queen Vasumati is coming into the garden to meet him, he asks for the painting to be
removed lest it should hurt the feelings of the queen. [Books on Poetics have recorded
that a king who is considerate to his former wife (first love) even while taking a new
wife is called Dakshina (considerate, compassionate)]. The queen is really blue-blood-
ed. When she sees the attendant carrying an official letter to the king, she desists from
disturbing him. The king says, “She knows the importance of state business and avoids
interrupting my duty.”
Thus, a small token, a painting becomes a vibrant symbol in the deft hands of Ka-
lidasa and helps to evoke varied emotions and expostulations, helping to bring to life
characters, with whom the audience identifies easily, thus reaping the fruit of unalloyed
literary enjoyment (Rasa).
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2.6.7 Sage Kanva

Kalidasa has delineated every character in the drama Abhijnanasakuntalam, to utmost
perfection, keeping the propriety of the whole work in view. One of the main characters
is Kanva, the foster-father of the heroine, Sakuntala. He is depicted as a Kulapati run-
ning a vast hermitage, with thousands of disciples living there, engaged in the pursuit of
knowledge. Kanva is spiritual to the core and his administrative abilities are immense.
Described as possessing superhuman power, a result of his ripened asceticism, Kalidasa
has portrayed Kanva as the perfect representation of the ancient sage-patriarch. This por-
trayal is strikingly evident in the incidents of the fourth act.
The principal trait of his character, as depicted, is his parental affection for his
adopted daughter Sakuntala. Despite being an old hermit, he is deeply affected by this
feeling for his daughter, shedding tears on the occasion of their separation. While bidding
farewell to her, he is overcome by a deep sense of sorrow at her departure, as he has
brought her up with utmost care and affection. Secondly, in spite of being a sage who
is detached from worldly activities, his worldly wisdom is remarkable. He demonstrates
practical wisdom in the counsel he gives to Sakuntala and in the message he sends to the
king. He is an affectionate father, a great sage, and a sound philosopher with a thorough
understanding of human life.
On one hand, he is a great sage; maintaining eternal celibacy and overseeing a her-
mitage where many people are engaged in various rituals and spiritual activities. On the
other hand, he is the one who, finding a baby at the foot of a tree in the jungle, brings
it to the hermitage and provides the child a home, albeit an ascetic one. He takes special
care in bringing up the child with love and affection. He worries for a suitable groom for
her, like any worldly father. Even in the case of Anasuya and Priyamvada, he is aware of
his responsibilities about arranging for their marriage. Furthermore, the advice he gives
to Sakuntala in the fourth act and the message for Duhsanta reveal Kanva’s worldly wis-
dom - covering political, social, cultural, and domestic aspects. The role of a queen, the
importance of an heir, the jealousies amongst the co-wives, the power of the sages, the
limitations of the bride’s father: there seems to be nothing that escapes the worldly eyes
of sage Kanva. It is true that according to Indian mythological tradition, the sages had
knowledge of the past and the future. Yet Kalidasa has juxtaposed the ethereal vision of
Kanva with his worldly duties in such a natural development of incidents that the sage
Kanva retains his worldly reactions, to lend that much-needed poignancy to the element
of sorrow in the fourth act.
PAGE 83


1. The cultural universe depicted in the play Abhijnanasakuntalam is opposed to the
modern/twentieth century culture in many ways. Discuss.
2. Discuss the character of King Duhsanta in the play.
3. Would you agree that Sakuntala is the depiction of the ideal Indian woman?
4. Write a note on the characters of Anasuya and Priyamvada.
5. Comment on the importance of any one of the following incidents in the play, such
as; (a) Rishi Durvasa’s curse; (b) The royal ring; (c) The title of the play; (d) The
bee-episode; (e) Queen Hamsavati’s Song; (f) The king’s painting of Sakuntala

Kalidasa. Abhijanan-Sakuntalam. Ed. Belvalkar, Sahitya Akademi, Delhi,1963.
Kosambi, D.D. The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline.
Vikas Publishing House, 1970.
Thapar, Romila. Sakuntala: Texts, Readings and Histories. Kali for Women: New
Delhi, 1999.
84 PAGE

U N I T
III
Silappadhikaram
Ilango Adigal
Shriya Pandey
Structure
Part-I
3.2 The Sangam Literature
3.3 The Story
3.4 The Oral Tradition
3.5 The Ritual Origin
3.6 The Epic Elements
3.7 The Poetics of Ilango
Part-II
3.8 The Cantos: Summary and Analysis
3.8.1 Canto XXIV: The Round Dance of the Hill Dwellers
3.8.2 Canto XXV: The Choice of a Stone
3.8.3 Canto XXVI: Removing the Stone
3.8.4 Canto XXVII: The Lustration
3.8.5 Canto XXVIII: The Dedication of the Memorial Stone
3.8.6 XXIX: The Benediction
3.8.7 Canto XXX: The granting of a Favor
3.8.8 Epilogue
3.10 Bibliography
PAGE 85

Part-I
General Introduction

Silappadhikaram and the Sangam Literature.
Silappadhikaram – The Story.
Silappadhikaram and the Oral Tradition.
Silappadhikaram and the Ritual Origin of the Poem.
Silappadhikaram and the Epic genre and its elements.
Silappadhikaram and the Poetics of Ilango.
3.2 The Sangam Literature

Indian literature spans a vast landscape, encompassing diverse traditions that have given
rise to a rich and intricate literary tradition over more than 3000 years. In the southern part
of India, four major languages—Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, and Telugu—have flourished,
each possessing a robust literary tradition. Silappadhikaram*, or The Cilappatikaram: The
Tale of an Anklet belongs to the period of Indian Classical literature from the South of
India which has been subdivided into three sections under the umbrella term of Sangam
literature. The Sangam period is categorised into ancient, with “4000 member-poets”,
middle, with around “3,500 poets” and old, “with evidence of around 500 poets who
contributed to its corpus”. In Silappadhikaram (2021) translated by R. Parthasarathy and
edited by B. Mangalam, the Introduction mentions;
Three distinct academies of Sangams are said to have flourished in ancient
Tamil country. The first Sangam, according to tradition, had more than 4,000 poets
as members and held sway for an equal number of years. The second Sangam with
more than 3,500 poets reigned for a corresponding number of years. The works of
both these Sangams are located in Madurai that flourished for nearly two thousand
years with evidence of around 500 poets who contributed to its corpus. (pp. 1)
The term “Sangam” denotes an academy where poetry was composed and later antholo-
gized. Sangam Literature (also called chankam), refers to a collection of ancient Tamil
writings likely produced in literary academies known as “chankams,” located in Madurai,
Tamil Nadu, from the 4th to the 1st Century. During this period, the literature comprised
three types of works: Ettuttokai (Eight Anthologies), Pattuppattu (The Ten Long Poems),
86 PAGE

Silappadhikaram
and Tolkappiyam (A Grammar Treatise). Beyond the poetry of the Sangam period, two
epics—Cilappatikaram and Manimekalai—were composed and produced in manuscript
form during the Buddhist and Jain periods of Tamil Nadu, after the Sangam period. Si-
lappadhikaram or The Cilappatikaram is one of the five epics written by a Jaina ascetic
Ilango Adigal. The other four epics considered major and written by various other writers
from the period are Manimekalai, Jeevakacintamani, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi.
The grammatical treatise Tolkappiyam deals with the above mentioned text divisions
within the capacity of phonetics (Ezhuthadhikaram), morphology and syntax (Choladhi-
karam) and; phonetics and subject matter (Poruladhikaram). The subject matter of Tamil
Poetics as elaborated in Tolkappiyamhas contributed in considerably adding to the eco-
centric aesthetics, stylistics and polycultural understanding of the development of human
emotions in the form of Thinai that is also recognized as landscapes and substitutes as an
accessory for the portrayal of the internal (Akam) and the external (Puram). Like Sanskrit
dramas can be understood through the concept of Rasas as propounded by Bharata in his
Natyashastra, Sangam poetry distinguishes itself by expressing emotions through physical
geography, such as hills, seashores, wastelands, forests, and marshes, collectively referred
to as “Thinai” in Tamil poetics. A Thinai constitutes an entire poetic environment, incor-
porating distinct temporal, spatial, and seasonal elements, along with contextual features
unique to that environment. Together, these elements contribute to the creation of vivid
poetic metaphors, establishing the atmosphere of the poem. Contrary to being religious,
Sangam Literature revolves around two main themes: love (akam) and heroism/praise of
Kings and their deeds (puram).
The corpus of Sangam literature, circulated in its various recensions, in contemporary
times was first edited by S.V. Damodaram Pillai (1832-1901) and U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar
(1855-1942) et al, along with the efforts of discovering palm leaf manuscripts. According
to the Introduction by B. Mangalam in the Worldview Critical Editions of the text (2021);
Tolkappiyam (grammatical treatise by Tholkappiyar) locates the contents of the
poetry in terms of mutual – the first theme which are place and time, of karu – the
seed theme that indicates the relationship between human beings and the world, society
at large and uri– the essential theme that reflects the various phases of love or war.
Scholars like (A. K.) Ramanujan (1985) and (Kamil) Zvelebil (1974) have termed
mutual – first elements, karu – native elements, and uri– human element… There
are seven Thinais each in Akam and Puram but two of them in both the domains are
considered inappropriate in depiction of poetry. Each of the thinais evokes a particular
situation or phase and its corresponding markers. It is an exciting reading strategy to
identify a thinai from the images interspersed in such a short lyric! (pp. 4)
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According to S. Murali in an essay titled Environmental Aesthetics Interpretation of

Nature in “Akam” and “Puram” Poetry (1998), “The life of a couple of lovers is given
its setting in time and place (mudal), its natural background (karu), and then the details
of their conduct (uri) are worked out…The poetic world of the Sangam poet is one of
correspondences between time, place and human experience. A. K. Ramanujan, poet and
scholar extraordinary, who has translated a number of these poems, observes, citing Sau-
ssure’s [Ferdinand de Saussure was a linguist who considerably influenced Structuralism.
A school of thought that flourished in the literary time period of 1950s and is associated
with self-contained relational structure of language that is similar to Saussure’s idea of
signifier and signified.] view that every sign is a union of signifier and signified: “In the
Tamil system of correspondences, a whole language of signs is created by relating the
landscapes as signifiers to the uri or appropriate human feelings.” (Poems of Love and
War, Delhi: OUP, 1985. P. 241).
Check Your Progress

1. Explain the Sangam period in Tamil classical literature.
2. What according to Tolkappiyam is the division of subject matter in Sangam works?
3. Write a short note on Thinais, Akam, and Puram.
3.3 The Story

Silappadhikaram is divided into Three Books. In the Introduction to Silappadhikaram (ed.
B. Mangalam, 2021), while commenting on the structure and the narrative of the epic,
B. Mangalam underlines that;
The structure of Silappadhikaram indicates the vision of the epic. It delineates, the
three major kingdoms of Tamil country. The epic depicts the landscape, prosperity,
governance, accomplishments in music, dance, adherence to dharma, notions of jus-
tice and heroic valour at the battlefield, patronage to arts and religion, the dynamics
of ruler-subject relationship, prevalence of little traditions and mainstream religious
practices of the three kingdoms. These aspects are woven into the personal lives of
Kannagi - Kovalan - Madhavi in a brilliant way and traditional poetic conventions are
followed to bring home the synthesis amongst poetics, poetry, polity and individual
lives. The epic is divided into three books to mirror the three kingdoms. The action
takes place in the capital cities of the three kingdoms – Puhar (Chozha), Madurai
(Pandiya) and Vanji (Chera). In all, there are 30 cantos. Book I, The Book of Puhar
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Silappadhikaram
has 10 cantos, Book II, The Book of Madurai with 13 cantos is the longest, and Book
III, The Book of Vanji with 7 cantos is the shortest. (pp. 11)
Silappadhikaram narrates the tale of a man, Kovalan, who abandons his chaste wife,
Kannagi, for Madhavi, a courtesan endowed with unparalleled artistic talent. The wife
Kannagi and the courtesan Madhavi serve as an antithesis. The contrasting characters of
Kannagi, epitomizing firmness and chastity akin to a goddess, and Madhavi, entangled in
the materialistic struggles of life, unfold the intricacies of sexual politics. Kovalan, the
fulcrum of this tryst becomes the breach in conjugality, failing to fulfil his dharma. Kan-
nagi and Kovalan’s marital life is ripe with the possibility of a new start but his decision
to abandon Madhavi by the end of Book 1 introduces a turning point. Madhavi’s character
is introduced as an intervention in the tale of blissful romance. Which ultimately leads
to Kovalan’s downfall and death. Book 2 delves into Kovalan and Kannagi’s journey to
the city of Pantiya, where they encounter a woman ascetic named Kavunti. The cantos
in this book are replete with incidents of premonition, infusing the narrative with epical
elements and divine providence. Kannagi, determined to relocate to a new home among
the warmth of the hill dwellers, decides to sell her anklet and offers it to Kovalan.
Kovalan is unsuccessful in selling the anklet to a merchant. The plot takes a dire
turn when the same merchant accuses Kovalan of stealing the Queen of Pantiya’s anklet,
leading to the king proclaiming Kovalan’s punishment for the sake of justice, peace, and
decorum in the state. This harsh verdict results in Kovalan’s decapitation. Upon learning
of her husband’s unjust death, Kannagi, consumed by rage, appears before the court to
prove Kovalan’s innocence. She shatters the anklet, filled with rubies and other precious
gems, unlike the Queen’s anklet made of pearls. Kannagi’s speech against the ignorant
king instils a sense of doubt in the people of the kingdom. The failure to adhere to the
Dharma of the king, coupled with people’s participation in framing an innocent man, leads
to the mass conflagration at Maturai.
Silappadhikaram unfolds within the strict framework of the Akam and Puram genre
conviction, adhering rigorously to the tradition of the epic. To enhance the aesthetic and
narratorial quality of the text, it introduces a mystical element by exalting the Thinais,
contributing to the narrative’s depth and richness.
In the third book, the Chera king not only establishes himself but also elevates Kan-
nagi to an ideal status within the realm of permanence. This characterization adds another
layer to the epic’s complexity, intertwining the personal journeys of the characters with
broader themes of societal ideals and enduring principles.
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Check Your Progress

1. Explain structure and form of Silappadhikaram.
2. Name the cities where the events of the epic occur?
3. Write a short note on Kannagi, Kovalan, and Madhavi.
4. In response to Kovalan’s unjust death, what actions does Kannagi undertake in her
rage?
5. Discuss the title in the context of the story.
3.4 The Oral Tradition

The Akam (Agam) and the Puram forms of poetry, heavily draw from the oral tradition
just like the Vedas. Moriz Winternitz a scholar who is well known for his contribution to
the Sanskrit texts, in A History of Indian Literature (1996) states;
In India, from the oldest times, up till the present day, the spoken word, not
writing, has been the basis of the whole of the literary and scientific activity…Even
modern poets do not desire to be read, but their wish is that their poetry may become
“an adornment for the throats of the experts”. (pp. 33-34)
Within the oral tradition, poetry is revered as a conduit of knowledge, as words are
believed to carry a profound sense of sacred power. In oral cultures, tradition holds a sac-
rosanct status, and the notion of fixed authorship is alien, a concept reinforced by Walter
J. Ong in Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (1982). This tradition
encompasses three integral aspects: composition, transmission, and performance;
In oral culture, a text presupposes in its composition a shared knowledge between
the bard and his audience. It is dependent on its context to help explicate its meaning.
Text and context are therefore inseparable…For generations, bards (panans) have re-
cited or sung the story of Kovalan throughout the Tamil country, embellishing it with
myths. It was this story from the oral tradition that was at some point transcribed
by a learned poet (pulavan). Therefore, both the oral and written versions freely cir-
culated, each drawing upon the other…The term “oral residue” proposed by Ong as
a useful tool for investigating a text’s orality. Ong defines it as “habits of thought
and expression tracing back to preliterate situations or practice, or deriving from the
dominance of the oral as a medium in a given culture, or indicating a reluctance or
inability to disassociate the written medium from the spoken.” (pp. 59)
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Silappadhikaram
The etymological tracing of the name Kovalan and Kannagi provides insights into the
oral residue within the text. Scholars suggest that the name Kovalan is derived from the
Sanskrit Gopalaka “a guardian of the cow” and Kannagi is interpreted as “one that has
beautiful eyes”. The presence of oral folktales in the text, such as Brahman Matalan’s
narration of a tale from the Panchatantra in Canto 15, further illuminates the location of
residual elements.
The Thinai, drawn from such bardic lineage, plays a pivotal role in defining a spe-
cific sense through the landscape and location. As we delve into the poetic subject matter,
understanding the stylistic-aesthetic of the text becomes crucial through the categorization
and meaning of Thinai. In alignment with Mikhail Bakhtin’s perspective, historian P. T.
Srinivasa Iyenger notes the visibility of the oral through appropriately placed Thinai and
the use of the old rhythmic akval meter (aciriyam) in the Tamil landscape, where the
regions described align with the topography. A notable aspect, according to Srinivasa
Iyenger and akin to Bakhtin’s views, is that the oral tradition becomes evident through
the rightful placement of Thinai and the utilization of the old rhythmic akval meter in the
Tamil landscape, ensuring congruence with the described regions and their topography. The
primary difference between the Akam (Agam) and the Puramthinais in terms of aesthetic
stylistics is that while the Akam deals with the phases of love, as mentioned in the Akam
Thinais below, the Puram Thinais are prominently associated with the motif of war.
THINAI FLOWER/TREES REGION PHASES OF LOVE
Kurinci Conehead Hills Clandestine Meeting of Lovers
Mullai Jasmine Pastures Waiting in Hope
Marutam Arjuna Tree Country Side Wife’s sulking/Infidelity of man
Neytal Dark Lily Seashore Lamenting/Anxiety for husband’s
return
Palai Ivory Wood Wasteland Parting/Lover’s departure in
search of wealth or knowledge
Kaikkilai Not Specified Not Specified Unrequited Love
Perunthinai Not Specified Not Specified Mismatched Love/Lust
Mangalam, B. “Context and Concerns”. Silappadhikaram, Worldview Critical Editions, 2015.

In the Akam domain, Thinai six and seven are designated as Kaikkilai (unrequited love)
and Perunthinai (mismatched love or lust), respectively. These two Thinais are not deemed
suitable for delineating distinctive characteristics. The remaining five Thinais in the Akam
are collectively referred to as Aintinai.
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Check Your Progress

1. What are the five main Thinais for portrayal of the internal (Akam)? Explain.
3.5 The Ritual Origin

According to R. Parthasarathy, as highlighted in the postscript of the Penguin edition of
The Cilappatikaram (2004), this text stands as a distinct stream of thought in understanding
the diversity of epistemological origins in ancient India and is inherently non-Sanskritic.
Tolkappiyam, on the other hand, serves as a grammatical treatise elucidating various aspects
of Sangam works, in the context of Tamil grammar and poetics. The concept of Ullurai
Uvamam, or “indirect suggestions”, is a literary device of Akam, where only the object
of comparison is explicitly stated, providing minimal cues for the interpreter to translate
a subjective understanding of protagonist and the subject matter of the poetry. In contrast,
the Puram deals with the external, involving the reductive and expansive overlapping of uri
or the human element in the text. The terms Akam and Puram in the context of Sangam
literature signify the internal and external dimensions, both encapsulating the private and
public spaces of activity, agency, and ethics.
The external or the Puram deals with the motif of war and the subsequent manifes-
tation of the emotions associated with the feeling of victory, community, accession and
personal virtues. The internal or the Akam deals with the emotions of love, hearth and the
introspective idea of morality as seen in the city of Vanci, Maturai and Pukar, portrayed
through the character of Kannagi. The idea of mortality and immortality in sectarian sense
is common in both Akam and Puram contributing to the epic elements of the text. Notably,
a predominantly feminine voice emerges, aligning with scholarly arguments that position
women as central to Akam, while men are relegated to the Puram space due to their per-
ceived inability to grasp the intricacies of human bonds. The masculine acknowledgment
of the need for the apotheosis of Kannagi is underscored by the insertion of Gajabahu as
an audience in the Book of Vanci Canto XXX in The Cilappatikaram (2004).
Parthasarathy emphasizes the ritual underpinnings in the Book of Vanci, highlighting
the intimate relationship in Tamil society between the king and the goddess. He writes,
“By installing the stone for the heroic Kannagi, Cenkuttuvan confirms the place as sa-
cred. By entering this sacred place, he is able to share in the goddess’ power.” He thus
institutionalizes the cult of the goddess. Simultaneously, he installs himself as a universal
emperor (chakravartin) who enjoys the protection of the goddess. The Greeks also has a
cult of stones. At Delphi, which they believed to be the exact centre or navel (omphalos)
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Silappadhikaram
of the earth, there was a beehive shaped stone that was sacred to Apollo. The city was
famous for its oracle, which figured prominently in myths. Mircea Elidae (Patterns in
Comparative Religion, 1949, pp. 233) notes that “the omphalos, in every tradition, is a
stone consecrated by a superhuman presence…. [It] bears witness of something, and it is
from that witness that it gets its value, or its position in the cult.” (p.292). In the Puram
domain;
THINAI FLOWER/TREE SITUATION
Vetci Scarlet Ixora Cattle Raiding
Vanci Indian Willow Invasion
Ulinai Balloon Vine Siege
Thumpai White Dead Nettle Pitched Battle
Vakai Sirissa Tree Victory
Kanci Portia Tree Impermanence of Life
Patan Not specified Praise of Kings
Mangalam, B. “Context and Concerns”. Silappadhikaram, Worldview Critical Editions, 2015.

Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the seven Thinais used for the portrayal of the external (Puram).
3.6 The Epic Elements

The epic elements of the text are intricately woven into the narrative right from the start,
manifesting as a poetic homage to the sun, moon, rain, and the city of Pukar. The subject
matter of this profound narrative poem, as delineated in Tantiyalankaram and further ex-
pounded in the Postscript of The Cilappatikaram (2004), is structured around four cardinal
ends, emphasizing the depth and richness of the poetic composition;
A great narrative poem should begin with one or more of the three elements: a
song in praise of God, invocation, and an introduction to the subject. The four ends
of humans should form its content. It should have a hero of incomparable greatness.
It should contain descriptions of mountains, the sea, land, city, the six seasons and
sic parts of the day, sunrise and moonrise. It should further describe the consumma-
tion of marriage, a coronation, the enjoyment of gardens and water sports, pleasures
of intoxication, the bearing of children, lovers’ quarrels, and sexual love. The state
council (with the king and his ministers), diplomatic missions, invasions, battles, and
victories should be a part of it. It should be divided into chapters called carukkam,
PAGE 93

ilampakam, or pariccelam (cantos). Ripe with mood and emotions, it should please,
and be the work of a learned man. (Parthasarathy, R. pp 302-3)
The consummation of marriage and the liaison between a courtesan and the male protag-
onist carries an erotic sentiment, vividly expressed through verbalizing the setting and
the actions. Scholars, however, contend that Silappadhikaram does not abide by the rules
of rasa dhvani as espoused in Bharat Muni’s Natyashastra. B. Mangalam in the ‘Context
and Concern’ of Silappadhikaram (2015) sheds light to the epic elements of the text;
The idea of threefold Tamil – poetry, music and dance – operates in Tamil
epics. They are, therefore, referred to as muttamilkappiyam. The form of Ilango’s
Silappadhikaram follows what could be termed a poetic sequence that incorporates
Iyal (poetry), Isai (music) and Natakam (dance) and is interspersed with prose sec-
tions. It is thus a unique, distinctly non-Sanskritic form of poetic composition. Its
indigenous structure and narratorial style are evidently different from western classical
epics. The term epic, in the context of Silappadhikaram, is a useful critical nomen-
clature but each time applied with an awareness of the inherent differences with its
western and Sanskritic counterparts. Tamil critical tradition has termed such works as
Silappadhikaram as iyal-isal-nataka-porul-todar-nilai-ceyyul. Todarnilaiceyyul implies
a long poetic composition with internal coherence and sequentiality. Silappadhikaram
in Tamil consists 5,730 lines in akval meter and is conjectured to be composed around
fifth century C.E…along with akval, the other meters used in this epic are kali and
Venpa. (p.9)
The character of Kannagi serves as the linchpin, weaving together the epic elements
of Silappadhikaram. Ilango exalts her for her generosity and enormity, portraying her as
a woman revered for her simplicity and righteousness. Kannagi embodies the essence of
Dharma and plays a pivotal role in establishing the heroic by wielding her power to rec-
tify injustice. The ‘Postscript’ of The Cilappatikaram (2015) defines the characterization
of protagonists in the epic as;
Kovalan and Kannagi are depicted as idealized types rather than as individuals.
This is in keeping with the conventions of the great narrative poem which stipulates
heroes and heroines of incomparable greatness. They are expected to live according
to their dharma and are therefore, not free to act on their own. Their actions are
predestined, and reflect little or no freedom of choice. Indeed, we sense a foreboding
of tragedy in Kovalan’s description. (pp. 394)
The Tirukkural delineates the four ends of life as duty, wealth, desire and liberation. While
the text primarily deals with only three of these four ends, its predecessor Manimekalai
deals with the fourth end which is the idea of liberation along with duty.
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Silappadhikaram
The protagonists of Silappadhikaram, Kovalan and Kannagi are idealized depictions living
in adherence to their duty. Kovalan’s fall, depicted through an extramarital affair, serves as
a consequence to his actions in a previous birth, where he had killed an innocent merchant
named Cankaman. The role of an unjust king further exemplifies the idea of clash between
duty and desire which results in the conflagration creating a liminal space for moral and
virtuous considerations, as seen in Canto XX. The Cilappatikaram (2015), translated by R.
Parthasarathy in its Introduction highlights the distinctive features of the epic;
In the Sanskrit and Greek epics, the action is centered around events in the court and
culminates in a great war. The action in Tamil epic is focused on events in the life
of two ordinary people from the influential merchant class that rose to prominence in
the centuries following the end of the Mauryan empire, events that ultimately bring
the protagonists into conflict with the Pantiya King. War, therefore, is not central to
the Tamil epic as it is to the Sanskrit and Greek. (pp. 8)
The vivid description of the location, accompanying the experiences of the characters, is
an important element of a great narrative poem as seen through the elaborate picturesque
description of Pukar, Maturai and Vanci, “The descriptions of Pukar, Maturai, and Vanci
in The Cilappatikaram are utopian”. (pp. 305)
The characters undertake significant journeys, both physical and emotional in the
epic. Kovalan and Kannagi’s journey from their happy marital life to the tragic events
that unfold in Pukar and Maturai forms a crucial part of the epic. The epic incorporates
elements of divine intervention, especially in the portrayal of goddesses and their influence
on the characters’ lives. Kannagi’s apotheosis and her confrontation with the goddess are
significant examples.
The Cilappatikaram also reflects the cultural and societal norms of ancient Tamil
society. It explores the complexities of interpersonal relationships, justice, and societal
structures. Not only this, it also addresses universal themes such as love, justice, morality,
and the human condition. These themes resonate across cultures and time periods, giving
the epic a timeless quality.
Check Your Progress
1. Write a brief note on the epic elements in Silappadhikaram.
3.7 The Poetics of Ilango

The national imagination of India, to some extent, is mythopoeic, as evidenced by texts
that provide exemplary insights into the socio-cultural, historical, geopolitical and tem-
PAGE 95

poral aspects of the Indian subcontinent. The myths at times are infused with rituals and
underscore ethical ideas. The poetics of Ilango, as employed in the text, is evident through
the exploration of two kinds of love- Kalavu (premarital & marital) and Karpu (extramar-
ital). A text titled Akapporul or The Meaning of Love divides premarital love under the
category of Thinais and further elaborates on marital love in the form of “Prital” which
illuminates the causes of separation of a husband from his wife;
(1) search for knowledge; (2) the pursuit of wealth; (3) the service of the king; (4)
the protection of the land; (5) the appeasement of enemies; and (6) consorting with
harlots. (Parthasarathy, R, pp 288)
“Parattai” or harlots are classified into three types- courtesans (katarparattaiyar),
concubines (irparattaiyar) and whores (ceriparattaiyar). While concubines were as wives
accepted in wealthy families, courtesans and whores had a public presence, catering to a
clientele with their vast repository of knowledge and through artistic performances. The
only demarcation between the two is through the character of Madhavi who is explicit in
her performance of art, unlike Kannagi. Madhavi has the freedom to choose her subject
of interest and to experience the bliss of conjugality as a courtesan without interfering
with the virtuous private domain of the male protagonist, for example, Canto VII.
The illegitimacy of the romance between Kovalan and Madhavi is well established
through Kovalan’s renouncement of Madhavi on the grounds of chastity. Ilango utilizes the
Akam tradition to depict the indirect aspects in his poetry. For instance, in Book 1, The
Book of Pukar, four of the seven Akam Thinais hint at unnatural conditions disturbing the
order of being: Mullai (patience of a woman waiting for her lover), Marutam (infidelity
of lovers), Neytal (fear of separation), and Palai (elopement of lovers from the family).
The earth is compared to the pain of the female protagonist Kannagi who is separated
from her lover, foreshadowing her apotheosis in reference to Tevior mother goddess earth,
the source of birth and vessel for the dead. The Postscript of The Cilappatikaram (2015)
foregrounds an important aspect of the female protagonist Kannagi;
The Cilappatikaram, it may be noted, contains the earliest record in the Indian
Tradition of the apotheosis of a woman not of the brahaman or ksatriya, but of the
vaisya, class – a woman of the people, exalted to the pantheon not for any heroic
deed but simply for being a chaste wife. (pp. 305)
Ilango also follows Puram tradition in delineating heroism in the epic. The narrative in the
third Book of the text, The Book of Vanci, is permeated with six of the seven Puram Thinais
as expressed in the third Book of the text, The Book of Vanci- Vanci, is the preparation
of war to take over enemies’ land; Ulinai signifies process towards victory through siege;
Tumpai is the battle waged against the enemy; Vakai is celebration of victory; Kanci is a
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Silappadhikaram
prelude to impermanence of life and the last Thinai Patanis the glorification of warrior’s
mettle in the adversity as exemplary;
Invasions, battles and victories. King Cenkuttuvan’s expedition to the Himalaya
and his defeat of northern kings such as Kanaka and Vijaya form the subject of canto
26 (Removing the stone). There are vivid battle scenes that follow the conventions
of the heroic genre…heroism is the mood of “The Book of Vanci.” (pp. 306)
The Tamil idea of Kingship, The Ritual origin of the poem and The Jaina background
are crucial in understanding the various subject matters of poetry established through uri
or the human element. According to the Post script of the text by R. Parthasarathy the
Tamil idea of kingship is based on an ideal king who shares the moral uprightness of The
Ramayana, distinct from the Homeric agency of humane interspersed with moral faults in
warriors. The Kappalar or the protector is as close to his subjects as he is to the cosmos
which can be witnessed in Ceral King’s victory as a righteous King. The Cilappatikaram
(2004) in its Post Script delineates the attributes of the Tamil idea of kingship;
The Cola King is an exemplary ruler…The Pantiya king bypasses the law; he has
Kovalan executed without a trial in his anxiety to be reconciled to the queen who at
the moment feigns a quarrel with him. The King’s rashness costs him his life, and
Maturai itself goes up in flames. (pp. 541)
King Cenkuttuvan establishes himself through the royal sacrifice and dedicating the me-
morial stone for goddess Pattini. R. Parthasarathy notes that “early Tamil kings used Vedic
sacrifices to confirm their sovereignty”. The king devoutly ensures that three of the four
human ends of wealth, desire and duty are performed expressing the “king’s conduct in
the terms of the ripening of his Karma” and progressing towards the fourth liberation.
The significance of fire becomes evident in restoring Dharma and establishing supreme
authority, blessed by the liberated widow Kannaki who attains deification;
The symbol of Kannaki has pulled together the different strands, religious, social,
and political, in the Tamil cultural experience…the Tamils identify chastity with female
spirituality. Kannaki embodies this best in the Tamil tradition. Her chastity empowers
her to dispense (niti): she humbles the Pantiya king and burns down Maturai. Her spir-
itual authority thus supersedes the purely temporal one of the king; notwithstanding the
gender and class differences between subject and ruler…Though Kannaki passed into
the heavens, her spiritual presence remains on the earth. Her apotheosis invests her
with power and dominion in heaven and on earth. As the goddess Pattini, she can now
perpetually intercede on behalf of her followers…the Tamil poem deals with the ascent
of a human (Kannaki) to divinity. The heterodox religions, Buddhism and Jainism, em-
phasized a human being’s innate ability to obtain salvation on his or her own. (pp. 330)
PAGE 97

Interestingly understanding the Jaina background of the poet Ilango, honored with the
title, Atikal, meaning an ascetic belonging to the Jaina sect, sheds light on the the ritual
origin of the poem;
Kannaki’s apotheosis is foretold by the goddess Maturapati in Canto 23 where
she explains to her the circumstances surrounding Kovalan’s unexpected death…the
goddess attributes Kovalan’s death to its karma again a law that Jainas developed
further than either the Hindus or Buddhists…The Jaina nun Kavunti starves herself
to death on hearing of Kovalan and Kannaki’s fate…By the time of the poem, Indra
had ceased to be an important god in the Hindu pantheon. He had become, on the
other hand, the foremost god of the Jainas and Buddhists…Ilanko introduces the
Jaina doctrine of Karma as a structural element in the narrative…The law of Karma
functions as a dominant motif in the poem. (Parthasarathy, R, pp. 327-336)
Silappadhikaram deals with the idea of the spiritual, originating from the Jaina
understanding of Karma, intertwined with the superhuman element embodied by the
figure of justice. This justice is dispensed through the authority of the Ceral king who
apotheosises the cult of Goddess Pattini. According to Gananath Obeyesekere, of late, the
Cult of Goddess Pattini has lost its prominence in Southern India but the idea of moth-
er goddess is still deep rooted in the tradition of Sri Lankan Buddhists and the Hindus.
Despite evidence supporting the survival of the cult in Kerala and Sri Lanka, its practice
has largely diminished in Tamil Nadu, “It is believed that the Kali-Bhagavati temple in
Kotunkolur, Cranganore district Kerala was originally a Pattini shrine…Pattini, as Obeyes-
ekere reminds us, is the only goddess in Indian mythology with one breast…A genre in
Malayalam folk songs, the torrampattu, “the song of origin,” tells the story of Kovalan
and Kannagi.” (pp. 331).
Check Your Progress
1. What are the four ends of ‘human’ and how does it influence the epic?
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Silappadhikaram
The Silappadhikaram: The Tale of an Anklet

Ilango Adigal
Part-II
The Book of Vanci
Shriya Pandey
3.8 The Cantos: Summary and Analysis
3.8.1 Canto XXIV: The Round Dance of the Hill Dwellers

The Canto has 26 stanzas and is divided into two parts. The first part celebrates Kannagi
who is elevated to the status of Goddess Pattini/Pathini, while the second part presents
a song sung by the hill dwellers, serving as a conversation between two friends. The
first stanza (lines 1-29) starts with the Hill Dwellers dancing and singing about meeting
Kannagi who was without her left breast, when they had gone to “play in the waterfalls,
to plunge in the springs”. According to Ethnomusicology and India (1968), “A study of
the music of the Indian tribes will bear it out…Their music is still culture-based. They
have different sets of songs and dance for different gods, festivals and ceremonies. Some
of them have also special songs and dance for wedding, harvesting and other important
agricultural work. Hunting songs and dances are also quite common among some tribes
in India…They have different songs for different festivals and ceremonies, but have only
two types of dance, namely, kol-kali (stick dance) and vatta-kali (dancing in a circle
without sticks)1” (p.11). The Round Dance of the Hill Dwellers is a form of Vatta-Kali.
Kannagi told these women about the fall of the city of Madurai. The narrative un-
folds as follows: Kovalan and Kannagi were happily married in the city of Puhar. Later,
Kovalan left Kannagi for courtesan Madhavi. In Canto IX, Tevanti discloses to Kannagi,
that her husband left her due to a vow Kannagi failed to keep in her past birth. To rec-
tify this, Kannagi must bathe in the seaside grove of the River Kaveri and worship at
the temple of Kama. Kannagi tells Tevanti about an ominous dream where she recounts
misfortune falling upon Kovalan and a kingdom. Kovalan returns to Kannagi as Madhavi
is merely a dancing girl. Kovalan tells Kannagi that he has lost his wealth. To remedy
their situation, Kannagi offers her anklet for sale, and Kovalan suggests they move to the
city of Madurai, following Kavunti’s advice to live under the care of cowherdess Matari.
1.
“They perform stick dance at the time of marriage, while on other occasions they have vatta-kali.”
B, Sudhibhushan. Ethnomusicology and India. Calcutta, Indian Publications, 1968.
PAGE 99

In Book 3, Kovalan goes to the city of Madurai to sell Kannagi’s anklet and shows
it to a goldsmith. The Queen of Pantiya’s anklet had recently been stolen and due to the
beauty of Kannagi’s anklet, it is mistakenly identified as the queen’s. Kovalan is framed
as a thief at the court of Pantiyan king and is executed. Kannagi, after receiving the news
of her husband’s death, goes to the court to seek justice. Kannagi proves to the king that
Kovalan was innocent by breaking apart her anklet that is filled with gems, while, the
queen’s anklet is filled with pearls. The Gods reveal to Kannagi that Kovalan’s death is
a result of his past Karma. In her grief, Kannagi tears her left breast apart and throws it
on the street of Maturai. To restore the order of things, the Gods intervene and Maturai
is engulfed in flames. When the hill dwellers hear of Kannagi’s valour and grief, they are
awestruck. They bow down to Kannagi and the gods rain flowers over her;
O People
Of small huts! Sound the great drum,
Sound the little drum, blow the horn,
Ring the loud bell, sing the Kurinci raga,
Offer strong incense, and rain flowers
In honour of this woman who has lost a breast
So that our mountains are forever blessed with plenty. (Trans. Parthasarathy, 1993,
p. 211)2
Lines 13-19 of the text bring out the oral residue in its vivacity. The mention of drums,
horns, bells, and the Kurinci raga reflects the hill dwellers’ performance traditions, lost in
bardic translation. Notably, it is the hill dwellers who primarily revere Kannagi as Tevi,
representing mother nature, fertility, and abundance.
Stanzas 2nd-26th represent the 4th song cycle of the epic. The other three song cycles
(‘The Love Songs of the Seaside Grove’, ‘The Songs and Dance of the Hunters’, ‘The
Round Dance of the Herds women’) are parts of Book 1 and 2. The 5th song cycle (‘The
Benediction’) forms a part of Book 3. The 4th song cycle ‘The Round Dance of the Hill
Dwellers’ is a song sung by the hill dwellers. The theme of the song is a conversation
between two friends. This song marks the transition from the elements of Akam/Agam
thinai to the Puram thinai in the third book of the epic. It is in this canto that the Agam
thinai used is the Kurinci thinai which signifies clandestine meeting of lovers. Thinais in
the epic provide an element of rapid succession of changes in the geographical location
2. The cantos cited have been translated by R. Parthasarathy.
Adigal, Ilango. The Cilappatikaram trans. R. Parthasarathy. New York, Columbia University Press,
1993. First Published in India 2004, Penguins Book India.
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Silappadhikaram
and a series of emotions tending toward a particular end. The song begins, the first friend
tries to cheer up the second friend who is waiting for her lover.
The Canto smoothly moves from the subject of Agam to Puram. This happens through
the intertwining of second friend’s situation with oral history of war and ascension. Stan-
zas 2-14 talk about the first friend suggesting her friend who is waiting for her lover
to bathe. She also sings the praise of the “lord of the eternal hills— / Centil, Cenkotu,
Venkunru and Krakam—”, “of the lord riding a peacock” who was nursed by six mothers
and brought down from “The Kuruku mountain”. Second friend disagrees, dismissing her
love as a “sickness” in stanzas 15-18. She says;
Good woman with arms ringed with bangles!
This makes me laugh: if the son of our lord
Who drank poison and sat under the banyan tree
Comes here, he is a bigger fool shaman
Who comes to rid me of the illness caused
By the man from the mountain of strong fragrance. (Trans. Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 214)
Stanzas 15-26 again show the first friend speaking to her friend recounting meeting the
man from the mountain. She says;
When he heard what I told him of the gossip
In our village, he left with a broken heart. (Trans. Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 216)
The first friend sings the praise of Kannagi who is as beautiful as Valli, the consort of
Lord Muruggan, and continues to tell the story of Kannagi’s apotheosis. She glorifies her
chastity and love for her husband and prays for Goddess Pattini’s blessings. The song
cycle ends with passing on the history of Chera’s victory over the northern kings with a
reference to their emblem of bow-arrow.
In an article titled Onranpakuti- a ‘Single part’ of the Tamil Epic Cilappatikaram
and its significance to the study of South Indian Vaisnavism (2014), Lynn Ate mentions
that the word means a part of the singular. The Kurinci raga sung by the hill dwellers
unlike the Tamil metric feet which has one, two or three metrical units, uses the three
metrical units and has a four-beat rhythm. It is also similar to the hunter’s song in the
text. The dance has been interpreted by the medieval commentaries of Bhakti saints who
were influenced by the Vaishnava school of thought. The voices of women, in conversation
with each other, engage in the stylistics of Agam thinais, such as, Mullai (Phase of love:
Waiting), Marutam (Phase of love: Sulking), along with, Puram thinais, such as, Kaanji
(Combat Situation: Transience of Life) and Padaan (Combat Situation: Praise of Kings).
PAGE 101

The dancing hill maidens honour Gods and the Chera King. The song cycle sung as
a conversation between friends apotheosises the new deity who is Kannagi, the goddess
of chastity.3
Check Your Progress
1. Who narrates the story of Kannagi’s apotheosis?
a. Hill Dwellers-Kuravas
b. Hill Dwellers-Kavunti
c. Hill Dwellers-Maravan
d. Hill Dwellers
2. Write a short note the ‘The Round Dance of the Hill Dwellers’.
3. Write a short note on Thinais used in the Canto.
4. Which thinai is used in the Canto?
a. Agam-Puram
b. Puram
c. Agam
d. None of the above
3.8.2 Canto XXV: The Choice of a Stone

The Canto has 202 lines. Lines 1-21, are a description of the Chera King, “Cenkuttuvan”,
who is illustrious and carved a bow emblem on the Himalaya and queen, “Ilanko Venmal”.
The King and queen, decide to go the mountains “where the groves were thick/ With clouds
and the waterfalls leaped with the roar”. The Puram thinai used here is Padaan (Combat
situation: Praise of Kings). They leave from Vanci and travel for 1260 miles with their
royal attendants, to reach the fine sand dunes of the Periyar river. Lines 22-29, narrate
the beauty of the fine sand dunes;
Fully opened flowers from the cottonwood, kino,
The laburnum in clusters, gamboge, redwood,
3. The definitions of thinai has been taken from Worldview Critical editions, Translated by R. Parthasarathy and
edited by B. Mangalam.
Adigal, Ilango. Silappadhikaram trans. R. Parthasarathy. Delhi, Bookland Publishing Co., 2021.
102 PAGE

Silappadhikaram
And fragrant sandalwood, Swarms of bees

And insects hovered over them. Here he stopped. (Parthasarathy, 1993, pp. 219-220)
Lines 30-59, mark a shift in the scene. The dancing hill dwellers make their presence
known before the Chera King, expressing their acceptance of his sovereignty through the
performance of the vallai song. The Puram thinai, specifically Vetchi and Ulinai, serves
as an appraisal of the relationship between the hill dwellers and the Chera King.
In this demonstration of loyalty and acknowledgment, the hill dwellers engage in a
peaceful and harmonious interaction with the Chera King. They willingly offer tribute to
the king and celebrate his arrival with joy and reverence. This act not only reinforces the
authority of the Chera King but also highlights the positive and cooperative relationship
between the hill dwellers and the ruler.
The use of the vallai song in this context suggests a cultural expression of accep-
tance and unity, symbolizing the integration of the hill dwellers into the larger political
framework under the Chera King’s rule. This moment reflects a harmonious coexistence
and mutual respect between different communities within the Chera Kingdom4;
The hill dwellers came before him. They carried
Of elephants, piles of Englewood, whisks
Of deer hair, pots pf honey, sticks
Of sandalwood, lumps of sindura, Kohl
And orpiment, stalks of cardamom and pepper,
Coconuts, ripe mangos, wreaths of green leaves,
Jackfruits, garlic, sugarcane, flowering creepers,
Clusters of areca nuts from rich palms,
Bunches of sweet plantains, cubs of lion
And tiger, baby elephants, young monkeys,
4. In Book 2, Kannagi and Kovalan are left in the care of Matari by Jaina ascetic Kavunti, of the Hills’
people, a cowheardess. They crossed “Uraiyar” to reach the city of Maturai. Also, the first witness
of Kannagi after the breast has been wrenched off her chest by her are the hill people. According to
Role of Peasants in the Early History of Tamilakam (1988), “Of these the Marutam regions were the
fertile agricultural tracts along the fertile river valleys with prosperous villages known as Ur inhabited
by peas called Ulavar, Vellalar etc. in literature. The terms Ulavar literally means ploughmen and
the term Vellalar literally means masters of the soil indicating possession of land rather than work on
other’s land for wages”.
PAGE 103

Small bears, mountain hinds, fawns,

The young of deer, musk deer, harmless mongooses,
Peacocks with brilliant feathers, civet cats,
Wild hens, and sweet-talking parrots. (Parthasarathy, 1993, pp. 220-221)
The Hill Dwellers play a multifaceted role beyond being the mere conveyors of
historical accounts and birth stories of deities. Their acceptance of the Chera King as
their sovereign serves as a testament to the political structure prevalent in ancient Tamil
Kingship and reflects the collective memory of territorial affiliations.
The songs and dances performed by the Hill Dwellers hold immense cultural signif-
icance, constituting a vital aspect of their identity. Through these artistic expressions, the
Hill Dwellers not only preserve their history but actively contribute to the codification
of their own cultural narrative. The performances become a living history, embodying the
unique identity and heritage of the Hill Dwellers.
In embracing the Chera King as their sovereign, the Hill Dwellers contribute to the
broader tapestry of ancient Tamil polity. Their acceptance signifies a complex interplay of
political allegiance, cultural exchange, and a shared sense of belonging within the larger
Tamil Kingdom. This symbiotic relationship between the rulers and the Hill Dwellers
showcases the dynamic nature of ancient Tamil society, where cultural practices and po-
litical dynamics were intricately interwoven.
In the article Three Perspectives on Music and the Idea of Tribe in India (2001)
Richard Kent Wolf posits;
Indira Peterson similarly argues that in the later Sangam “Cilappatikaram... the differ-
ences in form, purpose and aesthetic between the urban-courtly and rural/communal/
folk [and tribal is part of this half of the dichotomy] art does not seem to be based
on major distinctions in cultural consciousness between people of the two social
groupings” (Peterson 1998, 49). These differences in consciousness emerged in part,
she suggests, in the 18’h century under the impact of migrations and political changes
of the preceding two centuries. The dramatic art that Peterson uses to discuss these
changes, the Kuravanci dance drama, is an excellent example of “popular represen-
tation” of tribe and related social categories. (Wolf, 2001, p. 31)
Lines 60-94 are addressed to the Chera King. The speakers of lines 60-68 are Hill
dwellers. They say that they have been king’s “vassals” referring to them being feudal ten-
ants for seven generations and praying for his lineage’s long rule. Lines 69-94 are spoken
by the famed Tamil poet “Cattan” who narrates the story of Kannagi and her apotheosis
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Silappadhikaram
to Chera King Cenkuttuvan/Senguttuvan. On hearing of the injustice of Pantiyan5 ruler

the Chera king in lines 95-106 describes the dharma or duty of a king;
By crowned kings the Pantiyan lies condemned.
And before the news reached our ears, it is well
He gave up his life. Now the king’s death has made
The scepter upright, bent by the inexorable hand
Of Fate. When the rains fail, disaster strikes.
If men suffer injustice, fear grips the land.
To forswear tyranny and ensure the welfare
Of his subjects is the king’s duty. Born
Of a noble line, suffering is his lot. His throne
Is not to be envied. (Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 222)
The above lines highlight three important domains of Puran, Pitched Battle (Tumbai
Thinai), Victory (Vaagai Thinai) and Transience of life (Kaanji Thinai). The notion of
pitched battle in this context is unseeable, until we look at the political division of territory
between the Chera, the Chola and the Pantiya. The Chola King Karikala was the grand-
father of Chera King Cenkuttukan. The Pantiya kingdom is said to have been established
by the Greeks (Check footnote 4) though it is debatable. Yet, in Book 1, in The Chapter
of Puhar, there are some lines which may also suggest the influx of Christianity given
that it was a port town and flourished on trade; “Cankam poetry us generally thought to
stem from the first two centuries of the christian era” (Yocum, 1973, p.8), for example,
Canto IX6 recounts Tevanti;
5. It may be gathered that before the time of Alexander, the Tamil states, comprising some of the earliest racial
elements in India, had been organized under a dynasty that had originated in northern, that is Aryan, India, and
that in all probability established itself in Southern India as the result of a naval attack and invasion. This dynasty
had first borne the name of Pandya, and it claimed descent from Pandu, the father of the Pandava brothers, the
heroes of the war re- counted in the Mahabharata. Several references in Greek literature speak in this connection.
Arrian (Indika, VIII) derives the dynasty from Pandaea, “only daughter of Heracles among many sons. The land
where she was born and over which she ruled was named Pandaea after her”.
Schoff, Wilfred H. “Tamil Political Divisions in the First Two Centuries of the Christian Era.” Journal of the
American Oriental Society, vol. 33, 1913, pp. 209–13. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/592826.
6. According to the ‘Postscript’ in The Cilappatikaram (Translated by R. Parthasarathy), 1993; the work was discovered
by U.V. Caminataiyar (b. 1855) and was first published in 1872.
PAGE 105

Taking the Child in her arms, she entered7

The temple of the wishing tree of the immortals,
The temple of the white elephant, the temple
Of the beautiful white god, the temple
Of the sun, lord of the meridian, who comes…(Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 88)
The fall of Pantiyan and the victory of Chera is also an establishment of the new rule.
The context of transient life, which is an important binding theme in the epic can be
understood in two ways: first, the philosophy justifies the rule of the king as a divine
sanction; second, it aims to establish Dharma or duty.
The Philosophy of transience of life, as employed in the epic, justifies the rule of the
king. Human Civilization and social progress go hand in hand. The ancient societies were
shifting from the migratory hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a more settled agrarian lifestyle
in India. As communities formed, there arose a need for a governing system that could
adapt to the changing needs of the people, including financial, food, and security concerns,
among others. The combination of physical power, warfare technique, and material wealth
eventually led to hereditary rule. As the moral and patriotic judgements began to shape
up the office of the kings, the supremacy of the divine became paramount to maintain the
order within the cosmic cycle of life. Archaeology has documented ritualistic behaviors
in the Middle Paleolithic era, and worship has always been a part of the civilizations. In
ancient Tamil society, Glenn E. Yocum’s article Shrines, Shamanism, and Love Poetry:
Elements in the Emergence of Popular Tamil Bhakti (1973) highlights;
The focus on sacred places in early Tamil religion is amply confirmed in Cankam
literature. There is some evidence that certain places originally derived their sacredness
from a tree or stone which was considered to embody sacred power. Although it is a
matter of speculation why particular locations originally came to be thought of as holy,
it is clear that by Cankam times, i.e., by the beginning of the Christian Era, shrines
associated with particular deities were flourishing in South India. (Yocum, 1973, p.8)
Hence, the canto in using Puram thinai, Kaanji (Transience of Life), justifies the rule of
the king by establishing his moral superiority as a rational motive dictated by the good
sense given to him by the Gods. The concept of Dharma or Duty is an outgrowth of the
association of sacredness with the value system of governance in ancient Tamil society.
Fate and justice in the epic are also defined according to the divine realm of omnipresent
and omniscient providence.
7. Tevanti’s marriage to Lord Cattan, the dream sequences, intervention by Gods, divine visions, all of this constitute
the Epic elements of The Cilappatikaram.
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Silappadhikaram
Lines 107-117 are a conversation between the Chera king and queen. The king en-
quires which of the two women- the first woman being Kannagi who sacrificed her life
to prove Kovalan’s innocence and the second being the Pantiyan queen who died of grief
after hearing the news of her husband’s death- is more virtuous. The Chera queen responds
that the Pantiyan queen should be blessed with the joys of heaven, but it is Kannagi who
should be revered and honored. The Chera queen’s response is pivotal in understanding
the social markers of the diplomatic conduct in given particular situation.
In lines 118-144, the canto shifts to the Puram Thinai, Tumbai (Combat situation:
Pitched Battle). It starts as a conversation between the King and his councillors who sug-
gest bringing a stone from the Himalayas to engrave the image of Goddess Pattini. The
King agrees, asserting that if the King of the mountains refuses the stone, he will wage
war against them. In lines 145-179, the preparation for war unfolds, utilizing the Puram
Thinai Vaanji. Villain Kotai, the minister of the King, asks a message to be sent to the
kings of the north, sealed with the emblem of bow, fish and tiger8. In Lines 180-202, an-
other minister Alumpilvel suggests announcing the message with drums instead of sending
a message to the northern kings, believing that the spies of the northern king, who live
on the outskirts of Maturai, will send the message across. The message is as follows;
May our gracious king live forever! May he protect
The world from one age to the next. Our king
Marches north to get a stone from the Himalaya
Engraved with his bow-emblem. O kings
Of the northern countries! Go forth and pay
Him tribute. Remember the heroic acts
Of our king who tore apart the Calamba oak
From the sea, and engraved his bow-emblem
On the forehead of the Himalaya. If you refuse
To listen, leave your wives and become
Hermits. May the army live forever,
Dear as his own face to the king of victorious anklets (Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 226)
According to “A Critical Commentary” by B. Mangalam in Silappadhikaram (2021),
Canto XXV “ushers in the heroic domain with one of the puramthinais, Vanji. This thi-
nai highlights the preparation for the war and is the first of seven puram thinais with its
8. Bow: Chera, Tiger: Chola, Fish: Pantiyan.
PAGE 107

accompanying thurai (theme), Korravanji indicating the praise of a king who destroys his
enemies valiantly at the battlefield. The (Tamil) title of this canto, Kaatchi, indicates the
first stage of the ritual pertaining to nadukal/memorial stone.”9 (p.220)
Check Your Progress
1. Write a short note on the Thinais used in the Canto.
2. Explain the title, The Choice of Stone.
d. Kottai
3.8.3 Canto XXVI: Removing the Stone

The canto has 273 lines. Lines 1-21, focus on the preparation for the battle. Chera King
marches towards the north with his army and speaks to the public. Enraged by the northern
kings challenging the authority of the southern kings, the Chera king prepares for conflict.
In Lines 22-87, Chera King is praised for his valour and receives blessings from the
priests. The Puram thinais are interspersed in the canto, with Patan/Padaan glorifying the
warrior and Kanci/Kaanjithinai emphasizing the impermanence of life. The castebutams in
the Cheral kingdom play an important role in the ministry with the purohitas vocalizing
the sacred chants of divine proportion and instilling the soldiers with vigour. The Cheral
king Cenkuttuvan practices an orthodox religion but without any sectarian bias. The role
of fire, well established in the previous cantos as being sacrosanct, is shown to be of holy
consequence in canto XXVI too. It contributes to the epic elements as it establishes the
channel of communication with the divine.
B. Mangalam in her critical commentary on the Silappadhikaram (2021) posits that
the new form of worship marks a cultural shift from Book 1 and 2. “The reference to
sacrificial fires points to the influence of Aryans over the Dravidian communities by this
period. The friction between northern and southern kings indicate greater movement of
ethnic groups within the sub-continent…Cultural practices show extensive presence of
brahmanical rituals…The worship of Shiva, Murugan, Vishnu, along with the prevalence
of beliefs and ideas of Jainism represented in Book 1 and 2 find an addition of a new
deity in Book 3, namely the Pathini Kadavul in whose honour a temple is sought to be
9. K. Rajan in Territorial Divisions Gleaned from Memorial Stones highlights that, “Commemoration of heroism is a
universal act. Paying homage to the departed soul by erecting a memorial or edifice in honour of the people who
laid down their lives for the sake of their society is an age-old practice in India. The character and design, the
media and content of the memorials varied through the ages and space. The early memorial stones were raised in
memory of the heroes who died in cattle raids but later were erected to honour the deceased who died in other
circumstances too. The megalithic tombs, stupas, memorial stones, pillars and other allied ancient architectural
edifices found in south India are basically memorials” (2001, p.1)
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Silappadhikaram
built in Book 3. The worship of Pathini initiates a new form of worship, a cult-worship of
human being defied as a goddess capable of blessing the king and her subjects.” (p. 225)
In Lines 88-108, the Chera King reaches the foothills of the blue mountains where he
is blessed by the sages who worship Shiva; “Listen, O Ceral, born in Vanci/ Through the
grace of Siva of the matted hair! We are on our way to the Malaya hills,/ And it is your
duty to protect the learned Brahmans/ Who live there” (Parathasarathy, 1993, p. 231). P.
Coomaraswamy, in II-King Senkuttuvan of the Chera Dynasty (1895), remarks;
After he ascended the throne he went, as already stated, with his mother on a pil-
grimage to the Ganges, of which journey nothing is known. But he went again several
years afterwards to Northern India, this time on a tour of conquest, of which some
particulars may be gathered from Chilappatikáram , as also other works - e.g., Paraņar
in Padittuppattu, Maņimekhalai ; Nattattanar in Sirupánáttuppadai, &c.
According to these, the king was one day informed by some pilgrims who had returned
from North India, that the northern princes mockingly said that the Tamil kings of
the day, unlike their warlike ancestors, had become effeminate. This so provoked him
that he declared he would forthwith march to the North and conquer the princes who
sneered at him, and compel them to carry on their heads stone from the Himalayas for
fashioning the statue of the goddess Pattini to be placed in the temple which, at the
request of his queen, he had determined to build. (Coomaraswamy, 1895, pp. 32-33)
In Lines 110-136, dancers from the Konkani country, dancers from the Kutaku coun-
try and panegyrists, all come to bless the Cheral king. Lines 137-172 are a conversation
between “Samjaya”, the leader of messengers, sent by the northern kings and Cheral King
Cenkuttuvan/Senguttuvan. The Cheral king replies;
Kanaka and Vijay
Sons of Balakumara, and other northern kings
With unbridled tongues poured scorn
On the Tamil kings during a banquet, ignorant
Of their courage. Like the god of death, this army
Marches forth with untamed fury. Inform
King Satakarni and ask him to get ready
For us as large fleet of boats to cross the holy Ganga (Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 233)
Lines 174-273 follow the aesthetic stylistic Puram domain of the Vancithinai to de-
scribe the preparation of war to take over enemies’ land; Ulinai to announce the movement
towards victory through siege; Tumpai to show the battle waged against the enemy and
PAGE 109

Vakai to celebrate victory is unique to the Sangam. Nature plays a very important role in
the life of the people of the ancient Tamil society.
The ingenious use of landscapes has also been constrained as an oral residue while
it is evidenced to be true by scholars. Yet, the ecocentric understanding of uri, karu, and
mutual elements is unique to Sangam literature from the south of the India. “Danced to
the music of ghost with eyes/ Like drumheads”, is a reference to Pinrerkkuravai which
is a war dance of celebrating the chariot which brought victory to the Cheral king. The
criticism of soldiers who cast off their war garments to adorn ascetic robes is significant
in understanding the atrocity of wars where innocent blood is shed and makes it an un-
righteous Karma that cannot be justified through the Dharma.
Check Your Progress
1. The Chera King, Cenkuttuvan, is going in which direction to bring the memorial
stone
a. North
b. South
c. East
d. West
2. Write a short note on the allies of Cenkuttuvan.
3.8.4 Canto XXVII: The Lustration

The Canto, consisting of 276 lines, begins with; “The image of the goddess Pattini, giver
of rain, was engraved on the stone brought from the renowned Himalaya” (Parthasarathy,
1993, p. 276). The Chera King defeated the northern kings bringing a stone to edify Kan-
nagi as Goddess Pattini. The memorial stone is not only a site of worship but also a mark
of territory. In the article Territorial Division as Gleaned from Memorial Stones (2001),
the author highlights how commemoration has always been a part of the ancient Tamil
Culture. In another article The Lay of the Anklet (1968) Kamil. V. Zvelebil (1927-2009)
a renowned Czech scholar of Tamil linguistics and literature defines The Cilappatikaram/
Silappadhikaram as;
First of all, What is Silappadhikaram? According to Adiyarkunnallar, the medieval
commentator on the work, it is an iyal-icai-nãtaka-porul-totar-nilai-c-ceyyul, which
means “a poetical work dealing with a story with elements of song and dance or
music and drama.” This is not a bad definition of the main properties of the work,
but it is hardly a satisfactory answer to the question: What is Silappadigaram?
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Silappadhikaram
My answer is:
1. It is a saga of the cult of Goddess Pattini.
2. I t is the first literary expression and the first ripe cultural fruit of the Dravidi-
an-Aryan synthesis.
3. I t is the first consciously national work of Tamil literature, a literary expression
of the fact that the Tamils had by that time attained nationhood.
4. It is, of course, a supreme work of art.
K.V. Zvelebil’s definition for the narrative and subject matter of the epic The Ci-
lappatikaram (1968) proportionately defines the domain of Puram thinai as can also be
discerned from the Canto. In lines 1-50, we notice that the Cheral King is a just ruler, a
brave warrior and an honorable man. The enemy northern soldiers are praised for their
noble lineage by the “goblins with sunken eyes; who had died…To each soldier, he
said:/“Come here”/A golden sirissa flower he offered him.” (Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 239).
The Goblins10 in the narrative are an instance of “Mutal” Alvar11 Bhakti tradition12, who
in their hymns sang “Tirivikiraman” of mystics meeting God Visnu, in the The Vedas and
Bhakti Harmonized- Kovalur: The Mutual Alvars and Tirymankai (2021), a goblin is the
mystic “Putam”, which also signifies “truth”. According to Glenn E. Yocum in Shrines,
Shamanism and Love Poetry (1973), “As opposed to the Brahmanical tradition, the early
bhakti laid no emphasis on caste. One could not be disqualified from becoming a devotee
because of of caste” (p. 7). Hence, the repetitive reference to the tribal and folk rituals,
dances and forms of worship converging with the history of war and victory in The Ci-
lappatikaram serves as a point of interaction with other religions and cultures, in ancient
Tamil Sangam period.
In lines 51-124, Brahman Mātalan narrates the fate of the family and friends of
Kovalan and Kannagi. Matari, the cowheardess, in whose care the ascetic Kavunti had left
Kovalan and Kannagi on hearing the news of Kannagi’s fate leapt into the fire. Ascetic
Kavunti similarly starved herself to death. Mātalan informed the family of Kovalan and
Kannagi living in Puhar about their demise. Kovalan’s father renounced his wealth and
entered the “sevenfold monastery of Indra”, Kovalan’s mother died due to grief. Kannagi’s
10. According to the ‘Postscript’ in The Cilappatikaram (1993), translated by R. Parthasarathy, although “The Book of
Pukar/Puhar” (Book 1) was published by U.V. Caminataiyar in 1872, the other two books were published in 1892.
11. There are twelve types of Alvar saints, they belong to the Vaisnava sect of Bhakti tradition.
12. A shrine-centered cult, shamanistic features, and a nascent form of bhakti, worship of Murukan, seem to appear
in new form in the later Bhakti movements. Perhaps this ancient Tamil cult, when brought into contact with
Brahmanical traditions regarding the quest for salvation and the cults of the gods Visnu and Siva, given the
historical situation of seventh-century South India, provided the stimulus for the development of popular Tamil
bhakti. (Yocum, 1973, p.17)
PAGE 111

father took vows before the Ajivikas13 and observed penance, and his wife died of grief.
Madhavi/Matavi the courtesan on hearing the news of the death of her lover Kovalan
decided to send her daughter Manimekalai to a Buddhist nunnery.
In lines 125-276, Brahman Mātalan is given “fifty measures of gold” equal to the
body weight of the Chera king. The Chera King then speaks to the Northern kings and
rages against the princes who fled the battlefield disguised as ascetics like eunuchs. The
Chera King leaves the northern plains and begins his journey back to the Chera kingdom.
The portrayal of the Chera queen’s excitement underscores the significance of her role
not only as an individual but also as a representative of the broader sentiments within the
kingdom. The lines capture the collective joy and pride of the people in the return of their
victorious king. This portrayal aligns with traditional cultural expectations, where the queen
is not only a partner but also a symbol of the prosperity and well-being of the kingdom.
Furthermore, the reflection on the role of wives and the sacrifices they are willing
to make for their husbands emphasizes a patriarchal societal setup. The narrative suggests
a perceived duty of wives to safeguard the reputation and well-being of their husbands,
reinforcing traditional gender roles. The idea that a wife’s existence is closely tied to
her husband’s presence reflects a perspective rooted in patriarchal norms prevalent in the
depicted society.;
The wives have to bear the consequences of their husbands actions as they are ‘ideal
wives’. The portrayal of the wife is couched in the patriarchal set up of the society
whereby both the wives were more than willing to sacrifice their ornaments for the
well-being of their husbands. It almost emerges like it was the wives duty to safe-
guard the image of her husband and that alone was the most important thing in her
life. The second point that is that without her husband, there was no reason for a
wife to live…It is noteworthy that the women’s world had an end that met with the
ideals of patriarchy. (Singh, 2014, p.105)
The canto progresses its narrative with the Song of the Hill dwellers who are singing the
praise of the victorious Chera King. The cowherds play the Flutes and the fisherwomen
sing love songs. The Chera King “drawn by elephants, entered Vanci” (Parthasarathy, 1993,
p. 248). The songs correspond with three different phases—Erotic, Mythic and Heroic.
13. Ajivikas is the Nāstika (Heterodox) school of thought in Indian Philosophical tradition. They did not believe on
Vedas to be the only authoritative text and fate according to them is time and karmic cycle which determines
the role and destination of soul.
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Silappadhikaram
Check Your Progress

1. Explain the emergence of early Bhakti elements, with reference to the Canto.
2. Critically examine the sequence of the conversation between Matalan and Cenkuttuvan.
3.8.5 Canto XXVIII: The Dedication of the Memorial Stone

The Canto has 240 lines. Lines 1-45, continue with the celebratory modality of Canto XX-
VII, and women disperse through the streets of Vanci. “The presence of festivals and the
courtesans and artistes in the cities seem to be a thread binding all the sources…” (Par-
thasarathy, 1993, p. 101). In The Cilappatikaram the women are either chaste, or public
women, but one role that they have in common within the text is of providing pleasure and
softness to the harsh world of men. The Agam and Puram thinai then can be contextual-
ized as feminine and masculine principles which overlap at times while also being strictly
distinct from each other. In lines 46-80 the Chera king meets his queen Venmal and their
meeting is celebrated as follows;
Then a Cakkaiyan, an expert in dance from Paraiyur14
Renowned for brahmans proficient in the four Vedas,
Performed for the king’s pleasure the kotticcetam
Danced by Siva, with Uma as part of himself,
To the rhythm of the tinkling anklet on his feet.
(Prthhasarathy, 1993, p. 251)
The performance of Cakkaiyan is significant for the
epic, as it is an important point of conflation between
the folk/tribal and the court. Also, ‘Maturapati’ the
clan deity of the Pantiyan lineage is a form of Ard-
hanarisvara. The image has been taken from the article
Dance of Ardhanari as Pattini-Kannaki—with special
reference to the Cilappatikaram (2000). In the article
R.K.K. Rajarajan; Figure 1: Dancing Ardhanari, Bronze,
In the Cilappatikaram, the folk deity Pattini-Kannaki Colombo Museum, No. 1982.88.1
(after VON SCHROEDER 1991:107)
is compared with many gods and goddesses of
the Hindu pantheon. Later, as a result of Sanskritization, the folk deity of the Tamil
country is identified with Siva as Ardhanårï̧svara. Before taking up the Colombo
14. Paraiyur is a folk dance, the word ‘Parai’ means drum.
PAGE 113

bronze for discussion, a succinct account of the previous works on the subject and
the image may be presented…The Colombo museumPattini-Kannaki image is the only
one of its type ever reported.
565743912. WICRAMAGAMAGE was the first to write about the image in 1980
identifying it as “Ardhanårisvara in the form of Hari-Hara”. Consequently, in 1983
and 1990 he again published the image and discussed the above concept. He dates
the image to 9th century.
565743913. MIRANDO (1982) identifies it as “Avalokitesvara and ̃Sakti”.
565743914. WIJESEKERA (1984) identifies the image as “Ardhanarisvara” and
dates it to the 9th-10th century.
565743915. PREMATILLEKE (1986) also identifies it as “Ardhanarisvara” and
dates it to the 5th-6th century.
565743916. LAKDUSINGHE (1987) discusses all the earlier works on the image;
he also cites the Cilappadikåram. He accepts the identification of the icon as “Ard-
hanåri”, dating it to circa 7th-10th century.
565743917. HETTIARATCHI (1990) identifies it as “Ardhanarinatesvara” and dates
it specifically the reign of King Manavamma (684-718 A.D.) as the figurine has some
characteristic features of Pallava sculpture.
565743918. Von SCHROEDER cites in his works (1990, 1991&1992) the above
Sri Lankan scholars and brings the icon under the heading Ardhanårïsvara. He dates
the icon to the 7th-8th century, as it is of the Late Anurådhåpura period. (Rajarajan,
2000, pp. 402-403)
Lines 81-240, is a conversation between the Chera king, brahman Mātalan, Nīlan and the
messengers in the audience hall of his palace. The narrative in the canto shifts when the
king, who is enjoying the dance with his queen, is informed by the gatekeeper, of the ar-
rival of messengers, Mātalan and Nīlan. Nīlan conveyed to the Chera king the “indiscreet”
remarks by the Chola and Pantiya kings condemning the brutality shown by the Chera
King against the northern kings. Cenkuttuvan laughed on hearing the views of Chola and
Pantiyan kings. Brahman Mātalan came up with the solution that Cenkuttuvan (Chera King)
should perform “great sacrifice/ With the help of priests versed in the four vedas” (Par-
thasarathy, 1993, p.255) and free the northern kings who were in Chera King’s captivity;
He (Chera King) ordered the Arya kings
Removed from prison and taken outside the city
Of Vanci of great renown to Velavikko Palace,
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Silappadhikaram
Enclosed by ponds and cool groves.

They were informed they could return
To their cities at the end of the sacrifice…(Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 254-55)
Chera king not only made preparation for the great sacrifice, he also freed the northern
kings and ordered his revenue ministers to remit all the taxes of the citizens. The Puram
thinai used in the following lines is Kaanji (Transience of life). Brahman Mātalan engages
in a reasoned discourse with the Chera king, emphasizing the cycle of Karma and the
king’s duty to maintain balance. He advises the king to release the northern kings and
perform the great sacrifice. This strategic action of the Chera King not only situates him
in a position of power and respect amongst the Pantiya and Chola kings but also earns
him the favor of the people of his kingdom.
According to Role of Peasants in the Early History of Tamilakam (1988), “At this
juncture the advent of the brahmins as the courtiers an priests of the Tamil chiefs, in
combination with a variety of oth factors, led to the rise of the three dan chiefs of the
interior, the Cera, Cola and the Pandya, and the strengthening of the machinery of State
The growth of Roman trade in the early centuries of the Christian era might have played
a part in this process, but it had no enduring impact on the predominantly agrarian social
structure. The acceleration stratification expressed itself through the brahmin-chieftain
alliance. It also led to the formation of a temple-centred and caste-oriented feudal social
structures.” (Narayanan, 1988, p. 26).
In lines 215-240, Goddess Pattini is extolled for establishing justice by making the
Tamil Kings realise that “The virtue of women is useless if the king/Rules unjustly.” (Par-
thasarathy, 1993, p. 256). She is deified with the help of Chera King and his counsellors
who installed the stone15 of Goddess Pattini and performed a dedication. According to
Kamil V. Zvelebil in The Lay of the Anklet (1968); “Anyhow, the cult of Kannagi- Pattini
must have been well established in Cheranad; but, at the same time, Jainism and Buddhism
were still flourishing in the South, which shows also that Ilango composed his poem
sometime between the end of the fifth and the beginning of the seventh century” (p. 10).
According to B. Mangalam in Silappadhikaram (2021) Goddess Pattini becomes the
source for legitimizing the rule of the Chera King, her power is wielded for social and
15. In January 1968, a statue of Kannaki, the protagonist of the Tamil epic Silappatikaram was installed on the
Marina beach front in Madras. It marked the arrival of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a regional
party, as an independent ruling party of Madras state in 1967. It also marked the event of the International
Tamil Conference held that year. The statue stands there to this day. The inscription in English identifies her as
Kannaki: The Perfection of Chastity. Prabha Rani and Vaidyanathan Shivkumar in An Epic as a Socio Political
Pamphlet , publishedin 2011, in the journal Portes.
PAGE 115

political authority of the Chera Kingdom. Kannagi in her divine form as Goddess Pattini
becomes the symbol of chastity, dispenser of justice, and upholder of divinely ordained
fate. The essays of Gananath Obeyesekere, and V.S. Rajam are discussed in part 3 of this
Study Material to understand the significance of Goddess Pattini in the epic.
Check Your Progress
1. Write a short note on The Great Sacrifice performed by Cenkuttuvan.
2. Examine the role go Cenkuttuvan, as a kind and just king.
3. Whose memorial stone was deified by Cenkuttuvan?
a. Kannagi
b. Kovalan
c. Matari
d. Kavunti
3.8.6 XXIX: The Benediction

The Benediction is the last song cycle of the epic with 29 stanzas. The first stanza narrates
the family history of Cenkuttuvan. The stanza ends with Tevanti, Kannagi’s foster moth-
er, Kannagi’s close friend, and Aiyai- The daughter of herdswoman Matari16 journeying
towards Cenkuttuvan’s palace in Vanci. In the article II-King Senkuttuvan17 of the Chera
Dynasty (1895) P. Coomáraswámy brings forth the available material on King Cenkuttu-
van/ Senkuttuvan of the Chera dynasty in Tamil literature. According to him, the Chera
king was the son of King Seralatan and Queen Sonai/Natsonai, Sonai was the daughter of
Chola king Karikala. Seralatan had two sons, the elder Cenkuttuvan and younger Ilango
Adigal/Ilankoadikal. Once a priest prophesied that the young Ilango Adigal will succeed
the throne of Chera and not Senkuttuvan. Hence, Ilango Adigal renounced the world and
lived in Kunavayil—a town east of Vanci—and wrote the epic The Cilappatikaram.
Stanzas 2-4 of the Canto are a monologue by Tevanti, Kannagi’s foster mother and
close friend. Stanza 2, is the monologue of Tevanti who introduces herself as a friend of
Kannagi to King Cenkuttuvan of Chera. Stanza 3 comprises the monologue of the foster
mother, who identifies herself as the caretaker of young Kannagi. She describes Kannagi
as a dutiful, kind, and brave woman to the Chera King. The fourth stanza presents the
16. Matari was the herdwoman in whose care Jaina ascetic Kavunti left Kovalan and Kannagi in Book 2: The Chapter
of Madurai. Matari self-immolated after hearing about the death of Kovalan and Kannagi’s fate.
17. Senguttuvan, Cenkuttuvan and Senkuttuvan are different spellings of the same name. Cenkuttuvan is the Chera
King in the epic. He establishes the shrine of Goddess Pattini-Kannagi.
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Silappadhikaram
monologue of a close friend of Kannagi, introducing herself to the Chera king as a friend
of the dutiful and chaste Kannagi. The narrative strategy of the epic, as discussed by B.
Mangalam in his critical commentary on Silappadhikaram (2021), draws inspiration from
bardic oral traditions. This influence is evident in the arrangement of prose and lyrics one
after another in the canto, forming a pattern that guides the narrative towards its conclusion.
The epic introduces the element of chance and fate, exemplified by the reappearance
of Tevanti from Canto IX in Book 1 (The Chapter of Puhar) in Canto XXIX as a witness
and an authorizing agency. Tevanti, married to Pācanta-Cāttan, a deity of Puhar, plays
a significant role. In Canto IX, Kannagi confides in Tevanti about her ominous dream,
and Tevanti, in turn, imparts the rules of the Karmic cycle, explaining why Kovalan left
Kannagi for Madhavi.
This instance marks the emergence of theological and philosophical contexts within
the narrative, drawing meaning from magico-religious belief systems. Tevanti, a chaste
woman, serves to legitimize the chastity and purity of Kannagi, presenting her as the
embodiment of Goddess Pattini. This narrative strategy, emphasizing the continuity of
themes and characters, is echoed by Kannagi in Canto XXI: The Crown of Wrath, where
she recounts the story of “The Seven Chaste Women” to the Pantiyan queen. Stanzas
5-7 depict the lamentation of Tevanti, the foster mother, and close friend of Kannagi, in
front of Kannagi’s memorial stone. Tevanti expresses her sorrow, stating that Kannagi’s
mother-in-law and mother died of grief. She further laments that Mācāttuvān (Kovalan’s
father) and Mānāykan (Kannagi’s father) renounced the world in their grief.
Stanzas 8-10 continue the lamentation modality. In Stanza 8, Aiyai, the daughter of
Matari, is shown the memorial stone. In Stanza 9, Cenkuttuvan sees a vision in the sky,
and in Stanza 10, the vision reveals herself as Goddess Pattini—Kannagi.;
What Kannaki Said
Blameless is the Pantiyan, now an honored guest
In the palace of the king of the gods.
I am his daughter. I am going to play
On Venvelān’s hill. Friends, come here, all of you! (Parthasarathy, 1993, p.261)
It is important to note that in the lines above, while the older and married women speak
in the court which is a public place, the unmarried and young Aiyai maintains her veil
of silence. The literary device of antithesis is evident in Canto XXIV, where the external
Puram conflates with the internal Agam. In Canto XXIX, Agam meets Puram to honor the
memorial stone, creating a sort of reconciliation. This sequence effectively situates Book
3 in the domain of the epic, combining dramatic and didactic elements.
PAGE 117

The 5th song cycle in the epic starts with a preface (stanza 1), lamentation (stanza
2), and Stanza 11-29 is divided into 7 parts;
Stanza Number Title Summary
11 What the Girls of Vanci Said Praise-Kannagi and the Tamil Kings
(Chola, Chera and Pantiyan)
12 The Girl’s Chorus Praise-Vanavan/Vaiyai (The title of
Chera king)
13-15 The Blessing They bless the city of Madurai,
Puhar and Vanci.
16-19 Song of the Wooden Ball “Ammanai” is a question-answer
game being played, the girls ask 4
questions—Who guards the kings of
gods? Who offered his own flesh to
save a dove? Who engraved the ti-
ger-emblem? Why women sing inside
their home?—they praise the city of
Puhar (Chola).
20-22 The Song of the Ball The girls bless and praise the
Tamil Kings and “Tennavan”
(The Pantiyan King)
23-25 The Song of the Swing The Girls praise the Chera King.
26-29 The Song of the Pestle Praising the women of Chera,
Chola and Puhar—praising
Kannagi.
The stanzas 11-29 consist of praises and blessings sung for the people and Kings of Puhar
(Chola), Madurai (Pandiyan), and Vanci (Chera), seeking the blessings of Goddess Pattini.
The songs, as B. Mangalam argues in the critical commentary on Silappadhikaram (2021),
act as “…benedictory choric songs and convey the epic vision of a particular civilization
and its people’s cultural roots. The songs highlight the subjects’ fondness of their kings
and the popular legends built around them” (p. 235). The songs use tribal/folk musical
forms, such as, “Ammanai”. According to Ethnomusicology and India, the tribal and folk
music is based the cycle of activities in a year accompanied by dance. The rhythm struc-
ture of the Agam songs in Canto XXIX reflects on the peculiarities of ancient oral Tamil
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Silappadhikaram
culture. The utilisation of bardic music tradition with the dedication of Kannagi chiefly
reflects on the changing socio-cultural and political structures during the Sangam period.
Check Your Progress
1. Explain the role of The Benediction in The Cilappatikaram.
2. Who is appointed as the priest for the shrine of ananku?
a. Tevanti
b. Matari
c. Aiyai
d. Kavunti
3.8.7 Canto XXX: The granting of a Favor

The Canto has 215 lines. Lines 1-36 begin with the conversation between Tevanti and the
Cheral King Cenkuttuvan. Cenkuttuvan asks Tevanti;
“Who is this Manimekalai for whom you cried
Your eyes out? Why did she renounce the world?
Tell me.” (Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 259)
Tevanti then tells the Chera King Cenkuttuvan the story of the courtesan Madhavi’s18
daughter. When Madhavi gives birth to her daughter “Manimekalai”— Madhavi’s mother,
Citrapati, asks her, “What do you have in mind?” (Parthasarathy, 1993, p.260). Madhavi
replies that Manimekalai will renounce the material world and will not continue with the
hereditary profession as a courtesan. Manimekalai enters a buddhist nunnery. The lines
draw upon a Puram thinaiKaanji “to elaborate upon the path of renunciation for ensuring
one’s liberation” (Mangalam, 2001, p. 238). According to Gananath Obeyesekere in The
Cult of Goddess Pattini19 (1984), “Mādēvi (Matavi), the courtesan, joined a Buddhist nun-
nery (Dikshitar 1939, p. 308)20, and her daughter Manimēkalai later became a Buddhist
saint (Dikshitar 1939, p. 330). The Manimēkalai, which deals with the story of Mādēvi’s
daughter, is outspokenly and polemically Buddhist…Thus the evidence of the two classic
18. Madhavi is the love interest of Kovalan. Kovalan is the husband of Kannagi. Kannagi is Goddess Pattini. There
story is narrated in Book 1: The Chapter of Puhar. Kovalan left Madhavi when he felt she being a courtesans
is singing songs for another lover. Later in Book 2 Kovalan realizes his mistake after receiving the sealed letter
written by Madhavi from Brahaman Matalan in Canto XXV.
19. Obeyesekere, Gananath. The Cult of Goddess Pattini. Chicago, The University of Chicago, 1984.
20. Adigal, Ilango. The Silappadikaram trans. V.R.R. Dikshitar. England, Oxford University Press, 1939.
PAGE 119

epics21 suggests that Pattini was both Jaina and Buddhist…rooted in the heterodox religions
of South India—Buddhism, Jainism, and to a lesser extent Ājīvakaism22, rather than Vedic
Hinduism, Brahmanism, or Dravidian folk religion.” (p. 514).
In Lines 37-68 Tevanti enters a state of “trance” and stands up with red eyes and a
faint smile on her lips. Tēvantikai in an “unusual voice”, says;
Among the good, modest,
And beautiful women, who came here for the dedication
Of the goddess are the twin girls born to the wife
Of Arattan Cetti, and the little daughter of Cetakkutumpi,
Employed in the service of the lord resting
On the divine serpent in the golden temple.
Near the temple of Mankalatevi, there is a hill
That touches the sky. On its red summit
Is a bowline rock with many pools.
Springs leap from them with white stones
Like coral-tree flowers. Those who bathe
In these pools recall their past births.
I brought that water and gave it to you,
O brahman Matālan, when you were resting
At the gate of that temple and said: “Take this.
Look after it. Aren’t you keeping it in the pot
Inside the string bag in your hand? The water
Will not lose its power till the sun and moon
Vanish. If you would, therefore, sprinkle it
Upon these three little girls, they will recall
21. T he Cilappatikaram and Manimekalai are twin epics, which means Manimekalai is the sequel of The
Cilappatikaram. The Cilappatikaram elaborates on the 3 of the 4 ends of human life which are Dharma (Duty
and Righteousness), Artha (Material Wealth), Kama (Desire)—and Manimekalai discussed the 4th end of human
life, Moksha (Liberation).
22. Ajivikas is the Nāstika (Heterodox) school of thought in Indian Philosophical tradition. They did not believe on
Vedas to be the only authoritative text and fate according to them is time and karmic cycle which determines
the role and destination of soul.
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Silappadhikaram
Their past births. I am god Pācantan,

Speaking through the body of this brahman woman. (Parthasarathy, 1993, p.270)
Tevanti in a “trance” speaks that she is God Pacantan (he). The girls who have accompanied
Tevanti are the daughters of “Of Arattan Cetti, and the little daughter of Cetakkutumpi”
(Parthasarathy, 1993, p.270). God Pacantan in the form of Tevanti asks Brahman Matalan
to sprinkle water on these girls. The water is brought from a pool near the temple of
Mankalatevi which is in the care of Brahman Matalan. It is believed that sprinkling this
water on the girls will help them remember their past life. The intriguing aspect of Tevan-
ti’s “trance” has a twofold dimension: first, its significance within the epic, and second,
its socio-historical context as a public event within the domain of Agam (internal). The
importance of this episode within the text is both interesting and straightforward which
according to Clarence Maloney in Religious Beliefs and Social Hierarchy in Tamil Nadu,
India (1975) can be viewed as solidarity and participation;
The purpose of ritual in the worship of the village deities, in the minds of these
people, is to intensify the relationship between the worshiping individual or group
and the deity, and more specifically, to bend the will of the god and alter the natural
course of events. However, because ritual is by definition symbolic, objective observ-
ers can also see that it derives from the social setting, enhancing the solidarity of
the participating group and defining that group in relation to other groups. (p. 186)
The “trance” is an important ritualistic presence in the collective memory of the people
and a way to ascertain the passing of the oral history. Hence, the socio-historical aspect of
the event is its shamanistic features. According to Shrines, Shamanism, and Love Poetry:
Elements in the Emergence of Popular Tamil Bhakti (1973);
The ecstasy and the presence of the deity manifested in the course of a frenzied dance.
In fact, the most common Tamil word for shaman is cāmiyāti, literally a “god-dancer”,
and modern ethnological accounts of South Indian shamanism report that the god is
said to descend (iranku) on the individual. (p. 9)
In lines 69-114, Brahman Matalan sprinkles water on the girls and they remember
their past life. The three girls in their past life were: Kannagi’s mother, Kovalan’s mother
and Matari. The lines describe the sorrow of the bereaved parents of Kovalan, Kannagi
and the herds-woman, Matari. All three cry about the pain of loss in front of the Chera
King Cenkuttuvan;
And so the three girls, their arms
Glowing with bangles, with childlike lips
Spoke their elders’ words, grieving again and again
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Before the king with gems sparkling on his chest. (Parthasarathy, 1993, p. 272)
In lines 115-143, Brahman Matalan explains to the Chera King that the twins born to
Arattan Cetti were Kovalan and Kannagi’s mothers in the previous birth, while Matari
has been reborn as the daughter of Cetakkutumpi. In these lines, the narrative continues
with the sequence of rebirth of people who were friends and family of Kannagi. The idea
of rebirth is central to the cyclical idea of karma put forth by Ilango In Book 3: The
chapter of Maturai. The account of rebirth uses Puram thinai Kanci/ Kaanji. According
to Anne E. Monius in Imagining a Place for Buddhism: Literary Culture and Religious
Community in Tamil-Speaking South India (2001), “The Cilappatikaram’smost commonly
used term for karma (ulvinai) suggests an element of the Ajivika notion of fate (Sanskrit
niyati, Tamil ul)…the deification of Kannaki-Pattini, “giver of abundant rain” (van taru-
cirappin),becomes but a temporary and ultimately unsatisfactory state, for it is only in
human birth that one can achieve final liberation.”23 Jainism and Buddhism are similar in
their views on deities’ incarnation and rebirth, that, Kannagi will influence the universe
for a fixed time and will be reborn till she finally attains moksha. (Please read footnote
22 at the end of this page).
In lines 144-198 the Chera King bestows grants upon the temple of Pattini appoints
Tevanti as the priestess in the Pattini temple. Women in the epic have consistently held a
dominant voice in the Akam/Agam, challenging the traditional demarcation between Kalavu
(premarital and marital love) and Karpu (extramarital love). This demarcation is criticized
and transgressed through the apotheosis of Kannagi. In legitimizing the rule of the Cheral
king, Kannagi positions women in a position of power attained through the symbolic acts
of breaking the anklet and dismembering the female sexual organ. The Chera King then
speaks to the freed northern kings, the Konku ruler of the west, the king of Malva, and
the king of Sri Lanka Gajabāhu. The kings along with the Chera King praise Goddess
Pattini. Gananath Obeyesekere in The Cult of Goddess Pattini (1984) calls the presence
of the king of Srilanka during the memorial stone dedication as “Gajabahu synchronism”.
According to Obeyesekere, the presence of Gajabāhu works as a proof that Pattini was
worshipped in Tamil east coast and Sinhala (Sri Lanka). Although, Gajabahu is not referred
to in Buddhist texts Mahāvamsaand Dīpavamsa which were composed in 4-5th century,
a form of maintaining a record of events such as foreign dignitaries visiting India. But
in two works written in Sinhala rather than Pāli24 during 17-18th century, Rājaratnākara
23.
T he Cilappatikaram and Manimekalai are twin epics, which means Manimekalai is the sequel of The
Cilappatikaram. The Cilappatikaram elaborates on the 3 of the 4 ends of human life which are Dharma (Duty
and Righteousness), Artha (Material Wealth), Kama (Desire)—and Manimekalai discussed the 4th end of human
life, Moksha (Liberation).
24. Pali: Middle Indic language, one of the major languages on Buddhist Text.
122 PAGE

Silappadhikaram
and Rājāvaliya mentions Gajabāhu’s visit to South India. Though, “in the Cilappatikāram
Gajabāhuis not the hero of Sinhala25 myth. He is subservient to Cenkuttuvan, who is
the grandiose hero in the Tamil epic…a fascinating example of a mythic figure adapted
to suit divergent sociohistorical conditions in two neighboring countries…”. (p. 363-65)
Although, this is a socio-historically significant interpolation within the text as it high-
lights the migratory routes in ancient India. According to P. Coomaraswamy in II-King
Senkuttuvan of the Chera Dynasty (1895) Gajabāhu mentioned in The Cilappatikaram is
the Gajabāhu I “who reigned the Ceylon between 113-135 of the years of Christ” (p. 36).
In lines 169-198, Ilango Adigal, the author of The Cilappatikaram narrates that he
was present in the audience hall of the Chera King when Tevanti was again possessed
by a god. The god commands the people to live a morally justified life and abstain from
meat, bad company, and falsehood. The agency which was bestowed to the enraged woman
of Canto XXI is silenced through her deification as a sacred stone in Canto XXVI. The
Chera King becomes the authoritative voice in the epic with the blessings of the goddess
of chastity (Goddess Pattini) in Canto XXX.
In “Coda” or the conclusion (lines 199-215), the Chera King Cenkuttuvan is celebrated
for his victories and justice. The modality of festivity is used to highlight the splendour
of Vanci;
Here ends “The Book of Vanci.” It sings
Among the three crowned kings, of the virstures,
Triumphs, and heroism of the ruler
Of the western kingdom, a wreath of flowers
Glowing on his chest, born in the Ceral line;
Of the preeminence of the glorious, old city
Of Vanci; of the endless joy of its subjects;
Of the abundance of food; of the songs and dances
With their fine interrelationships; of his army
Of sword-warriors who won decisive victories
In battle by fair methods; of his success
In following the enemy for long distance
In the wide, foaming sea; and his expedition
25. Sinhala: Language of Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Sri Lanka, mostly Buddhists.
PAGE 123

To the banks of the holy Gamga. All these things,

Including others as well, reflect the career
Of Cenkuttuvan. Only a glimpse of it is offered here.
Check Your Progress
1. What purpose does the sequence of rebirth has in The Cilappatikarma?
2. Write a short on the presence of Gaza Bahu in the epic?
3. Kannagi’s father took a vow before—
a. Ajivikas
b. Bhakti
c. None of the above
3.8.8 Epilogue
The epilogue to The Cilappatikaram, written by Ilango Adigal, has 14 lines. It is divided
into three parts/books/chapters, each part is associated with a particular kingdom; Book
1: The Chapter of Puhar (Chola dynasty), Book 2: The Chapter of Madurai (Pantiyan/
Pandiya/Pantiya dynasty), and Book 3: The Chapter of Vanci (Chera dynasty)26. In an epic,
the purpose of an epilogue is to provide a conclusion to the text. In The Cilappatikaram
Ilango employs this narrative strategy to bind the three parts of the text together;
Here ends the Cilappatikaram. It ends, in truth,
With the story of Manimekalai. Like a mirror
Reflecting the far hills, it reflects the essence
And Venkatam, and by the eastern and western seas.
It comprises the five landscapes of pure and impure Tamil
Where live gods and humans performing their duty
And practicing virtue, wealth and love.
Its nobel language expresses in perfect rhythm
Good sense, themes of love and war,
Exquisite songs, the lute, musical mode, chants,
Drama, acts and scenes, dances
26. Read—Part 1 of the study material, for further details and synopsis of the entire story.
124 PAGE

Silappadhikaram
That conform to the established rules of vari27

Round dance and cētam28, put in simple and perfect Tamil.
The lines are dedicated to the story of The Cilappatikaram. They conclude the epic. The
epilogue announces the second part (sequel), Manimekalai, a Tamil Buddhist epic which
was written by ChithalaiChathanar (Cattanar/ Satthanar)29 around 5-6th century. Notably, The
Cilappatikaram’s prologue starts as a conversation between Poet Cattan (Satthanat/Cattanar)
and Chera prince, Ilango Adigal, who became a Jaina ascetic. According to B. Mangalam
in “A Critical Commentary” in Silappadhikaram (2001), “The Epilogue strings together
references to Silappadhikaram and Manimegalai. The take ends not at the end of Canto 30,
but traverses through its continuities that culminate in the epic Manimegalai. Life continues
after Death, affirming through re-incarnations, continuities and re-bondings” (p. 239)
The Agam and the Puram come together in their reverence for Kannagi as an up-
holder of dharma. The societal fabric of the Sangam period goes through a transition. The
Cilappatikaram narrates the fall of Maturai/Madurai and the rise of the Chera kingdom.
The ascetic Ilango in his poetics draws from theological and philosophical idea of the
material and the immaterial in human subjectivity. The agency which is attributed to the
immaterial and transcends human time is dharma and the material agency is categorized as
karma. The transition is brought in through the spread of various other religious, political,
and cultural schools of thought in the southern part of India. The Cilappatikaram, as one
of the five major epics of the Sangam period, saw an emergence of new trade pathways,
shifting economic structures, and changing socio-cultural belief systems.

1. Explain the context of Puram and Agam/Akamthinais in Book 3: The Chapter/Book
of Vanci.
2. What is the role of various characters in exalting the epic elements of the text?
3. What are the four ends of human life? How have they been depicted through the
third Book of The Cilappatikaram?
4. Explain the portrayal of dance and music in the “Song Cycles”.
5. Highlight the narrative style used in deification of Goddess Pattini.
27. Masquerade dance of Tamil region corresponding with each of the geographical regions associated with Puram
and Agam thinai/tinai.
28. A part of dance.
29. In the translation from Tamil to English, you may find varied spellings.
PAGE 125

6. Elaborate on the significance of war and victory in Book 3.

7. Critically explain the role of destiny, dreams, re-birth and supernatural in Book 3.
3.10 Bibliography
Primary
Dikshitar, V. R., and Jules Baloch. The Silappadikaram. Madras, Diocesan Press, 1939.
Parathasarathy, R. The Cilappatikaram or The Tale of an Anklet. Delhi, Penguin
Books India, 2004.
Parathasarathy, R. and B. Mangalam. Silappadhikaram. Delhi, Worldview Publication,
2015 & 2021.
Secondary
B, Sudhibhushan. Ethnomusicology and India. Calcutta, Indian Publications, 1968.
Cixous, Hélène, et al. “The Laugh of the Medusa.” Signs, vol. 1, no. 4, 1976, pp.
875–893. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3173239.
Coomáraswámy, P. “II.—King Sen̥ kuțțuvan of the Chera Dynasty.” The Journal of
the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, vol. 14,
no. 46, 1895, pp. 29–37. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45385443.
Dikshitar, V. R., and Jules Baloch. The Silappadikaram. Madras, Diocesan Press, 1939.
Ginsburg, Shai. “Signs and Wonders: Fetishism and Hybridity in Homi Bhabha’s
‘The Location of Culture.’” CR: The New Centennial Review, vol. 9, no. 3, 2009,
pp. 229–250. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41949661.
Hein, Hilde. “The Role of Feminist Aesthetics in Feminist Theory.” The Journal of
Aesthetics and Art Criticism, vol. 48, no. 4, 1990, pp. 281–291. JSTOR, www.jstor.
org/stable/431566.
La Caze, Marguerite. “At the Intersection: Kant, Derrida, and the Relation between
Ethics and Politics.” Political Theory, vol. 35, no. 6, 2007, pp. 781–805. JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/20452600.
Maloney, Clarence. “Religious Beliefs and Social Hierarchy in TamiḻNāḍu, India.”
American Ethnologist, vol. 2, no. 1, 1975, pp. 169–91. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/
stable/643542.
Monius, Anne E. Imagining a Place for Buddhism: Literary Culture and Religious
Community in Tamil-Speaking South India. New York, Oxford University Press, 2001.
126 PAGE

Silappadhikaram
Murali, S. “Environmental Aesthetics Interpretation of Nature in ‘Akam’ and ‘Puram’

Poetry.” Indian Literature, vol. 42, no. 3 (185), 1998, pp. 155–162. JSTOR, www.
jstor.org/stable/23338503.
Narayanan, M. G. S. “The Role of Peasants in the Early History of Tamilakam in
South India.” Social Scientist, vol. 16, no. 9, 1988, pp. 17–34. JSTOR, https://doi.
org/10.2307/3517170.
Parathasarathy, R. The Cilappatikaram or The Tale of an Anklet. Delhi, Penguin
Books India, 2004.
Parathasarathy, R. and B. Mangalam. Silappadhikaram. Delhi, Worldview Publication,
2015 & 2021.
Rajarajan, R.K.K. The Vedas and Bhakti Harmonized- Kovalur: The Mutal Alvars
and Tirumankai. 2021, DOI: 10.29121/shodhkosh.v2.i2.2021.27.
Rajarajan, R.K.K. Dance of Ardhnari as Pattini-Kannaki with special reference to
the Cilappatikaram. 2000:401-414, Berliner Indologische Studien.
Riffaterre, Michael. “Intertextuality vs. Hypertextuality.” New Literary History, vol.
25, no. 4, 1994, pp. 779–788. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/469373.
Schoff, Wilfred H. “Tamil Political Divisions in the First Two Centuries of the
Christian Era.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 33, 1913, pp. 209–13.
JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/592826.
Singh, Aditi. “Women’s World: Artistes, Courtesans and Wives in Early India.”
Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 75, 2014, pp. 99–106. JSTOR,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/44158367.
Yocum, Glenn E. “Shrines, Shamanism, and Love Poetry: Elements in the Emergence
of Popular Tamil Bhakti.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, vol. 41,
no. 1, 1973, pp. 3–17. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1461384.
Zvelebil, Kamil. “The Lay of the Anklet.” Mahfil, vol. 4, no. 3/4, 1968, pp. 5–12.
JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40874188.
http://www.portesasiapacifico.com.mx/revistas/epocaiii/numero9/5.pdf
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pdf - August 20, 2024

Dr. Neeta Gupta,

Usha Anand, Ratika Anand,

Mr. Deekshant Awasthi

© Department of Distance and Continuing Education

Dr. Sanjay Verma

This Study Material is duly recommended in the meeting of Standing

Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by Statutory Body, DU/

Title Prepared by Edited by Pg. No.

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1.1 Learning Objectives

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1.2.2 The Scope

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1.2.3 Evolution of the Mahabharata

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1.2.4 Narrative Technique

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1.2.5 How do Stories Add Meaning to a Narrative?

1.2.6 The Organic Unity of the Mahabharata

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1.2.7 The Moral Framework of the Mahabharata

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Check Your Progress

1.3 ‘The Dicing’: A Detailed Study

1.3.1 The Game of Dice in the Assembly Hall

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“And the king (Dhritarashtra) thereupon said,—‘Thou wicked-minded Duryodhana,

1.3.2 The Status of Women

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1.4 ‘Sequel to Dicing’

1.4.1 The Scheming Duryodhan Plans a Sequel

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1.4.2 The Second Game of Dice

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Check Your Progress

1.5 The Game of Dice in Relation to the Plot

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Check Your Progress

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1.7 Suggested Readings

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The Epic Conventions and Indian Epic Poetry in Sanskrit

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1.1 Learning Objectives

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1.4 Detailed Summary