1

__________________________________________________

Personality Theory
__________________________________________________

Semester -3

Module 1: Introduction to Personality

____Nature of personality theory: Present status____

The term “personality” is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’, a mask used by actors in the Roman
theatre for changing their facial make-up. After putting on the mask, audience expected the person to
perform a role in a particular manner. However, it did not mean that the person enacting the given role
necessarily possessed those qualities.

• In psychological terms, personality refers to our characteristics ways of responding to individuals

and situations. People can easily describe the way in which they respond to various situations.
Certain catch words like:- shy, quiet, concerned, warm, etc., are often used to describe different
components of personality.

• Theories are sometimes referred to in dismissive and contemptuous terms. It is popular to assume
that a theory is something very vague, abstract, and speculative—really no more than a hunch or a
guess and quite the opposite of a fact. It is true that a theory without research evidence to support it is
speculation. However, a mass of research data can be meaningless unless and until it is organized
into some sort of explanatory framework or context. A theory provides that framework for describing
empirical data in a meaningful way. A theory can be considered a kind of map that represents and
explains all the data in their interrelationships. It attempts to bring order to the data, to fit them into a
meaningful pattern. Theories are sets of principles used to explain a particular class of
phenomena—in our case, the behaviours and experiences relating to personality. If personality
theories are to be useful, they must be testable, capable of stimulating research on their various
propositions. Researchers must be able to collect data through one or more of the research methods
we talked about earlier to determine whether aspects of the theory should be accepted or rejected.

• Personality theories must be able to clarify and explain the data of personality by organizing those
data into a coherent framework. Theories should also help us understand and predict behavior. Those
theories that can be tested and can explain, understand, and predict behavior may then be applied to
help people change their behaviours, feelings, and emotions from harmful to helpful, from undesirable
to desirable.

• However, psychologists have long recognized that some personality theories have a subjective
component, which may reflect events in the theorist’s life as a sort of disguised autobiography. The
 2

theorist may draw on these events as a source of data to describe and support his or her theory. No
matter how hard scientists try to be impartial and objective, their personal viewpoint is likely to
influence their perception to some degree. This should not surprise us. Personality theorists are
human too, as we will see, and like most of us they sometimes find it hard to accept ideas that diverge
from their own experience. In order to understand a personality theory fully then, we should learn
something about the life of the person who proposed it. It is important to consider how the
development of a theory mayhave been influenced by specific events in a theorist’s life. In cases
where sufficient biographical information is available, we will see examples of how a theory reflects
those events. At least initially, the theorist may have been describing himself or herself. Later, the
theorist may have sought appropriate data from other sources to support the generalization of that
personal view to others. The significance of personal events in a theorist’s life has long been
recognized. William James, who is considered by many to have been the greatest. Freud put it
succinctly and clearly, when he wrote that his most important patient—the one from whom he learned
the most about personality—was himself. One historian noted that “More than any other professional
discipline, psychologists have sought to publish biographical and autobiographical sketches of those
in their calling…. At some level, at least, they seem to have acknowledged that their lives and values
are the key to their ‘scientific knowledge’” (Friedman, 1996, p. 221). We shall see many examples of
the autobiographical nature of personality theories, but we must also introduce a note of caution into
this intriguing relationship between theory and real life.

• PRESENT STATUS: Personality psychology is currently a thriving discipline. Much of its foundation
continues to rest on the wisdom embedded in many of the current grand theories of personality.
Personality psychology has also borrowed knowledge, principles, and procedures from other
disciplines within psychology, including cognitive psychology, social psychology, developmental
psychology, clinical psychology, and biological psychology. By drawing on these sources, personality
psychologists have gained a much-needed infusion of energy and enthusiasm, and have expanded
the range of ideas, issues, and phenomena that they study. This expansion has created many
challenges for personality psychologists in their quest for a fuller understanding of personality
development and functioning.

For example, most researchers in personality psychology use primarily self-report data to study
personality because it is convenient and economical. While the data collected using such a procedure
are invaluable, the method is limited because people are unperfectly trustworthy when it comes to
describing themselves.

There is a need to use other actual life-outcome techniques to gather data (e.g., health records, job
performance evaluations, criminal records, peer reports, diaries, and direct behavioural observations)
to supplement self-report data. These methods will help personality psychologists know what people
actually do, think, or feel in various situations in their lives (Funder, 2001, p. 213). Personality
psychologists are already beginning to tackle this challenge as they use life-outcome techniques to
obtain a broader and more valid understanding of human personality (McAdams, 1997; Runyan,
1997). Given the many exciting conceptual and methodological developments and tremendous
research activity in the discipline in the past few years, the future of personality psychology in the 21st
century looks promising indeed.

DEFINITIONS:-
• Gordon Allport: “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychosocial
systems that determines his unique adjustments to his environment.
 3

• Erickson: “Personality develops in the predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial
development, from infancy to childhood, to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a
psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for the personality development.

• Hans Eysenck: “Personality is the sum-total of the actual or potential behaviour-patterns of the
organism as determined by heredity and environment it originates and develops through the functional
interactions of the four main sectors into which these behaviors-patterns are organised”. For Eysenck,
personality consists of acts and dispositions organized in hierarchical fashions in terms of their level of
generality.

____Nature and Nurture debate____

The Genetic Factor

There is increasingly strong evidence that many personality traits or dimensions are inherited. These
include:
● Eysenck’s dimensions of psychoticism, neuroticism, and extraversion (the latter derived from
the work of Jung)
● McCrae and Costa’s five-factor model of personality including neuroticism, extraversion,
openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
● Buss and Plomin’s three temperaments of emotionality, activity, and sociability.

• Research involving twins from Canada, Germany, and Japan provides support for the genetic basis
of the five-factor model. The principal author of that study suggested that this may “represent the
common heritage of the human species” (Yamagata et al., 2006, p. 96).Additional research has
confirmed that the Big Five personality traits were increasingly stable over a period of 20 years from
childhood into adulthood (Shiner, 2014).

• A large-scale research program ranging over 50 cultures as diverse as Israel, Korea, and Turkey
found that the Big Five personality factors were displayed consistently in the majority of the nations
studied). In addition to finding genetic components in major dimensions of personality, researchers
have also noted some common, everyday behaviors that are influenced by genetics. Studies in the
United States, Finland, the French-speaking portion of Canada, and Sweden have found evidence of
genetic influences on sexual attitudes, on eating behaviors in 2-year-olds, on depression in children
who are victims of bullying, and on attitudes toward practicing playing a musical instrument.

• Additional research in behavior genetics will no doubt yield even more facets of personality that are
shaped by inherited factors. No matter how many inherited traits there may be, however, not even the
most ardent proponent of the genetics approach argues that personality can be completely explained
by heredity. What we inherit are predispositions, not destinies; tendencies, not certainties. Whether
our genetic predispositions are realized depends on social and environmental conditions, particularly
those of childhood.

The Environmental Factor

• Much research indicates that genetic effects are most important in infancy and the very early years,
whereas environmental effects on personality become increasingly important as we advance from
childhood to adulthood. Environmental influences continue to affect our behavior and personality
throughout our life.

• Every personality theorist we have discussed acknowledged the importance of our social
environment in influencing personality. Adler spoke of the impact of birth order, arguing that
personality is influenced by our position in the family relative to our siblings. We are exposed to
 4

different parental and social problems and challenges as a function of the age difference between our
siblings, or whether we have siblings at all. In Adler’s view, these different home environments can
result in different personalities.

• Horney believed that the culture in which we grow up can produce different effects, such as those
she found in the different kinds of neuroses exhibited by her German and her American patients. She
also pointed out the vastly different social environments to which boys and girls are exposed as
children. She spoke of female inferiority developing from the way girls are treated in a
male-dominated culture. She suggested that women raised in a matriarchal culture might have higher
self-esteem and different personality characteristics.

• Even Allport and Cattell, who inaugurated the trait approach to personality, agreed on the
importance of the environment. Allport noted that although genetics supplies the raw material of
personality, it is the social environment that shapes the material into the finished product. Cattell
argued that heredity is more important for some of his 16 personality factors than for others, but
environmental influences will ultimately affect every factor to some extent.

• Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development are innate, but the environment determines the
ways in which those genetically based stages are realized. He believed that social and historical
forces influence the formation of ego identity.

_____Basic measurements of personality_____

In psychology, several basic measurements and assessment tools are commonly used to evaluate
personality traits and characteristics. These measurements can provide insights into an individual's
personality and are valuable in various contexts, including clinical assessment, research, and
personal development. Here are some of the basic measurements of personality:

1. Self-Report Questionnaires:
- Self-report questionnaires are a common method for assessing personality traits. Individuals
answer a series of questions about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which are then scored to
determine their personality profile.
- Examples include the NEO-PI-R (assessing the Big Five personality traits), Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI), and the 16 Personality Factors (16PF) questionnaire.

2. Observational Methods:
- Observational methods involve trained observers or clinicians assessing an individual's behavior in
specific situations. Observers record behaviors, facial expressions, and interactions to infer
personality traits.
- This method is often used in clinical settings or research studies, such as assessing children's
behavior in a school environment.

3. Projective Tests:
- Projective tests present individuals with ambiguous stimuli, such as images or phrases, and ask
them to project their thoughts and feelings onto these stimuli. The responses are then analyzed to
reveal underlying personality traits.
- Examples include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

4. Interviews:
- Structured or semi-structured interviews can be used to assess personality. Clinicians or
interviewers ask specific questions and engage in conversation to evaluate an individual's thoughts,
emotions, and behaviors.
 5

- Clinical interviews, employment interviews, and research interviews can all provide insights into
personality.

5. Behavioral Assessments:
- Behavioral assessments involve the direct observation and measurement of an individual's
behavior in natural settings. This can include assessing specific behaviors, habits, or reactions.
- Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC) and behavioral coding
systems used in research.

6. Objective Tests:
- Objective tests use fixed-response formats (e.g., true/false or multiple-choice questions) to assess
personality traits. These tests are scored objectively, reducing potential bias.
- The MMPI and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) are examples of objective
personality tests.

7. Neurobiological Measurements:
- Neurobiological assessments, such as brain imaging (e.g., fMRI or PET scans) and genetic
testing, can provide insights into the biological basis of certain personality traits, such as impulsivity or
introversion/extroversion.

The choice of measurement depends on the goals of assessment, the context, and the specific
personality traits or characteristics being evaluated. Different assessments may be used in clinical
psychology, counseling, organizational psychology, and research settings to gain a comprehensive
understanding of an individual's personality.

Module 2: The Dispositional Perspective

_____Type and trait approaches to personality_____

Trait Theory: Trait theory emphasizes the significance of human traits in the study of human
personality.
Type Theory: Type theory emphasizes the significance of a distinct type of personality.

TYPE THEORY
Type theory emphasizes the significance of a distinct type of personality. Type theorists highlight on
individual physique and temperaments. There are many classifications that come under type theory.
The specialty is that all type theories point out that individual personality falls under a specific
category. The earliest idea of type theory stems from the work of Hippocrates, who spoke of the four
humors known as sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic.

Later on, another type theory known as the Type A and Type B-theory emerged. This categorized
people into two. Type A referred to those who are very much goal oriented while Type B referred to
those who are easy going. Other than these, Carl Jung, William Sheldon, and Ernest Kretschmer also
introduced different type theories.
 6

TRAIT THEORY
Trait theory emphasizes the significance of human traits in the study of human personality. Traits refer
to different characteristics that people have. These have the ability to influence our thoughts,
behavior, and emotions. Trait theorists highlight that the individual personalities are composed of
different traits. These differ from one individual to another.When speaking of trait theory Gordon
Allport can be considered as one of the pioneers. He highlighted three many categories of human
traits. They are,
1. Cardinal traits
2. Central traits
3. Secondary traits
Cardinal traitsrefer to the characteristics that can be seen very well in a person. These usually
dominate the actions of a person. Central traits refer to characteristics that are seen in every
individual. Finally secondary traits are characteristics that emerge only in some situations and are
known only by those who are close to the person.
Over the years, a number of trait theories have emerged. They are the Big Five personality traits,
Eysenck personality questionnaire, Guilford’s structure of intellect, Gray’s biopsychological theory of
personality, etc.

Difference – Trait Theory vs Type Theory

Trait theory and type theory are two theories between which a key difference can be identified. In the
fields of psychology, comprehending the human personalities intrigued many psychologists. This is
why in different branches of psychology, different theories emerged to analyze and explain the nature
of the human personality. As we know very well, people are very different from one another. A
personality of one person can be wholly different to that of another. If so, how do we come to an
understanding of human personality. Trait theory and type theory are two theories that attempt to
answer this question in their approaches. They key difference between trait theory and type theory is
that while type theory puts people under different categories based on their characteristics, trait theory
rejects this idea. Trait theorists highlight that since the individual personality is created with a
combination of traits the categorization approach to personality is an oversimplification.

TYPE APPROACHES

➢ Ernst Kretschmer’s Typology

Kretschmer was a German psychiatrist who on the basis of his observation of patients classified
people into four types. He used the physical constitution and temperament for this purpose The four
types he talked about included: (i) Pyknik type (ii)Asthenic type (iii)Athletic type (iv) Dysplastic type.

• Pyknic Type: Such people are short in height with heavily built body types. They have short, thick
neck. Temperament wise they exhibit characteristics of being social and cheerful. They are
happy-go-lucky, they like to eat and sleep. Kretschmer called them “cycloids” as they have a high
probability of falling prey to the manic-depressive type of psychopathology.

• Asthenic Type: Such persons are tall and thin with underdeveloped muscles. They are also
underweight. They are irritable and shirk away from responsibility. They have the habit of
daydreaming and are lost in the world of fantasy. Temperament wise they are categorized as
“schizoid” and may develop a disorder of schizophrenia.
• Athletic Type: These are muscular types and have well-built muscles and are neither tall nor short.
They have stable and calm nature and are able to adjust themselves to changes in the environment.
 7

• Dyspalstic Type: This category includes people who do not exhibit any of the characteristics
mentioned above but are mix of all three types.

➢ Sheldon’s Classification (somatotypes)

In the 1940’s, William Herbert Sheldon associated body types with human temperament types. He
claimed that a body type could be linked with the personality of that person. He says that a fat person
with a large bone structure tends to have an outgoing and more relaxed personality while a more
muscular body-typed person is more active and aggressive. A slim or scrawny person with thin
muscles is usually characterized as quiet or fragile. He split up these body/personality types into three
categories called somatotypes.

• Endomorphic: An Endomorphic somatotype is also known as a viscerotonic. The characteristic traits

of this somatotype usually includes being relaxed, tolerant, comfortable, and sociable.
Psychologically, they are also fun-loving, good humored, even-tempered, and they love food and
affection. The Endomorph is physically “round”. They have wide hips and narrow shoulders that give a
pear-shape. They tend to have a lot of extra fat on their body and on their arms and thighs. They have
skinny ankles and wrists that make the rest of their body look even bigger.

• Ectomorphic: An ectomorph is the complete opposite of the Endomorph. Physically, they have
narrow shoulders, thin legs and arms, little fat on the body, a narrow face and a narrow chest. They
may eat just as much as the endomorph but never seem to gain any weight. They always stay skinny.
Personality wise, they tend to be self-conscious, socially anxious, artistic, thoughtful, quiet, and
private. They always keep to themselves and are a afraid to branch out.

• Mesomorphic: The mesomorph is in between the endomorph and thin ectomorph. They have an
attractive and desirable body. Physically, they tend to have a large head and broad shoulders with a
narrow waist. They have a strong muscular body and strong arms and legs and little fat on the body.
They work for the body they have so that they could have an attractive body. Psychologically, the
mesomorph is adventurous and courageous. They are not afraid to break out and do new things with
new people. They are assertive and competitive and have a desire to have power and be dominant.
They love taking risks and chances in life.

➢ Jung’s Classification
Carl Jung’s perspective on personality is quite insightful; he wrote that what appears to be random
behavior is actually the result of differences in the way people prefer to use their mental capacities.

Jung’s theory on personality types shows the various behavioural patterns and attitude.

• Introverts: are more comfortable living alone and being by themselves. They depend on their “me
time” to recharge; they become immersed in their inner world and run the risk of losing touch with their
surroundings or their outer world. They also tend to be introspective and keep their social circle
limited. Introverts are people who prefer to be alone, tend to avoid others, withdraw themselves in the
face of emotional conflicts and are shy.

• Extroverts: on the contrary, are actively involved in the world of people and things; they are socially
active and more aware of what is going on around them. They like to be part of groups, communities
and probable places where they get a chance to interact. The idea of being alone terrifies them,
leaving them alienated from their inner selves. Extroverts are sociable, outgoing, drawn to
occupations that allow dealing directly with people, and react to stress by trying to lose themselves
among people and social activity.
 8

• Ambivert: Ambiverts share traits of both extroverts and introverts, and can move effortlessly between
the two categories.

➢ Spranger's Typology
Wilhelm Spranger's Typology, also known as the Spranger's Value-Attitude System, is a theory of
personality that categorizes individuals into six distinct personality types based on their fundamental
values and attitudes toward life. Spranger developed this theory in the early 20th century as a way to
understand and classify people's motivations and preferences. Here are the six personality types in
Spranger's Typology, along with descriptions of each:

1. The Theoretical Type (Intellectual):

Individuals in this category value knowledge, truth, and intellectual pursuits. They are curious,
analytical, and enjoy solving complex problems. They seek understanding and are often drawn to
scientific or academic fields.

2. The Economic Type (Utilitarian):

Economic types prioritize practicality, efficiency, and utility. They are goal-oriented, results-driven, and
tend to make decisions based on cost-benefit analyses. They value material success and
achievement.

3. The Aesthetic Type (Artistic):

Aesthetic types are characterized by their appreciation of beauty, harmony, and artistry. They have a
strong sense of aesthetics, enjoy creativity, and often excel in artistic or creative endeavors.

4. The Social Type (Social):

Social types are focused on human relationships, empathy, and helping others. They value
compassion, cooperation, and community involvement. They often choose careers in fields like
counseling or social work.

5. The Political Type (Political/Social):

Political types are driven by a sense of justice, ethics, and societal change. They are passionate
about social and political issues and are often involved in activism or advocacy. They seek to bring
about social reform.

6. The Religious Type (Religious):

Religious types prioritize spirituality, faith, and moral values. They seek meaning in life through
religious or philosophical beliefs. They are often deeply committed to their faith and values.

➢ Holland's Typology
John L. Holland's Typology, also known as the RIASEC model, is a widely used theory in vocational
psychology and career counseling. This theory categorizes individuals into six personality types based
on their vocational interests, helping people make informed career choices. Each of the six types
corresponds to certain work environments and career paths. Here are the six personality types in
Holland's Typology, along with detailed descriptions of each:

1. Realistic (R):
Realistic individuals are practical, hands-on, and enjoy working with tools and machines. They tend to
be physically active and have a strong preference for tasks that involve concrete problem-solving.

2. Investigative (I):
Investigative types are analytical, inquisitive, and enjoy solving complex problems. They have a strong
curiosity and tend to be more introspective and analytical in their approach to work.
 9

3. Artistic (A):
Artistic individuals are creative, imaginative, and have a strong appreciation for aesthetics. They enjoy
self-expression through various art forms and often have unconventional thinking.

4. Social (S):
Social individuals are empathetic, sociable, and enjoy helping and interacting with others. They have
excellent communication skills and are motivated by a desire to make a positive impact on people's
lives.

5. Enterprising (E):
Enterprising individuals are ambitious, persuasive, and enjoy taking on leadership roles. They are
goal-oriented, confident, and often seek opportunities for personal advancement.

6. Conventional (C):
Conventional individuals are organized, detail-oriented, and prefer structured, rule-based tasks. They
excel at following established procedures and maintaining order.

Holland's Typology suggests that individuals are most satisfied and successful in careers that align
with their dominant personality type or a combination of closely related types. This model has been
widely used in career counseling and vocational guidance to help individuals identify suitable career
paths based on their interests and personality traits.

➢ Friedman and Rosenman

In recent years, Friedman and Rosenman have classified individuals into Type-A and Type-B
personalities. The two researchers were trying to identify psychosocial risk factors when they
discovered these types.

• Type A: People characterized by Type-A personality seem to possess high motivation, lack patience,
feel short of time, be in a great hurry, and feel like being always burdened with work. Such people find
it difficult to slow down and relax. People with Type-A personality are more susceptible to problems
like hypertension and coronary heart disease (CHD). The risk of developing CHD with Type-A
personality is sometimes even greater than the risks caused by high blood pressure, high cholesterol
levels, or smoking.

• Type B: Opposite to Type A is the Type-B personality, which can be understood as the absence of
Type-A traits. This typology has been further extended.

• Type C: Morris has suggested a Type-C personality, which is prone to Individuals characterized by
this personality are cooperative, unassertive and patient. They suppress their negative emotions (e.g..
anger), and show compliance to authority.

• Type D: More recently, a Type-D personality has been suggested, which is characterized by
proneness to depression.

Personality typologies are usually very appealing, but are too simplistic. Human behavior is highly
complex and variable. Assigning people to a particular personality type is difficult. People do not fit
into such simple categorization schemes so neatly.
 10

_____Allport, Cattell & Eysenck______

TRAIT APPROACHES
• A trait is a personality characteristic that meets three criteria: it must be consistent,stable, and vary
from person to person. Based on this definition, a trait can be thought of as a relatively stable
characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways.

• The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality.
Trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed of broad dispositions.

• Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or humanistic theories, the trait
approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals. The combination and
interaction of various traits form a personality that is unique to each person. Trait theory is focused on
identifying and measuring these individual personality characteristics

• These theories are mainly concerned with the description or characterization of basic components of
personality. They try to discover the building blocks' of personality. Human beings display a wide
range of variations in psychological attributes, yet it is possible to club them into smaller number of
personality traits. Trait approach is very similar to our common experience in everyday life.

➢ Allport's Trait Theory

Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of trail approach. He proposed that Individuals possess a
number of traits which are dynamic in nature. They determine behaviour in such a manner that an
individual approaches different situations with similar plans.

The traitsIntegrate stimuli and responses which otherwise look dissimilar. Allport argued that the
words people use to describe themselves and others provide a basis for understanding human
personality. He analysed the words of English language to look for traits which describe a person.
Allport, based on this, categorized traits into cardinal central, and secondary.

• Cardinal Traits: Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and dominating, usually developing
later in life. They tend to define a person to such an extent that their names become synonymous with
their personality. Examples of this include the following descriptive terms: Machiavellian, narcissistic,
Don Juan, and Christ-like.

• Central Traits: These general characteristics form basic personality foundations. While central traits
are not as dominating as cardinal traits, they describe the major characteristics you might use to
describe another person. Descriptions such as "intelligent," "honest," "shy," and "anxious" are
considered central traits.

• Secondary Traits: Secondary traits are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences. They often
appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some examples include public
speaking anxiety or impatience while waiting in line.The least generalized characteristics of a person
are called secondary traits. Traits such as likes mangoes" or "prefers ethnic clothes are examples of
secondary traits

While Allport acknowledged the Influence of situations on behaviour, he held that the way a person
reacts to situations depends on her/his tails, although people sharing the same traits might express
them in different ways.
 11

➢ Raymond B. Cattell's Trait Theory

Raymond B. Cattell's Trait Theory, also known as the 16 Personality Factors (16PF) model, is a
comprehensive theory of personality that seeks to describe and measure human personality using a
set of 16 primary factors. Cattell's work significantly contributed to the field of psychology and
personality assessment.

• Raymond Cattell believed that there is a common structure on which people differ from each other.
This structure could be determined empirically. He tried to identifythe primary traits from a huge array
of descriptive adjectives found in language.

• Cattell reduced the number of main personality traits from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down to
171. He did so primarily by eliminating uncommon traits and combining common characteristics.

• Next, Cattell rated a large sample of individuals for these 171 different traits. Using a statistical
technique known as factor analysis, he then identified closely related terms and eventually reduced
his list to 16 key personality traits.

• Among them are dominance, perfectionism, reasoning, and self-reliance. He applied a statistical
technique, called factor analysis, to discover the common structures.Besides these, there are also a
number of surface traits that result out of the interaction of source traits.

• Cattell described the source traits in terms of opposing tendencies. He developed a test called
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), for the assessment of personality. This test is widely
used by psychologists.

➢ Eysenck's Trait Theory

H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced into two broad dimensions. Theseare
biologically and genetically based. Each dimension subsumes a number of specific traits. These
dimensions are:

• Neuroticism vs. emotional stability: It refers to the degree to which people have control over their
feelings. At one extreme of the dimension, we find people who areneurotic. They are anxious, moody,
touchy, and restless and quickly lose control. At the other extreme lie people who are calm, even-
tempered, reliable and remain under control. This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to
moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become
upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.

• Extraversion vs. introversion: It refers to the degree to which people are socially outgoing or
socially withdrawn. At one extreme are those who are active, gregarious, and impulsive and thrill-
seeking. At the other extreme are people who are passive, quiet, cautious and reserved. Introversion
involves directing attention to inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention
outward, onto other people and the environment. A person high in introversion might be quiet and
reserved, while an individual high in extraversion (often spelled "extroversion") might be sociable and
outgoing.

• Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a
personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high on this trait
tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic, and
manipulative. A person who scores high on psychoticism dimension tends to be hostile, egocentric,
and antisocial. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is the test which is used for studying these
dimensions of personality.
 12

______Alternative Five factor Model______

The alternative five model of personality encompasses impulsive sensation seeking,

neuroticism-anxiety, aggression-hostility, sociability, and activity. This test is based on the work of Dr.
Marvin Zuckerman and his colleagues for measuring five broad personality factors, proposed as an
alternative to the usual Five Factor Model of Personality.

The test measures the following factors of personality:

• Impulsive Sensation Seeking: People who are impulsive and seek sensations tend toact without
thinking; they often like to experience thrills and unpredictable situations. People who score high in
this dimension usually fail to plan, and they seek novelty, variety, and uncertainty. For instance, they
usually get so carried away by new and exciting things and ideas that they never think of possible
complications; they may also often do “crazy” things just for fun, and they prefer the kind of life where
one is on the move and traveling a lot, with lots of change and excitement. Measures low
socialization, and high psychoticism, impulsivity, and sensation-seeking. The impulsivity items assess
lack of planfulness and a tendency to act without thinking. The sensation seeking items describe a
liking for thrills and excitement, novelty and variety, and unpredictable situations and friends.

• Neuroticism-Anxiety: Individuals with high levels of neuroticism-anxiety tend to experience fear,

general emotional instability, indecisiveness, and insecurity. They are commonly sensitive to criticism.
They more readily feel negative emotions such as irritability, anger, anxiety, sadness, and frustration.
People who score high on this factor are also more prone to mood and anxiety disorders. For
instance, they may often feel like crying at only mild stressors, get upset by trivial things, feel
uncomfortable and ill at ease without reason, and ruminate pessimistically about life and existence. It
measures anxiety, fear, general emotionality, psychasthenia, and inhibition of aggression. The factor
is also associated with obsessive indecisiveness, lack of self-confidence, and sensitivity to criticism

• Aggression-Hostility: People with high levels of aggression-hostility tend to show rudeness,

impatience, a quick temper, and other abrasive behavior. They may often feel angry, lack inhibitory
controls, have low social sensitivity, and can easily be made to feel vengeful. Hence, they may often
cause physical and psychological harm to others as well as to themselves. For instance, it may be
natural for them to curse or even become violent when they get mad, and many cannot help but get
into an argument with someone who disagrees with them. Indeed, such people find it easy to behave
aggressively when anyone annoys them. Measures aggression, hostility, anger, lack of inhibitory
control, and low social desirability. The factor is associated with rudeness, thoughtless and antisocial
behaviour, vengefulness, quick temper and impatience

• Sociability: Individuals with high levels of sociability enjoy interactions with many people. They are
likely to seek out big social events, prefer having numerous associations, and dislike being alone.
They tend to be extroverted and direct their energies toward people and the social environment
around them. They are usually described as outgoing, attentive, and talkative. High scorers often
have a large number of friends and acquaintances, feel comfortable in bigger social settings parties,
and do not like being by themselves for extended periods of time. Measures affiliation, social
participation, extroversion. Assesses liking for big parties and interactions with many people, as well
as a dislike of isolation in sociable people versus a liking for the same in unsociable people.

• Activity: People who score high on this trait tend to be energetic, industrious, busy, and productive.
They are rarely seen sitting around and doing nothing. Indeed, even when seemingly idle, they are
often still mentally active and liable to be busy thinking of ways of accomplishing their tasks. High
scorers thus feel the need to be doing and accomplishing things all the time and are likely to even try
to accomplish useful things while waiting or otherwise experiencing downtime. They may also engage
in active sports during their vacations, wear themselves out with work or exercise, and generally set
 13

about doing things in their lives with lots of energy. Measures energetic behavior and persistence.
This factor is associated with need to keep active and feelings of restlessness when there is nothing
to do.

Module 3: Psychoanalytic Approach

_____The Freudian Theory of personality_____

SIGMUND FREUD: Father of Psychoanalysis

Born: May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire
Died: September 23, 1939, London, England),
He was a physiologist, medical doctor, psychologist and influential thinker of the early twentieth
century.He is the founder of Psychoanalysis.Freud’s innovative treatment of human actions, dreams,
and indeed of cultural artifacts as invariably possessing implicit symbolic significance has proven to
be extraordinarily fruitful, and has had massive implications for a wide variety of fields including
psychology, anthropology, semiotics, and artistic creativity and appreciation.

______Topographic model, structural model______

TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL
The topographical theory is Freud’s first “map” of the different systems of the mind.
According to Freud, the mental apparatus can be broadly understood in terms of three mental
systems:
1) Conscious: The conscious mind comprises everything that we are aware at any given
moment. It refers to the experience or awareness of an object at the present moment. When
we receive information from our senses, we analyze it, and then make decisions based on
that information, we are utilizing our conscious mind. For instance, you may be conscious of
the information you’re reading, the sound of the music you’re listening to, or the content of a
conversation you’re having at the moment. All of the thoughts that pass through your mind, all
of the sensations and perceptions from the outside world, and all of the memories that you
bring into awareness are all a part of that conscious experience. The conscious mind
comprises everything that we are aware of at any given moment. It encompasses everything
we’re thinking about right now, whether it’s in the forefront or the back of our minds. If we are
conscious of it, it is in our conscious mind.

2) Pre/ Subconscious: The subconscious stores information just beneath the level of
conscious awareness. The subconscious level of consciousness is where dreams are
created. We can think of it as a repository for all recalled experiences, the impressions these
experiences leave on the mind, and the tendencies that are awoken or reinforced by these
impressions. Every experience, thought, and impression you’ve ever had is stored in your
subconscious mind and has a far greater influence on our thought and behaviour patterns
than we realize. The subconscious stores information just beneath the level of conscious
awareness. Individuals can retrieve such information relatively easily, and these are
commonly referred to as memories.Suppose someone were to ask you right now what your
middle name was, you would recall it, as well as your father’s birthday and the last time it
rained. Past experiences are stored in what Freud referred to as the subconscious part of our
 14

minds, which we may be unaware of at one point and then completely focus eon at another.
Our success in life, work, and relationships is frequently determined by the habits we develop
over time. Setting priorities and completing critical day-to-day tasks requires both mental and
physical strength. As such, this habit is amenable to learning through practice and repetition
until it becomes ingrained in our subconscious mind and becomes an indelible part of our
behaviour.

3) Unconscious: The unconscious is made of thoughts, memories, and instinctual desires

that are deeply buried. The unconscious is the final level of consciousness. This is composed
of thoughts, memories, and primitive/instinctual desires that are deeply buried within us, well
below our conscious awareness. While we are unaware of their existence, they have a
sizable impact on our behaviour. While our behaviours frequently reveal the unconscious
forces that motivate them, we are unable to readily access the information stored in the
unconscious mind. Throughout our childhood, we accumulated a variety of memories and
experiences that shaped our current beliefs, fears, and insecurities. However, we are unable
to recall the majority of these memories. They are unseen forces that influence our behaviour.
Things that may be forgotten in your unconscious mind include negative past experiences or
a traumatic event that you pushed out of your subconscious. Certain life experiences or
thoughts may be too frightening for some individuals to fully acknowledge and are thus
mediated by the subconscious mind. The conscious mind’s contents are all of the things of
which you are actively aware. The closely related preconscious mind contains all of the
possibilities for bringing something into conscious awareness. Additionally, the preconscious
acts as a gatekeeper, limiting the amount of information that enters conscious awareness.

STRUCTURAL MODEL
Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytical theory of personality is composed of three elements.These elements
of personality work together to create complex human behaviours Perhaps Freud's single most
enduring and important idea was that the human psyche (personality) has more than one aspect.

Freud's personality theory (1923) saw the psyche structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id,
ego and superego, all developing at different stages in our lives. These are systems, not parts of the
brain, or in any way physical. They are:-
• Id (Instincts): The id is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and
aggressive drives and hidden memories.
• Ego(Reality): The ego is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the
super-ego
• Superego (Morality): The super-ego operates as a moral conscience. According to Freud, the key to
a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego.

1. Id: The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. This aspect of personality
is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive behaviors. According to Freud, the
id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of personality. The id is driven
by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If
these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension... It consists of all the
inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct –
Eros (which contains the libido), and the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. The id is the
impulsive part of our psyche which responds directly and immediately to basic urges, needs, and
desires. The personality of the new-born child is all id and only later does it develop an ego and
super-ego. The id remains infantile in its function throughout a person's life and does not change with
time or experience, as it is not in touch with the external world. The id is not affected by reality, logic or
the everyday world, as it operates within the unconscious part of the mind. According to Freud, the id
 15

tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the primary process, which
involves forming a mental image of the desired object as a way of satisfying the need.

2. Ego: The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. According
to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a
manner acceptable in the real world. The ego functions in both the conscious, preconscious, and
unconscious. The ego operates based on the reality principle mind. , which strives to satisfy the id's
desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of
an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id's impulses can be
satisfied through a process of delayed gratification--the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only
in the appropriate time and place. Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e., tension reduction) and
avoids pain, but unlike the id, the ego is concerned with devising a realistic strategy to obtain
pleasure. The ego has no concept of right or wrong; something is good simply if it achieves its end of
satisfying without causing harm to itself or the id. Often the ego is weak relative to the headstrong id,
and the best the ego can do is stay on, pointing the id in the right direction and claiming some credit at
the end as if the action were its own. If the ego fails in its attempt to use the reality principle, and
anxiety is experienced, unconscious defence mechanisms are employed, to help ward off unpleasant
feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual. The ego engages in
secondary process thinking, which is rational, realistic, and orientated towards problem-solving. If a
plan of action does not work, then it is thought through again until a solution is found. This is known as
reality testing and enables the person to control their impulses and demonstrate self-control, via
mastery of the ego.

3. Superego: The last component of personality to develop is the superego. The superego is the
aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from
both parents and society--our sense of right and wrong. The superego provides guidelines for making
judgments. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five. The superego's
function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex and
aggression. It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply
realistic ones and to strive for perfection. The superego incorporates the values and morals of society
which are learned from one's parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 years during the
phallic stage of psychosexual development. The superego is seen as the purveyor or rewards
(feelings of pride and satisfaction) and punishments (feelings of shame and guilt) depending on which
part (the ego-deal or conscious) is activated.

_____Instincts, tension reduction; defence mechanism______

FREUD’S DUAL-INSTINCTS
In classical psychoanalytic theory, the view that human life is governed by two antagonistic forces: the
life instinct, or Eros, and the death instinct, or Thanatos. Sigmund Freud’s theory of life and death
drives evolved throughout his life and career. Initially, he described a class of drives known as life
instincts that he believed were responsible for much of our behavior. Eventually, however, Freud came
to believe that life instincts alone could not explain all human behavior. With the publication of his
book "Beyond the Pleasure Principle", in 1920, Freud concluded that all instincts fall into one of two
major classes: life drives and death drives—later dubbed Eros and Thanatos by other psychologists.

• Thanatos (Instinct for death): It is otherwise known as the death instinct or the instinct of it is
otherwise known as the death instinct or the instinct of aggression. As remarked by Brown “Freud
discovered that human being were not only basically constructive, preservative or motivated by the life
 16

instinct but that under some circumstances man hated as well as loved, destroyed as well as
constructed, tore down as well as built up. “The instinct of aggression is expressed in many overt
behaviours. When aggression is turned inside it is known as covert aggression. For example, cases of
suicide, when aggression is directed to external situations and persons it is called overt aggression
like murder. As remarked by Brown “Freud discovered that human being were not only basically
constructive, preservative or motivated by the life instinct but that under some circumstances man
hated as well as loved, destroyed as well as constructed, tore down as well as built up.”

• Eros (Instinct for Life): It is popularly known as the life instinct or love instinct or sex. It is also
called the pleasure principle. The energy of the life instinct which finds its outlet in bringing people into
close physical contact is called the libido. Libido means theenergy of sex motive or the urge of life. It
is not the life instinct itself, but only a part of the life instinct. Life instinct is the source which goads
one to develop the need for self-preservation. It is the instinct which motivates one to preserve itself.
Otherwise known as the instinct of Eros, it impels us to do whatever possible to preserve ourselves in
the society. The sexual life is also derived from the instinct of Eros.

TENSION REDUCTION
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, introduced the concept of "tension reduction" as a
fundamental aspect of human behavior and motivation. According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory,
human behavior is driven by the need to reduce psychological tension and satisfy basic biological and
psychological needs. Here's an overview of Freud's ideas related to tension reduction:

1. The Pleasure Principle:

- Freud proposed that the primary driving force behind human behavior is the "pleasure principle."
This principle dictates that individuals seek pleasure and avoid pain or discomfort.
- Tension reduction is achieved when an individual's immediate needs or desires are met, leading to
a state of pleasure or satisfaction.

2. Psychic Energy:
- Freud believed that humans possess a finite amount of psychic energy or mental energy. This
energy is constantly in flux and can accumulate as psychological tension when needs or desires are
not fulfilled.
- Unresolved tension or unmet desires can lead to psychological discomfort and anxiety.

3. Conflict and Defense Mechanisms:

- In Freud's view, individuals often experience internal conflicts between their unconscious desires
and the demands of society or the superego (the moral aspect of the psyche).
- Defense mechanisms, such as repression, denial, or rationalization, may be employed to cope
with the anxiety caused by these conflicts and protect the individual's sense of self.

4. Drives and Needs:

- Freud identified two primary drives or instincts that underlie tension reduction:
- Eros (the life instinct): This drive includes the desire for pleasure, love, and sexual gratification.
- Thanatos (the death instinct): This drive encompasses the desire to return to a state of
non-existence, which can manifest as aggressive or destructive behaviors.
- These drives are in constant interaction and can lead to complex human motivations.

5. Dreams and the Unconscious:

- Freud believed that dreams serve as a means of tension reduction. During sleep, the unconscious
mind is free to express suppressed desires and fantasies.
 17

- Through dream analysis, individuals can gain insight into their unconscious conflicts and desires,
which can contribute to tension reduction and psychological healing.

Freud's theory of tension reduction and the pleasure principle played a central role in the development
of psychoanalysis and the understanding of human motivation and behavior. While many aspects of
his theories have been criticized and evolved over time, the concept of tension reduction remains a
foundational idea in the field of psychology.

DEFENCE MECHANISM
Most notably used by Sigmund Freud psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in his is a tactic
developed by the ego to protect against anxiety. Defense mechanisms are thought to safeguard the
mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with. In some
instances, defense mechanisms are thought to keep inappropriate or unwanted thoughts and
impulses from entering the conscious mind.
For example, if you are faced with a particularly unpleasant task, your mind may choose to forget your
responsibility in order to avoid the dreaded assignment. In addition to forgetting, other defence
mechanisms include rationalization, denial, repression, projection, rejection and reaction formation.
Because of anxiety provoking demands created by the id, superego, and reality, the ego has
developed a number of defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety.

According to Sigmund Freud, who originated the Defense Mechanism theory, Defense Mechanisms
occur when our ego cannot meet the demands of reality. They are psychological strategies brought
into play by the unconscious mind to manipulate, deny or distort reality so as to maintain a socially
acceptable self-image. Healthy people normally use these mechanisms throughout life. It becomes
pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behavior such that the physical and/or
mental health of the individual is adversely affected. The purpose of ego defense mechanisms is to
protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety and/or social sanctions and/or to provide a refuge from a
situation with which one cannot currently cope. Defense mechanisms are unconscious coping
mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses.

1. Denial
● Denial is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently
occurring.
● Denial functions to protect the ego from things that the individual cannot cope with. While this
may save us from anxiety or pain, denial also requires a substantial investment of energy.
● Denial can involve a flat out rejection of the existence of a fact or reality. In other cases, it
might involve admitting that something is true, but minimizing its importance.

2. Repression
● Repression is another well-known defense mechanism.
● Repression acts to keep information out of conscious awareness. However, these memories
don't just disappear; they continue to influence our behavior. For example, a person who has
repressed memories of abuse suffered as a child may later have difficulty forming
relationships.
● Sometimes we do this consciously by forcing the unwanted information out of our awareness,
which is known as suppression.
● In most cases, however, this removal of anxiety-provoking memories from our awareness is
believed to occur unconsciously.
 18

3. Displacement
● Displacement have ever had a really bad day at work and then gone home and taken out your
frustration on family and friends? Then you have experienced the ego defense mechanism of
displacement.
● Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or objects
that are less threatening.
● Displaced aggression is a common example of this defense mechanism. Rather than express
our anger in ways that could lead to negative consequences (like arguing with our boss), we
instead express our anger towards a person or object that poses no threat (such as our
spouse, children, or pets).

4. Projection
● Projection is a defense mechanism that involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or
feelings and ascribing them to other people. For example, if you have a strong dislike for
someone, you might instead believe that he or she does not like you.
● Projection works by allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego
cannot recognize, therefore reducing anxiety.

5. Sublimation
● Sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by
converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form. For example, a person experiencing
extreme anger might take up kick-boxing as a means of venting frustration.
● Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to function normally
in socially acceptable ways.

6. Intellectualization
● Intellectualization works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way.This
defense mechanism allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful, emotional aspect of the
situation and instead focus only on the intellectual component.
● For example, a person who has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness might focus on
learning everything about the disease in order to avoid distress and remain distant from the
reality of the situation.

7. Rationalization
● Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or
feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior. For
example, a person who is turned down for a date might rationalize the situation by saying they
were not attracted to the other person anyway, or a student might blame a poor exam score
on the instructor rather than his or her lack of preparation.
● Rationalization not only prevents anxiety, it may also protect self-esteem and self-concept.
When confronted by success or failure, people tend to attribute achievement to their own
qualities and skills while failures are blamed on other people or outside forces.

8. Regression
● When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping strategies and
revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in development.
● Anna Freud called this defense mechanism regression, suggesting that people act out
behaviors from the stage of psychosexual development in which they are fixated.
● For example, an individual fixated at an earlier developmental stage might cry or sulk upon
hearing unpleasant news.
 19

9. Reaction Formation
Reaction formation reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse or behavior. An
example of reaction formation would be treating someone you strongly dislike in an excessively
friendly manner in order to hide your true feelings. Why do people behave this way? According to
Freud, they are using reaction formation as a defense mechanism to hide their true feelings by
behaving in the exact opposite manner.

Module 4: The Neo Analytic Theory

Neo-analytic theory recasts and extends psychoanalytic theory by: de-emphasising sexuality and
de-emphasising the importance of the unconscious. Instead it emphasises the role of the ego. Some
neo-analytic theorists focus on the operation of the ego.The approach to personality psychology that
is concerned with the individual’s sense of self (ego) as the core of personality is the Neo-Analytic
approach. The theory is founded by people who denied certain elements of the Freudian
(Psychoanalytic Theory) of personality. Often even called the Neo-Freudian theory, this theory is far
more accepted than the traditional Freudian ideals as it far more inclusive of many factors.

Neo-Analytic theorists support and agree that childhood experiences do play an integral role in the
development of personality. However, many reject the significance and emphasis on sexuality, which
is at the core of Freud’s beliefs. Neo-Analytic theorists also believe that personality development
occurred for more than just childhood. Where Freud valued the biological instincts and drives, he
undervalued social, environmental, and cultural influences on the development of personality.

_____Alfred Adler : Striving for superiority; parental influence on personality

development, birth order_____

Alfred Adler was born in Vienna, Austria, on February 7, 1870. An Austrian physician and psychiatrist.
In 1895 with a medical degree, he began his career as an ophthalmologist. In 1902, Sigmund Freud
invited him to join a psychoanalytic discussion group. In 1912, Alfred Adler founded the Society of
Individual Psychology.

STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY

Alfred Adler's concepts of inferiority and superiority are central to his theories of personality and
motivation. These concepts provide insight into how individuals perceivethemselves and strive to
overcome their perceived shortcomings.

Inferiority Complex
● Adler proposed that feelings of inferiority are a fundamental part of the human experience.
● He believed that everyone, at some point in their lives, experiences a sense of inadequacy or
inferiority, often rooted in childhood experiences or early perceptions of their abilities
compared to others.
● These feelings of inferiority can be a powerful motivator for personal growth and development
● In his original work, Adler used the German word ‘Minderwertigkeitsgefühl’ which mean a
feeling of less value . This is not about an objective judgement but a subjective feeling one
has towards themselves.
Compensation
 20

● To address these feelings of inferiority, individuals engage in a process known as

compensation.
● Compensation involves efforts to overcome or compensate for perceived weaknesses or
inadequacies. For example, someone who feels physically weak might compensate by
developing exceptional intellectual abilities.
● Adler saw compensation as a driving force behind human behavior, leading individuals to
strive for improvement and success.

Superiority Striving
● Adler emphasized that the ultimate goal of compensation is not just to reach a state of
equality with others but to achieve superiority.
● He referred to this as "superiority striving." This striving for superiority is a dynamic force that
can lead to personal growth, creativity, and the pursuit of one's goals and ambitions.
● It can be a positive and motivating force when channeled constructively. It is, ultimately, a
pursuit to feel complete, to feel safe, to feel competent and superior

Healthy vs. Unhealthy Striving

● Adler made a distinction between healthy and unhealthy forms of striving for superiority.
● These distinctions come from him working with neurotic patients. So, his definition of healthy
striving refers to healthy,“normal” people, while the unhealthy striving refers to unhealthy,
more extreme patients.
● Healthy striving involves healthy people, and thus the striving of superiority is a desire for
personal growth, social interest, and contributing positively to society, things concerned with
the greater good.
● Unhealthy striving, on the other hand, is seen in people who have a much greater sense of
Inferiority, and thus need a more extreme form of superiority to compensate. It can manifest
as a desire for power, control, or dominance over others. When superiority striving becomes
unhealthy, it can lead to antisocial or destructive behaviors.

PARENTAL INFLUENCE ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Parental influence on personality development is significant. Parents play a crucial role in shaping
their children's personalities through various means, including:

1. Genetics: Children inherit certain genetic traits from their parents, which can influence aspects of
their personality.

2. Modeling: Children often mimic their parents' behavior, adopting their values, beliefs, and attitudes.

3. Attachment: The quality of the parent-child attachment can affect a child's emotional development
and their ability to form healthy relationships.

4. Parenting Style: Different parenting styles (e.g., authoritative, permissive, authoritarian) can impact
a child's self-esteem, independence, and social skills.

5. Communication: How parents communicate with their children can shape their communication
skills, emotional regulation, and problem-solving abilities.

6. Expectations and Support: Parents' expectations and level of support can influence a child's
self-concept and motivation to achieve.

7.Discipline: How parents discipline their children can impact their moral development and
understanding of right and wrong.
 21

BIRTH ORDER THEORY

Alfred Adler was a renowned doctor in the field of individual psychology. Both birth order and sibling
relationships were important to Adler. The Adler birth order theory states that individual personalities
are determined by the birth order of the sibling group. Adler found some of the following
characteristics common regarding birth order:

• Only child-This child can often be spoiled as a result of having the undivided attention of the parents.
This can lead to the child having difficulty when he or she is not the center of attention and may also
have trouble sharing. This child may grow up with leadership skills, be very dependable, and have
self-control, but also may be demanding.

• Oldest child-This child may often have a feeling of being responsible for the other siblings and
therefore, a sense of being in control. This child tends to grow up to be a leader and one who follows
the rules. However, this person may also appear to have a bossy attitude.

• Middle child-The middle child may feel left out, since the oldest one is the responsible one and the
youngest is the spoiled one. This child may feel life is unfair and may become rebellious and is likely
to be the most independent among the siblings. They may feel a need to prove their own self-worth
and often grow up to fight for social causes and can be seen as the peacemaker.
• Youngest child-Often, other family members try to be in charge of the youngest, leading this child to
want to grow up quicker and have more control over their own life, and become the most independent.

The following traits are general examples of how birth order differences and personality may be
related. Of course, many other factors could impact the development of a child's personality; some of
these reasons will be discussed further below.

Only Children
These children tend to get much more attention from adults than a child with siblings does. This
means many of their early interactions involve individuals significantly older than them. These
interactions can make them feel like "tiny adults," and they can seem more mature than peers with
siblings. Traits may include:
• Confidence
• Maturity for their age
• Sensitivity
• Use of adult language
• Self-centeredness
• A tendency to enjoy being the center of attention
• Refusal to cooperate with others
• A tendency to feel unfairly treated when not getting their own way
• A desire to be more like adults, so may not relate well with peer

First Child
Since the firstborn child is used to being an only child until siblings come along, they may exhibit
some of the characteristics of an only child. Also, the firstborn may have these birth order personality
traits:
• Achiever and leader
• Feelings of superiority over other children
• Difficulty when the second child is born, such as feeling unloved or neglected
• A tendency to be controlling and focused on being correct about results
• Use of good (or bad) behavior to regain parents' attention
• A tendency to be bossy or authoritarian about rules
 22

• A desire to please others

• Reliability

Second Child
Second-born and middle children begin their lives with their parents' attention on the firstborn. Having
an older sibling as a role model makes second-born and middle children try to catch up with older
children. Adler believes the second child will most likely be better adjusted. A second child may:
• Be more competitive
• Lack the undivided attention of parents
• Be a people pleaser
• Be a peacemaker
• Develop abilities the first child doesn't exhibit to gain attention
• Be rebellious
• Be independent and not need the support of others

Middle Child
Many have heard of the "middle child syndrome" and the difficulties these children can present. With
the significant changes they experience early in life, they may become frustrated or resentful. Not only
do they lose their "youngest child" status, but they also have to compete for attention with older and
later-born children. Middle-born children of bigger families often aren't as competitive as single middle
children since their parents' attention is often spread thinner among larger family dynamics. Middle
children in bigger families may be more prone to use cooperation to get what they want. Middle
children may demonstrate the following tendencies:
• Can feel life is unfair
• Can be even-tempered
• May feel unloved or left out
• May not have the rights and responsibilities of the oldest sibling or the privileges of the youngest
• May be adaptable
• Can be impatient
• May be outgoing and rambunctious
• May treat younger siblings more roughly
• Can feel "squeezed" in the family environment

Youngest Child
The "baby" of the family tends to get more attention from parents since the older siblings are
developing and becoming more independent. Traits of the youngest child may include the following:
• May be charming and outgoing
• Can be an attention seeker
• Behaves like the only child
• Feels inferior, like everyone is bigger or more capable
• Expects others to make decisions and take responsibility
• May not be taken seriously
• Can become "speedier" in development to catch up to other siblings

______Carl Jung: Collective Unconscious_____

Jung proposed that the collective unconscious is a layer of our unconscious mind we come into this
world containing, that connects each one of to the history of thoughts and behaviours of all of
mankind. The idea crystallised for Jung after a dream that the was in a house, with the first floor well
decorated and organised (conscious personality), then the ground floor more medieval and dark
(personal unconscious), and finally a basement with signs of primitive culture and with ancient skulls
in it (collective unconscious). A modern analogy could be to imagine the collective unconscious rather
 23

like an inherited ‘database’, or like the computing ‘Cloud’. It is a vast field of information going back to
ancient times that we can all access should we so need, and that allows us to have experiences that
are typical of humanity. What does the collective unconscious contain? The collective unconscious
contains what are called ‘archetypes’. By: jon jordan Archetypes are universal concepts we seem to
instinctively know, or what Jung described as “identical psychic structures common to all”. Archetypes
mean that we can have the same thoughts and ideas as other people we have never met even though
they come from an entirely different background and culture.
An example would be the mother child relationship. Nobody tells us what a mother is, but we react in
a certain way to a mothering figure, regardless where we were born in the world or what our culture,
religion, or race is.

Jung claimed to identify a large number of archetypes but paid special attention to four. Jung labeled
these archetypes the Self, the Persona, the Shadow and the Anima/Animus.

The Persona
The persona (or mask) is the outward face we present to the world. It conceals our real self and Jung
describes it as the “conformity” archetype. This is the public face or role a person presents to others
as someone different to who we really are (like an actor).

The Anima/Animus
Another archetype is the anima/animus. The “anima/animus” is the mirror image of our biological sex,
that is, the unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women.Each sex
manifests attitudes and behavior of the other by virtue of centuries of living together. The psyche of a
woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype), and the psyche of a man contains
feminine aspects (the anima archetype).

The Shadow
Next is the shadow. This is the animal side of our personality (like the id in Freud). It is the source of
both our creative and destructive energies. In line with evolutionary theory, it may be that Jung’s
archetypes reflect predispositions that once had survival value.

The Self
Finally, there is the self which provides a sense of unity in experience. For Jung, the ultimate aim of
every individual is to achieve a state of selfhood (similar to self-actualisation), and in this respect,
Jung (like Erikson) is moving in the direction of a more humanist orientation.

Sometimes referred to as the "objective psyche," the collective conscious refers to the idea that a
segment of the deepest unconscious mind is genetically inherited and not shaped by personal
experience. This notion was originally defined by psychoanalyst Carl Jung.

ARCHETYPES
Jung believed that the collective unconscious is expressed through universal archetypes. Archetypes
are signs, symbols, or patterns of thinking and/or behaving that are inherited from our ancestors.

According to Jung, these mythological images or cultural symbols are not static or fixed. Instead,
many different archetypes may overlap or combine at any given time. Some common archetypes that
Jung proposed for explaining the unconscious mind include:
• Anima: Symbolized by an idealized woman who compels man to engage in feminine behaviors
• Animus: Woman's source of meaning and power that both creates animosity toward man but also
increases self-knowledge
• Hero: Starting with a humble birth, then overcoming evil and death
• Persona: The mask we use to conceal our inner selves to the outside world
 24

• Self: The whole personality; the core of the total psyche

• Shadow: The psyche's immoral and dark aspects
• Trickster: The child seeking self-gratification, sometimes being cruel and unfeeling in the process
• Wise old man: The self as a figure of wisdom or knowledge
In his book "Four Archetypes," Jung shared the archetypes he considered to be fundamental to a
person's psychological makeup: mother, rebirth, spirit, and trickster

_____Erik Erikson: Concept of Ego, Stages of Personality Development_____

Erik Erikson wasn’t trained by Sigmund Freud, nor did he hold a Doctorate a highly respected
university. In fact, he was not formally educated like the vast majority of his psychodynamic
colleagues. Although his parents pushed for medical school, Erikson saw himself as an artist and
spent his youth wandering through Europe living the artist’s life. In 1927, he took a job working with
children of Freud’s patients and friends. The school approached development psychoanalytically and
Erikson was soon to master this theory and begin developing his own theories relating to personality
development. His two major contributions to psychodynamic thought include a reappraisal of the ego
and an extended view of developmental stages.

CONCEPT OF EGO
Erikson held that our ego is a positive force that creates a self-identity, a sense of “I.” As the center of
our personality, our ego helps us adapt to the various conflicts and crises of life and keeps us from
losing our individuality to the leveling forces of society.

He defined the ego as a person’s ability to unify experiences and actions in an adaptive manner.
Erikson (1968) identified three interrelated aspects of ego: the body ego, the ego ideal, and ego
identity.
• The body ego refers to experiences with our body; a way of seeing our physical self as different for
other people. We may be satisfied or dissatisfied with the way our body looks and functions, but we
recognize that it is the only body we will ever have.
• The ego ideal represents the image we have of ourselves in comparison with an established ideal; it
is responsible for our being satisfied or dissatisfied not only with our physical self but with our entire
personal identity.
• Ego identity is the image we have of ourselves in the variety of social roles we play. Although
adolescence is ordinarily the time when these three components are changing most rapidly,
alterations in body ego, ego ideal, and ego identity can and do take place at any stage of life.

Erik Erikson believed that the ego Freud described was far more than just a mediator between the
superego and the id. He saw the ego as a positive driving force in human development and
personality. As such, he believed the ego’s main job was to establish and maintain a sense of identity.
A person with a strong sense of identity is one who knows where he is in life, has accepted this
positions and has workable goals for change and growth. He has a sense of uniqueness while also
having a sense of belonging and wholeness.

Erickson's theories are one example of this. At each stage, the self had to meet a challenge. This was
not done by unearthing hidden complexes; it was the work of the conscious self, striving to make the
best out of life.
The word ego itself became less popular as time went on, being associated with Freudian theory. In
personality psychology, between about 1950 and 1980, the idea of ego was largely replaced by the
idea of self-concept.
 25

The self-concept is how a person conceives or represents his or her own personality. This is not just a
passive assessment but an ongoing influence on behavior. Markus and Wurf (1987) described the
view of ego psychologists in the 1980s that "self-concept [is] active, forceful, and capable of change."

The self-concept is not necessarily viewed as a unitary thing. One of the trends in modern theories of
personality is to view the self-concept as flexible, malleable, and multiple, able to address the multiple
roles that most of us play in different contexts of our lives.

The self-concept is "a set or collection of images, schemas, conceptions, prototypes, theories, goals,
or tasks" (Markus and Wurf, 1987). "It is now commonplace to refer to the multiplicity of identity."

STAGES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Eric Erikson emphasized the role of culture and society and conflict that takes place within the ego
itself. Erikson holds the view that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages
of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a
psychosocial crisis which could influence personality development of the individual. Completion of
each leads to healthy personality and acquisition of basic traits. Failure to complete the stage
successfully and inhibition in completion in other stages. The 8 stages of development commonly
called psychosocial stages of development are-:

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

This is the first stage in Erik Erickson psychosocial stages of development which begins At birth and
continues to 18 months. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about The world in which they live,
and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. Because of infants trust
and familiarity with the material person, it achieves a state of acceptance in which if the said person is
absent for a while. This achievement is possible because it is developing an inner certainty and
truthfulness that the caregiver will return. Through, continuity of experiences with adults, infants learn
to rely on them and trust them. It is the stage where virtue of hope emerges. Unsuccessful completion
of this stage leads to frustration, some degree of deprivation, it leads to a sense of mistrust.
Entrainment, suspiciousness, insecurity becomes the part of an infant's personality. In adult
life, individuals find it difficult to trust anyone that has a significant impact on one’s social and
occupational life.

2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

This is the second stage of psychosocial stages of development which begins at 18months and
continues to 3 years. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. According to Erikson, children
at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of
independence. The child striving for new and more activity oriented experiences places a dual
demand upon; it is demand for self-control and demand for the acceptance of control from others.
Adults help a child develop a sense of autonomy and to eventually stand on tits two feet. Adults who
exercise control must also be firmly reassuring. Control that is too rigid defeats to develop its own
internal controls and regression. A sense of loss of self-control provides the child with a lasting feeling
of goodwill and pride. However, failure of unsuccessful completion of this stage causes them to begin
to feel inadequate intheir ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, l ask
self-esteem , and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities. Dependency, low self-efficacy,
doubtful in their ability becomes a part of their personality. For example, rather than put on a child's
clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask
for assistance.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.The stage
begins at 3yrs and continues to 5years. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose during
 26

the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and
other social interaction. Initiative combined with autonomy provides a child a quality in pursuing,
planning and determination of achieving tasks and goals. Child tries to grow in the sense of obligation
and performance. A child ‘major activity at this age is playing and purpose from it playing, exploration,
attempts. Failure and experimentation with its toys. Child learns what the purpose of things are,
connection between the inner and outer world and how memories of the past apply to goals of the
future. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a
sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the
parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much. Too much guilt can make the
child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.

4. Industry vs. inferiority

Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
The stage begins at 5yrs and continues to 13 years. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
competence. The child submits to controlling its exuberant imagination and setting down to formal
education. It develops a sense of industry and learns the reward of perseverance and diligence.
Interest of children shifts from play to productive situations and the implements and tools used for
work. Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things
on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific
skills. Children take pride in acquisition of new skills; inferiority develops when a child fails to complete
the task assigned by their mentors. When children take initiative, they begin to feel industrious
(competent) and self- confidence ensues. Hence, a positive outcome in personality when initiative is
restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and
therefore may not reach one’s true potential. Negative outcome impersonality if the child cannot
develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they may develop a
sense of Inferiority.

5. Identity vs. identity confusion

Identity versus identity confusion is the fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. The stage begins at 13yrs and continues to 19years. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of fidelity. Adolescence is the component in this stage. Individuals begin to have a sense of
one’s own identity, a feeling that one is a unique human being and yet prepared to fit into a
meaningful role in society. The person becomes aware of inherent characteristics such as likes and
dislikes, anticipated goals of future, strength and weakness. It is time for making vocational plans. The
ego at this stage has the capacity to select and integrate talents, aptitudes and skills in identification
with likeminded people. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the
occupational. Body image plays an important role. An adolescents may feel uncomfortable about their
body for a while until they can adapt. Failure to establish sense of identity within society ("I don’t know
what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual
not being sure about themselves or their place in society. It is called identity confusion or identity
crises. Negative outcome on personality development is indecisive, empty, anxious distorted
self-image and positive outcome is assertive, high self-efficacy, well-adjusted individual.

6. Intimacy versus isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. The
stage begins at 19 yrs. and continues to 40years. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
Young adults are willing to unite their identity with others. They seek to form relationships of intimacy,
partnership, affiliation and are willing to take necessary steps to strengthen the relationships youth
can develop sexual geniality in mutuality with loved one. It was restricted in the previous stage.
Hence, trusting relationships are formed with whom intimacy can be shared. Avoiding intimacy,
fearing commitment andrelationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. It
 27

will have positive and negative outcomes on successful and unsuccessful completion respectively.
Thereby, influencing personality as a whole.

7. Generativity versus stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. The stage begins at 40 yrs. and continues to 65 years. Succession this stage will lead
to the virtue of care. Psychologically word Generativity refers to “making your mark” through creating
or nurturing things that will outlast the individual. The transmission of social values is necessary for
both psychosexual and psychosocial aspects of personality enrichment. During this stage, a person
wants to pass down values, knowledge to the younger generation. Failure to do so, will cause a
feeling of stagnation. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and
with society as a whole. Successful completion will have a sense of accomplishment, having positive
impact on personality whereas unsuccessful completion will lead to shallow involvement in the world,
having a negative impact on personality.

8. Integrity versus despair

Integrity versus despair is the eighth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. The
stage begins at 65 yrs. and continues to death. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom.
Individuals will reflect one one’s past experiences.Successful accomplishment of seventh stage, is
individual will reap the benefits that comes with seventh stage. Hence, will perceive their life has some
order within a larger order that causes one to achieve integrity. Also, individuals came to an
understanding that death is inevitable. Erik Erikson believed if we hold the notion that our life is
unproductive, feel guilt about the past, or feel that we did not fulfil our goals, we become dissatisfied
with life, a sense of despair will overpower us, contributing to depression and hopelessness.

Module 5: Humanistic & Phenomenological Perspectives

• The Humanistic Approach began in response to concerns by therapists against perceived limitations
of Psychodynamic theories, especially psychoanalysis.

• The term humanistic psychology was first used by Gordon Allport in 1930. Allport and Henry Murray
are considered forerunners of the humanistic approach to personality, represented in this section by
the works of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Their theories emphasize human strengths and
aspirations, conscious free will, and the fulfilment of our potential. They present a flattering and
optimistic image of human nature and describe people as active, creative beings concerned with
growth and self-actualization.

• Psychologists and psychoanalysts such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow felt that the existing
(psychodynamic) theories failed to adequately address issues such as the meaning of behaviour, and
the nature of healthy growth. However, the result was not simply new variations on psychodynamic
theory, but rather a fundamentally new approach.
• There are several factors which distinguish the Humanistic Approach from other approaches, that is,
the difference can be seen in the emphasis on subjective meaning, a rejection of determinism, and a
concern for positive growth rather than pathology.

• Most psychologists believe that behaviour can only be understood objectively (by an impartial
observer), but the humanists argue that this results in concluding that an individual is incapable of
understanding their own behaviour—a view which they see as both paradoxical and dangerous to
well-being. Instead, humanists like Rogers argue that the meaning of behaviour is essentially personal
 28

and subjective; they further argue that accepting this idea is not unscientific, because ultimately all
individuals are subjective:what makes science reliable is not that scientists are purely objective, but
that the nature of observed events can be agreed upon by different observers (a process Rogers calls
intersubjective verification).

• The main aim of humanistic approach is to provide concepts and methods for stimulating learning,
growth and development both in individual persons as well as in society, thus enhancing well-being
and the overall quality of life.

There are 2 theories in humanistic approach which are Hierarchy Of Needs and Focus Of Self.
● Also known as the “third force” or “third approach” in psychology, humanistic approach came
into existence as a reaction against the pessimistic approach of psychoanalysts and
behaviourists towards human behaviour.
● Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are the two leading theorists of humanistic approach.

______Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives______

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory

proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943. It suggests that
human needs can be categorized into a hierarchy, with
lower-level needs needing to be satisfied before
higher-level needs can be addressed. The hierarchy is
typically depicted as a pyramid with five levels, from the
most fundamental at the base to the most self-actualized at
the top:

1. Physiological Needs: These are the basic biological

requirements for survival, including food, water, air, shelter,
and sleep.

2. Safety Needs: Once physiological needs are met, individuals seek safety and security. This
includes physical safety, employment, health, and property.

3. Love and Belongingness Needs: After safety, people require social connection, love, and a sense
of belonging. This involves forming relationships, friendships, and being part of a community or family.

4. Esteem Needs: This level encompasses the need for self-esteem and the esteem of others. It
includes self-confidence, achievement, respect from others, and recognition.

5. Self-Actualization: At the top of the hierarchy, self-actualization represents the realization of one's
full potential, pursuing personal growth, creativity, and fulfillment.

Maslow's theory suggests that individuals typically progress through these levels sequentially, with
lower-level needs taking precedence over higher-level ones. However, not everyone follows this linear
path, as individual experiences and priorities can vary.It's important to note that this theory has been
critiqued and debated within the field of psychology, and some argue that it oversimplifies human
motivation and doesn't account for cultural or individual differences. Nevertheless, it remains a widely
recognized framework for understanding human needs and motivations.
The Expanded Hierarchy of Needs:
 29

It is important to note that Maslow's (1943, 1954) five stage model has been expanded to include
cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs (Maslow, 1970b).
Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven stage model and an
eight-stage model, both developed during the 1960's and 1970s.
1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, etc.
3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and love, - from work group,
family, friends, and romantic relationships.
4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance,
prestige,managerial responsibility, etc.
5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc.
6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal
growth and peak experiences.
8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self-actualization.

Maslow described these needs as instinctual, by which he meant that they have a hereditary
component. Although we come equipped with these needs at birth, however, the behaviors we use to
satisfy them are learned and, therefore, subject to variation from one person to another.

The needs are arranged in order from strongest at the bottom to the weakest at the top. Lower needs
must be at least partially satisfied before higher needs become influential. For example, hungry
people feel no urge to satisfy the higher need for esteem.

They are preoccupied with satisfying the physiological need for food, not with obtaining approval and
esteem from other people. It is only when people have adequate food and shelter, and when the rest
of the lower needs are satisfied, that they are motivated by needs that rank higher in the hierarchy.

Thus, we are not driven by all the needs at the same time. In general, only one need will dominate our
personality at any one point in time. Which one it will be depends on which of the others have been
satisfied. For example, people who are successful in their careers are no longer driven by their
physiological and safety needs. Those needs have been amply taken care of.

FOCUS OF SELF (CARL ROGEER’S THEORY)

• Carl Rogers originated a popular approach to psychotherapy known initially as nondirective or

client-centered therapy and later as person-centered therapy. This form of psychotherapy has
generated an enormous amount of research and is widely applied in the treatment of emotional
disturbances. Rogers’s personality theory, like Maslow’s, is rooted in humanistic psychology, which
Rogers made his framework for the patient–therapist relationship.

• Rogers developed his theory not from experimental laboratory research but from his experiences
working with clients. Thus, his formulations on the structure and dynamics of personality derive from
his therapeutic approach.

• Rogers’s view of the therapeutic situation tells much about his view of human nature. Consider the
phrase person-cantered therapy. It suggests that the ability to change and improve personality is
cantered within the person. In other words, it is the person and not the therapist who directs such
change. The therapist’s role is to assist or facilitate the change.
 30

• Rogers believed that we are rational beings ruled by a conscious perception of ourselves and our
experiential world. Rogers did not ascribe much importance to unconscious forces or other Freudian
explanations. He also rejected the notion that past events exert a controlling influence on present
behavior.

• Although he recognized that childhood experiences affect the way we perceive our environment, and
ourselves, Rogers insisted that current feelings and emotions have a greater impact on personality.
Because of this emphasis on the conscious and the present, Rogers suggested that personality could
only be understood from our own viewpoint that is, based on our subjective experiences.

Rogers’s theory can be explained under the following three headings:

a. Enduring aspects of personality
b. Self-actualisation
c. Development of self

● 1. Enduring Aspects of Personality

Rogers’ theory of personality evolved out of his work as a clinical psychologist and developed as an
offshoot of his theory of client-centered (later called person centered) therapy. Since the main aim of
his theory is to explain the growth and development within the individual, his theory does not appear
to lay much emphasis on personality development, rather prefer to devote his attention to such
constructs that are of fundamental importance to his theory.

● 2. Self-Actualisation
• According to Rogers, only the single motive is there that impels human beings to action, and that
motive can be described as the actualising tendency.
• Rogers (1959) maintains that the human “organism” has an underlying “actualising tendency”, which
aims to develop all capacities in ways that maintain or enhance the organism and move it toward
autonomy. This tendency is directional, constructive and present in all living things.
• The actualising tendency can be suppressed but can never be destroyed without the destruction of
the organism (Rogers, 1977).
• The concept of the actualising tendency is the only motive force in the theory.
• It encompasses all motivations; tension, need, or drive reductions; and creative as well as
pleasure-seeking tendencies (Rogers, 1959).
• Only the organism as a whole has this tendency, parts of it (such as the self) do not. Maddie (1996)
describes it as a “biological pressure to fulfil the genetic blueprint’. Each person thus has a
fundamental mandate to fulfil one’s potential.
• This tendency is selective, and pays attention only to those aspects of the environment which
promises to move the person constructively, in the direction of fulfilment and wholeness.
• Therefore, as already stated, the single motivating force is ‘the self-actualisation drive’ and single
goal of life is ‘to become self-actualized.

● 3. The Development of Self

• Rogers did not explain the personality development in steps or stages; rather he emphasised the
importance of congruence between the self of the person and his experiences in the development of
personality.
• Adjustment and psychological health have also been explained in terms of realistic self-concept that
is congruent with self. Rogers maintained that unless we are taught inappropriately by those whose
love we need, our self-concept in based on our own perceptions, and fits well with our experiences.
• If we are taught to have a self-concept that does not match what we actually experience, we are
going to have difficulty. For example, you might learn that nice people never get angry and then find
 31

yourself in a situation in which you are insulted; your self-concept does not allow you to perceive your
feeling of anger accurately.
• The greater the discrepancy between our self and our experiences, the greater the maladjustment
and anxiety, and the harder we must reconcile what we believe ourselves and what we encounter in
the world around us.
• Rogers also suggests that if there is a large self-experience discrepancy, and if there is no way to
avoid all of the relevant experiences, the defensive system may be unable to handle anxiety; it may
breakdown and result in a disorganisation of personality.
• Early in our lives, we each have direct experience with pleasure and pain; for example, we obviously
learn that it is good to eat and bad to be hungry, good to be in mother’s arm and bad to touch a hot
stove and so on.
• Beyond these simple physical reactions, there is a need for positive regard. That is, we want to be
loved and respected as individuals. Our parents tend to be the primary source of love and affection,
and it is desperately important to maintain their good will.

______Existential Psychology______

Rollo Reece May was an American psychologist born on April 21, 1909 who was instrumental in
bringing Existentialism in United States. His work focused on human experience and how individuals
find meaning and purpose in their lives. Believed the most fundamental human experiences were
anxiety, guilt and freedom. His ideas were heavily influenced by existentialist movement emerged in
Europe in the mid 20th century.

ROLLO MAY'S THEORY

Rollo May's existential psychology took inspiration from humanistic psychology. Humanistic
psychology emphasized that all humans are unique individuals. As a result, they should be treated
uniquely by psychologists. Humanist psychologists rejected many behaviorist ideas that human
behavior could be summated through scientific study. They focused on the importance of free will and
the unique feelings and thoughts of individuals.

The existential psychology developed by May took some of the ideas of humanism, such as the belief
that human beings were unique individuals, and combined them with philosophical ideas of existence.
May considered how an individual's behaviors are affected by a temporary existence. Today,
existential psychologists do not focus on patients merely getting well. They also attempt to help
patients find their own path in life and feel fulfilled by it. This is in part due to May's work.

May's work studied how humans deal with the facts of their existence. A temporary existence can
cause anxiety, and May believed that anxiety originates with uncertainty in life and a fear of looming
death. He believed that anxiety influenced much of our society. He saw freedom as the defining
feature of human existence. Freedom means that people can choose their own life path. May believed
that with free will, humans develop anxiety over the unknown. Learning to overcome these anxieties
could lead to maturity and a feeling of fulfillment.

Thus, May believed that anxiety and even guilt arises when humans grapple with the reality of their
own existence. Guilt results from a failure to recognize the needs of others or our own potential.

Anxiety
People experience anxiety when they become aware that their existence or some value identified with
it might be destroyed. May defined anxiety as “the subjective state of the individual becoming aware
that his [or her] existence can be destroyed, that he can become ‘nothing’”. At another time, May
(1967) called anxiety a threat to some important value. Anxiety, then, can spring either from an
 32

awareness of one’s nonbeing or from a threat to some value essential to one’s existence. It exists
when one confronts the issue of fulfilling one’s potential. This confrontation can
lead to stagnation and decay, but it can also result in growth and change. Normal Anxiety May
defined normal anxiety as that “which is proportionate to the threat, does not involve repression, and
can be confronted constructively on the conscious level”.

Neurotic Anxiety May defined neurotic anxiety as “a reaction which is disproportionate to the threat,
involves repression and other forms of intrapsychic conflict, and is managed by various kinds of
blocking-off of activity and awareness”.

Guilt
Anxiety arises when people are faced with the problem of fulfilling their potentialities. Guilt arises
when people deny their potentialities, fail to accurately perceive the needs of fellow humans, or
remain oblivious to their dependence on the natural world (May, 1958a). both anxiety and guilt are
ontological; that is, they refer to the nature of being and not to feelings arising from specific situations
or transgressions.

Module 6: Behavioural/ Cognitive approach

_____Skinners Radical Behaviours______

B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism is a comprehensive theoretical framework that seeks to understand
and explain behavior by focusing solely on observable events and rejecting the consideration of
internal mental states. Here's a more detailed exploration of Skinner's radical behaviorism:

1.Behavior as Observable and Measurable: Radical behaviorism asserts that the only valid subject
matter for psychology is observable behavior. It dismisses introspection and the study of internal
mental processes as unscientific because these cannot be directly observed or measured. Instead,
Skinner believed that behavior could be studied objectively through systematic observation and
experimentation.

2. Operant Conditioning: Central to Skinner's theory is the concept of operant conditioning. He

proposed that behavior is shaped and maintained through its consequences. Specifically, he
introduced the idea of reinforcement and punishment:
- Positive Reinforcement: When a behavior is followed by a positive consequence (reward),
the behavior is more likely to be repeated.
- Negative Reinforcement: When a behavior results in the removal or avoidance of an
aversive stimulus, the behavior is strengthened.
- Punishment: The application of aversive consequences after a behavior decreases the
likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

3. Skinner Box: To study operant conditioning in controlled environments, Skinner developed the
Skinner Box, also known as the operant conditioning chamber. This apparatus allowed for precise
manipulation of environmental variables, such as rewards and punishments, to observe and analyze
the effects on animal behavior.

4. Contingencies of Reinforcement: Skinner emphasized the importance of understanding the

contingencies of reinforcement, which are the specific relationships between behaviors and their
 33

consequences. These contingencies determine how and when behaviors are acquired and
maintained.

5. Verbal Behavior: In addition to studying animal behavior, Skinner applied his principles to the study
of human language. His book "Verbal Behavior" proposed that language, like any other behavior, is
learned through conditioning processes. He analyzed language as a form of operant behavior,
suggesting that it could be understood in terms of antecedents and consequences.

6. Environment as the Determining Factor: Skinner argued that behavior is a product of the
individual's history of interactions with the environment. He believed that by modifying environmental
variables and using reinforcement strategies, one could predict and control behavior effectively.

In summary, Skinner's radical behaviorism is a comprehensive theoretical framework that emphasizes

the study of observable behavior, the role of reinforcement and punishment, and the manipulation of
environmental variables to understand and control behavior. While it has its critics, Skinner's work has
had a lasting impact on psychology and continues to inform various fields and therapeutic
approaches.

______Albert Bandura's Social-Cognitive theory______

Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing,
modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning
theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning
and behavior.
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory of Personality is based on the premise that human behaviour is
largely acquired and that the principles of learning are sufficient to account for the development and
maintenance of behaviour. But the earlier learning theorists were unable to pay sufficient attention
about the social context in which behaviour is taking place. Bandura has done a great deal of work on
social learning throughout his career and is famous for his “Social Learning Theory” which he has
recently renamed, “Social Cognitive Theory”.
• Bandura is seen by many as a cognitive psychologist because of his focus on motivational factors
and self-regulatory mechanisms that contribute to a person’s behaviour, rather than just
environmental factors. This focus on cognition is what differentiates social cognitive theory from
Skinner’s purely behaviouristic viewpoint.

• Bandura theory of social learning can be explained under the following three headings:
1) Reciprocal determinism
2) Self-system
3) Principles of observational learning

● 1. Reciprocal Determinism
Human behaviour has often been explained in terms of one-sided determinism. In such modes of
unidirectional causation, behaviour is depicted as being shaped and controlled either by
environmental influences or by internal dispositions. Social cognitive theory favours a model of
causation involving triadic reciprocal determinism. In this model of reciprocal causation, behaviour,
cognition and other personal factors, and other environmental influences all operate as interacting
determinants that influence each other bidirectionally. Reciprocal causation does not mean that the
different sources of influence are of equal strength. Some may be stronger than others. Nor do that
the reciprocal influences all occur simultaneously. It takes time for a causal factor to exert its influence
and activate reciprocal influences. Social Cognitive Theory: B represents behaviour, P represents
 34

personal factors in the form of cognitive, affective, and biological events, and E represents the
external environment.

● 2. Self-System
It is evident from the reciprocal determinism that all the three segments are mutually interactive. Now
the question arises that do they have some starting point? Bandura answered yes and that point is the
self system. “In social learning theory, a self-system is not a psychic agent that controls behaviour.
Rather it refers to cognitive structures that provide reference mechanisms to a set of functions for
perception, evaluation and regulation of behaviour”. Anunderstanding of self-generated influences
subsumed in the self-system is necessary for the explanation and prediction of human behaviour.

● 3. Principles of Observational
• Learning Bandura’s social cognitive theory emphasises the social origins of behaviour in addition to
the cognitive thought processes that influence human behaviour and functioning. Bandura’s
social-cognitive approach represents a break from traditional theories by proposing that cognitive
factors are central to human functioning and that learning can occur in the absence of direct
reinforcement. That is, learning can occur simply through observation of models and in the absence of
reinforcement. Bandura argued that some of the traditional principles of learning such as the laws of
reinforcement and punishment are more relevant to performance than to acquisition.

• According to Bandura, learning can occur outside the boundaries of pleasure and pain. Thus, people
learn a great deal simply by watching or observing others, by reading about what people do, and by
making general observations of the world. This learning may or may not be demonstrated in the form
of behaviour. To illustrate that people learn from watching others, Albert Bandura constructed an
experiment entitled “Bobo Doll Behaviour: A Study of Aggression.” In this experiment Bandura
exposed a group of children to a video, featuring violent and aggressive actions. For the experiment
Bandura made of film of one of his students, a young woman, essentially beating up a bobo doll. Bobo
doll is an inflatable, egg-shape balloon creature with a weight in the bottom that makes it bob back up
when you knock him down. The woman punched the clown, shouting “sockeroo!” She kicked it, sat on
it, hit with a little hammer, and so on, shouting various aggressive phrases. Bandura showed
this film to groups of kindergartners who, as you might predict, liked it a lot. They then were let out to
play. In the play room, of course, were several observers with pens and clipboards in hand, a brand
new bobo doll, and a few little hammers.The observers recorded that a lot of little kids beat the
daylights out of the bobo doll. They punched it and shouted “sockeroo,” kicked it, sat on it, hit it with
the little hammers, and so on. In other words, they imitated the young lady in the film, and quite
precisely at that. This might seem like a real nothing of an experiment at first, but consider: These
children changed their behaviour without first being rewarded for approximations to that behaviour!
And while that may not seem extraordinary to the average parent, teacher, or casual observer of
children, it didn’t fit so well with standard behaviouristic learning theory. Bandura called this
phenomenon as observational learning or modeling, and this theory is usually called social learning
theory.

______Indian Perspective on personality - Vedanta Philosophy - Satvik,

Tamsik and Rajsik Personality________

In India, personality is intricately tied to spiritual and philosophical beliefs. Concepts such as the inner
self (Atman), karma, and dharma hold great importance, guiding individuals towards self-realization
and moral duty. Practices like yoga and meditation are commonly used to foster self-awareness and
emotional balance. Indian society values collectivism, emphasizing the importance of family and
community in shaping one's personality. Respect for elders and authority is ingrained in traditional
values, fostering humility and obedience. Education and career success play a pivotal role in shaping
 35

self-esteem and overall personality. India's rich cultural diversity further enriches the multifaceted
perspectives on personality within the country.

VEDANTA PHILOSOPHY - SATVIK, TAMSIK AND RAJSIK PERSONALITY

In Vedanta philosophy, which is a key component of Indian spiritual thought, personality traits are
often categorized into three main types: Satvik, Tamsik, and Rajsik. These categories are used to
describe various aspects of human behavior, mindset, and character.

1.Satvik Personality: The Satvik personality is characterized by qualities of purity, harmony, and
goodness. Individuals with a Satvik personality tend to exhibit traits such as compassion,
selflessness, truthfulness, and a strong sense of morality. They are often calm, peaceful, and focused
on spiritual growth. Satvik individuals are driven by inner values and seek self-realization and
enlightenment.

2. Tamsik Personality: Tamsik personality traits are associated with darkness, ignorance, and lethargy.
Those with a Tamsik personality may display qualities like greed, laziness, anger, and delusion. They
are often driven by selfish desires and may engage in destructive behaviors. Tamsik individuals are
disconnected from their inner selves and are more prone to negative influences.

3.Rajsik Personality: The Rajsik personality falls in between the Satvik and Tamsik types. It is
characterized by qualities of passion, ambition, and activity. Individuals with a Rajsik personality are
often driven by material desires, competitiveness, and the pursuit of success. While they may exhibit
positive traits like determination and leadership, they can also be prone to ego, restlessness, and
attachment to worldly achievements.

It's important to note that these categories are not fixed; individuals can exhibit a combination of these
traits to varying degrees at different times in their lives. The goal of Vedanta philosophy is to
encourage individuals to cultivate Satvik qualities and reduce Tamsik and Rajsik tendencies through
spiritual practice and self-awareness, ultimately leading to self-realization and liberation from the cycle
of birth and death (moksha).

_____Buddhist Tradition______

Siddhartha Gautama lived a life of luxury as a prince butwas deeply troubled by the suffering he
witnessed. At the age of 29, he left his palace, renounced his wealth, and embarked on a spiritual
quest. For six years, Siddhartha practiced extreme asceticism and meditation but found no answers.
Finally, while meditating under a Bodhi tree, he achieved enlightenment at the age of 35. He became
the Buddha, meaning "enlightened one."

Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching the Four Noble Truths: the reality of suffering, its origin in
attachment and desire, the possibility of liberation, and the Eightfold Path as a guide to end suffering.
His teachings formed the foundation of Buddhism, and he passed away at the age of 80, leaving a
profound legacy of wisdom and compassion.

As of yet, our conceptualization of personality has been understood through western perspectives.
Perhaps, it is because the purpose of personality research has been to used by employers to predict
an employee's behavior so that they can make hiring decisions. So, there is a need to put people in
"categories" and "boxes". In parallel to this dogmatic view, Buddhism view of personality is far more
considerate of the authentic nature of life which is ever-changing. There views are quite revolutionary.
It nurtures a growth mindset as compared to fixed mindset of the western ideology.
 36

THE FIVE AGGREGATES OF BUDDHIST TRADITION

Buddhist teaching describes the aggregates as the five elements that sum up the whole of an
individual’s mental and physical existence. The five elements are Rūpa, Vedanā, Saññā, Saṃskāras,
and Vijñāna.

The first aggregate, Matter or Form (Rūpa), relates to material and physical form and includes the 6
sense organs: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin and the mind (perceiving ideas and thoughts).

The second aggregate, Sensation or Feeling (Vedanā),relates to the senses and are differentiated
into pleasant versus unpleasant, or pleasure versus pain. This includes sight (beauty versus
ugliness), sound (harmonious sound versus noise), smell (sweet versus foul), taste (appetizing versus
unpalatable), touch (pleasant versus unpleasant) and mind (positive and negative thoughts).

The third aggregate, Perception (Saññā), occurs when our six faculties come in contact with the
world. Our perception/feelings are constantly changing, the way we react to situations changes.

The fourth aggregate, Mental Formation, or ‘Volition’ (Saṃskāras), is where karma is generated. We
label everything that we perceive and experience as good,bad, and indifferent, and we act based on
the labeling that we apply, pleasure versus pain. We can also realize that these perceptions are
expressed in duality: we cannot have one without the other, otherwise, there is nothing to compare to;
they are a pair.

The fifth aggregate, Consciousness or Awareness (Vijñāna), underlies our sensations and
perceptions and is associated with the sensory organs; the consciousness of seeing, hearing,
smelling, tasting, touching and thinking. For example, eye-consciousness exists because we have
eyes, sight and therefore things that can be seen.

PERSONALITY TYPES OF BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY

The Three Typologies

Buddhist psychology outlines three personality types, although it's important to note that not everyone
neatly falls into one category. In reality, most of us exhibit a blend of these three types. However, there
are instances when certain tendencies align, leading one to identify more strongly with a particular
type.

GREEDY TYPE
● Does not mean that the person is greedy
● Focuses on the positive and pleasant, things which they like, consider charming or deem
appealing
● Overlooks worn, damaged, or deteriorating aspects, ignore the negative or challenging
Optimistic outlook, believing things will work out
● Contrasting perspective with those who are more cautious
● The "Greedy Type" can evolve into a more balanced individual
● Willingness to embrace all aspects of life
● The aspiration to experience life fully, without holding back or hiding

ANGRY TYPE
● May not be angry or furious
● Tendency to focus on what's wrong or challenging
● Noticing displeasing elements immediately
● Quick to identify obstacles or issues
 37

● Tendency to respond with "It won't work"

● Contrasting perspective with those who are more optimistic
● The "Angry Type" can evolve into a discerning individual
● Ability to see beyond the superficial level of perception
● Willingness to honestly recognize what is unpleasant or unwelcome

DELUDED TYPE
● Tendency to feel muddled or spaced out, hazy or disorganized
● Generally mellow disposition
● The strong urge is to fall asleep or tune it out when anything goes wrong
● Inability to fully embrace something wonderful
● Lack of acute perception unless trained to refine attention
● Slow processing of dilemmas or opportunities Uncertainty in immediate feelings or reactions
● The "Deluded Type" can evolve into a state of true equanimity
● Equanimity based on clear and precise attention Moving beyond missing fine details or
withdrawing from life engagement

Buddhism is a diverse spiritual tradition founded in India over 2,500 years ago by Siddhartha
Gautama, known as the Buddha. It emphasizes the Four Noble Truths (suffering, its cause, cessation,
and the path to cessation) and the Eightfold Path (right understanding, thought, speech, action,
livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration) as a guide to end suffering and attain enlightenment
(nirvana). Buddhism has various branches and practices, including Theravada, Mahayana, and
Vajrayana, each with unique interpretations and rituals. It promotes meditation, ethical conduct,
compassion, and mindfulness as central values, and it has spread worldwide, influencing countless
cultures and philosophies.