Chapter 2

Chemical
Basis of Life
Basic chemical concepts related to human body
✓Chemistry is the scientific discipline concerned with the
atomic composition of substances and the reactions they
undergo
✓the body is made from atom of elements; combined to
form molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
and nucleic acid( including DNA)
✓Trillions of chemical reactions happen simultaneously in
the body and drive the processess to keep the body
ALIVE
✓imbalances in the chemical make up of the body may
result to illness or diseases.
Important Ions in the Human Body
ION SYMBOL SIGNIFICANCE
Calcium Ca Part of bones and teeth; functions in blood clotting, muscle
contraction, release of neurotransmitters

Sodium Na Membrane potentials; water balance

Potassium K Membrane potentials
Hydrogen H Acid-base balance
Chloride Cl Water balance
Bicarbonate HCO Acid-base balance
Ammonium NH Acid-base balance
Phosphate PO Part of bones and teeth; functions in energy exchange, acid-base
balance
Iron Fe functions in Red blood cell
Magnesium Mg Necessary for enzymes
Iodide I present in thyroid hormones
 FUNCTIONS OF WATER:
• The main component of many body fluids
1. It chemically separates ionically bonded
molecules into individual ions called
ELECTROLYTES ( which are capable of
conducting electricity)
2. It acts as lubricant in tears and fluid in
joints.
3. It aids in chemical reactions, as in saliva
during digestion.
4. It is used to transport nutrients and wastes
in blood plasma.
5. It is used for temperature regulation.
 Important Organic Molecules and their functions in
the Human Body
Molecule Elements Building Blocks Function Examples
Carbohydrate C, H, O Monosaccharides Energy Monosacharrides can be used as energy
( simplest sources. Glycogen ( a polysaccharide) is an
carbohydrates) energy-storage molecule

Lipid C,H,O Glycerol and fatty Energy Fats can be stored and broken down later
(P,N in acids ( for fats) for energy, per unit of weight, fats yield
some) twice as much energy as carbohydrates.

Structure Phospholipids and cholesterol are important

components of cell membranes. Adipose
tissue surrounds organs to protect them.

Regulation Steroid hormones regulate many

physiological processes ( ex. estrogen and
testosterone are responsible for many of the
differences between males and females)
 Molecule Elements Building Blocks Function Examples

Protein C, H, O, N Amino Acids Regulation Enzymes control the rate of chemical

( S in reactions. Hormones regulate many
most) physiological processes ( ex. insulin affects
glucoe transport into cells)

Structure Collagen fibers form a structural framework

in many parts of the body

Energy Proteins can be broken down for energy;

per unit of weight, they yeild the same
energy as carbohydrates

Contraction Actin and myosin in muscle are responsible

for muscle contraction

Transport Hemoglobin transport oxygen in the blood

Protection Antibodies and complement protect against

microorganisms and other foreign
substances
 Molecule Elements Building Blocks Function Examples
Nucleic Acid C, H, O, N, Nucleotides Regulation DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) directs the
P activities of the cell

Genes are pieces of DNA that can be

passed from generation to the next

RNA ( Ribonucleic Acid) is involved in gene

expression
Adenosine Energy and most imporant large molecule for storing
Triphosphate ( Storage and providing energy used in nearly all of
ATP) the chemical reactions within the cells.
ELECTROLYTES
• Ions in water which are capable of conducting electricity
• Examples: sodium( Na+), potassium (K+), calcium ( Ca+)
• Body fluids are not pure water; they are solutions
• Solutions can be:
– Hypertonic : more solutes than other solution
– Isotonic : same concentration with solutes and other solution
– Hypotonic : lesser solutes than other solution
Acids, Bases and pH

• Acid-base balance is important in homeostasis

• Normal body pH: 7.35 to 7.45
• Acidosis : body pH lower than 7.35
• Alkalosis: body pH is higher than 7.45
Cell Structures
and
Their Functions
CELLS:

✓cell is the smallest unit of all organisms

✓cells are complex and highly organized unit
✓cells are composed of chemicals and those chemicals are
responsible for the characteristics of the cells
✓characteristics of cells can be common
✓characteristics of cell can be specialized to perform
special function
Functions of the Cell:
❑Cell metabolism and energy use - refers to chemical
reactions occurring within cells and the energy released
during these reactions is used for cellular activities
❑Synthesis of molecules - cells combine or synthesize
various types of molecules like proteins, nucleic acid and
lipids
❑Communication - cell produce and receive chemicals and
electrical signals to allow them to communicate to one
another
❑Reproduction and Inheritance - transmit genetic
information to next generation
THE CELL STRUCTURE:
1. NUCLEUS
2. CYTOPLASM
3. CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA
MEMBRANE
1. THE NUCLEUS
• the control center
• contains the DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ), which
is the genetic material for cell division and protein
instruction
• 3 Regions of the nucleus:
–Nuclear Envelope - a double membrane barrier
–Nucleoli - where ribosomes are assembled
–Chromatin - loose bumpy threads that hold the
DNA and protein to form the CHROMOSOMES
2. CYTOPLASM
➢cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the
cell membrane
➢the site of most cellular activities; “factory area”
➢three major elements:
➢cytosol is a semi-transparent fluid that holds the
nutrients and other elements
➢organelles which are the metabolic machinery of
the cell
➢Inclusions - chemical substances; stored
nutrients or cell products
3. CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA MEMBRANE
➢Selectively permeable membrane; fragile and
transparent; made up of lipids and proteins
➢functions:
➢to give structure to the cell;
➢to support the contents of the cell
➢separate the extracellular fliud ( fluid outside the
cell ) from the interstitial fluid ( fluid inside the
cell)
➢to regulate what may enter or leave the cell
➢plays a role in communication between cells
WHAT ARE THE CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES?
1. MITOCHONDRIA
• rod-shaped and enclosed by membrane;
• found in large number of cells with high
energy demands
• carry out cellular respiration
• processes the energy released to ATP
( Adenosine Triphosphate)
• the powerhouse of the cell
2. RIBOSOMES

• large and small sub-units

• where proteins are produced ( protein
synthesis )
• some are attached to endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)
3. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
• canals that coil and twist from the outer nuclear membrane
through the cytoplasm
• the mini-circulatory system of the cell
A. ROUGH ER
• has ribosomes on its surface
• extensive in cells producing proteins
• site for PROTEIN PRODUCTION
B. SMOOTH ER
• does not have ribosomes on its surface
• extensive in cells producing LIPIDS(fats)
• site for LIPID PRODUCTION
4. GOLGI APPARATUS
• enclosed with membrane folds/sacs; close to the ER
• receives and modifies proteins and lipids produced in the
cell via transport VESICLES to the cell membrane for
export outside the cell
• traffic director for the destination of the cellular proteins
• other hydrolytic enzymes (LYSOSOMES )remain in the
cell
• highly developed in cells that secrete protein like salivary
glands and pancreas
5. LYSOSOMES

• membranous packages of powerful

digestive enzymes
• found in large number in cells required to
destroy materials
• white blood cells destroy bacteria
• demolition sites of the cell
6. PEROXISOMES
• membranous sacs that contain powerful
oxidase enzymes to detoxify harmful and
poisonous substances (ex. alcohol,
formaldehyde)
• disarm dangerous free radicals
• numerous in liver and kidney cells
7. CYTOSKELETON

• elaborate network of protein structures

that extend throughout the cytoplasm
• the bones and muscles of the cell
• defines the internal framework that
determine cell shape
• involve in cell movements
8. CENTRIOLES

➢located in the centrosome near the nucleus

➢ paired ( 2 centrioles )
➢facilitate chromosome movement during cell
division
CILIA, FLAGELLA and MICROVILLI
• CILIA - cylindrical structures that extend from the cell
- major function: TO MOVE PARTICLES

• FLAGELLA - much longer cylindrical structures

- major function : PROPEL THE SPERM CELL

• MICROVILLI - abundant on the surface of cells in

small intestines
- major function : ABSORPTION
CILIA and FLAGELLA
MICROVILLI - for absorption function
CELL DIVISION
Periods of Cell Life Cycle:
➢INTERPHASE - cells grow and do
its metabolic functions
➢CELL DIVISION - to produce more
cells for growth and repair
processes
EVENTS OF CELL DIVISION
1.MITOSIS - division of the nucleus;
DNA replication happens during
Interphase
- 90% of the cell life cycle
2. CYTOKINESIS - division of the
cytoplasm. This occurs when the
mitosis is nearly completed
STAGES OF MITOSIS
1. PROPHASE - chromatin threads coil
- chromosomes appear
- 2 chromatids are formed
- centrioles separate and
attach to each chromatid
- mitotic spindles are formed
and attached to the
centromere
2. METAPHASE
• a short stage
• chromosomes are attached to the spindle
• aligned at the center of the cell

3. ANAPHASE - chromosomes move slowly apart by the

toward

4. TELOPHASE - propose in reverse

- chromosomes at opposite ends become
chromatin again
CYTOKINESIS
➢the division of the cytoplasm
➢begins during late Anaphase and
completes during Telophase
➢appearance of a CLEAVAGE FURROW
TISSUES
WHAT ARE TISSUES?
❖group of cells that are similar in
structure and function
❖they interweave and form the fabric
of the body
❖they organize into organs
PRIMARY TYPES OF TISSUES:
1.EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2.CONNECTIVE TISSUE
3.MUSCLE TISSUE
4.NERVOUS TISSUE
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
✓cover and line-up all body surfaces
✓line the hollow body organs of our body
✓FUNCTIONS:
▪ protection of underlying structures
▪ barrier to many substance
▪ absorption of materials
▪ permitting passage of substances
▪ secretion of substance
SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS:
✓fit closely to form continuous sheet
✓they have one free unattached edge
✓they have lower surface ( base membrane)
✓they are AVASCULAR ( no blood supply )
✓they depend on DIFFUSION for oxygen and
food
✓they regenerate easily when well-nourished
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL
TISSUES:
❖named FIRST by the shape of their
cell:
•Squamous - flat and thin
•Cuboidal - cube-like
•Columnar - tall column-shaped
❖and SECOND, by the amount of layering of
the cell:
• Simple - single layer
• Stratified - more than 1 layer
• Pseudostratified - appeared to be layered
but all cells are attached to a base
membrane
• Transitional - stratified epithelium that can
STRETCH
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
✓Functions:
✓enclose and separate organs and tissues
✓connect tissues to one another
✓support and move parts of the body
✓store compounds
✓cushion and insulate the body
✓transport substances
✓protect against toxins and injury
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
✓they vary in blood supply
✓some are somewhat VASCULAR ( with
blood supply ) ex. tendons and ligaments
✓some are AVASCULAR ( with no blood
supply) ex. cartilage
✓extracellular matrix with protein fibers,
ground substances and fluid
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
A. Loose Connective tissue
✓ widely distributed in the body
✓ universal packing tissue
✓ cushions and protects the organ it wraps
✓ loose and fluid in nature
✓ soak up excess fluid during inflammation
or edema
Subdivision of Connective Tissues:

1. Areolar Tissue
- widely distributed throughout the body
- protects and wraps the organs
- attaches the skin to underlying tissues
- provides nourishment
2. Adipose Tissue

✓mostly large FAT CELLS for enery

storage
✓located under the skin
✓protects the parts of the body
✓acts as insulator ( warms ) of the
body
3. Reticular Tissue
➢fine structures; irregular in shape
➢supporting tissues for the:
➢bone marrow
➢liver
➢lymphatic organs ( spleen, lymph nodes,
tonsils)
B. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

✓thick bundles of protein fibers

✓strong, rope-like structures
Sub-categories of Connective
tissue:
1. Collagenous - consists of collagen
fibers
• TENDON - attach muscles to bones
• LIGAMENT -attach bones to bones
Sub-categories of Connective
tissue:
2. Elastic - has abundant elastic fibers
- has the ability to stretch and
recoil
SUPPORTING CARTILAGE TISSUES:

1. CARTILAGE - collagen in this tissue gives

flexibility, strength and support
- rigid but resilient (able to spring back)
- no blood supply ( Avascular)
- heals slowly after an injury
types of Cartilage:
1. HYALINE - clear or glassy
- covers the ends of bones
- forms smooth and resilient surfaces in
to bear repeated compressions
2. FIBROCARTILAGE - has more collagen
- can withstand compressions and pulling
or tearing forces ( knee joints, spine, jaw)
3. ELASTIC CARTILAGE - has the ability to recoil when
bent ( ex. ear )
2. BONE
➢hard connective tissue
➢bone tissues : OSTEOCYTES
➢ consists of living cells and strong and rigid mixture of
minerals
➢ 2 types:
➢Spongy bone - has spaces between plates
➢compact bone - more solid, no spaces
BLOOD
➢fluid connective tissue
➢formed elements ( blood cells and platelets )
➢fluid matrix enables flow of:
➢nutrients, oxygen, waste products
3. MUSCLE TISSUE
• highly - specialized tissue
• function is to contract or shorten to produce
movement
• Types of Muscle tissues:
a. Skeletal Muscle Tissue
b. Cardiac Muscle Tissue
c. Smooth Muscle
CARDIAC MUSCLE

✓found only in the heart

✓it contracts the heart to pump and deliver
blood through the blood vessels
✓ the movement is INVOLUNTARY
SKELETAL MUSCLE

✓Long and cylindrical muscle fibers

✓they form the FLESH of the body
✓tissues are attached to the skeleton
✓movements are VOLUNTARY
SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE

✓forms the walls of hollow organs

✓they are found in the lining of the stomach, uterus,
bladder and blood vessels
✓they cause the smooth contraction in the intestines
(PERISTALSIS)
✓move food through the digestive tract and emptying the
urinary bladder
✓move INVOLUNTARILY ( we have no control )
4. NERVOUS TISSUE
✓used for communication through electrical
and chemical signals
✓name of cell : NEURON
✓Neurons and other supporting cells form the
following:
BRAIN, SPINAL CORD AND NERVES
✓functional characteristics:
✓conductivity and irritability
TISSUE MEMBRANES - thin layer of tissue that
covers or lines the cavity

Categories:
• MUCOUS MEMBRANE
- line the cavities that have an opening
outside the body ( mouth, nose )
Categories:
• SEROUS MEMBRANE
- line the cavities that DO NOT HAVE
OPENING outside the body
- secretes Serous Fluid
Categories:
• SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE
- lines the joints
- produces synovial fluid to lubricate
movement within the joint
TISSUE INFLAMMATION, DAMAGE
and REPAIR
❑Overlapping phases in wound healing process:
1. Maintaining Homeostasis
➢ Clot formation to stop bleeding and close the wound site
➢ Fibrin stabilizes blood clot
2. Inflammatory Response
➢symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, pain and disturbance of function
➢Removal of dead tissues or debris and killing of bacteria that colonize
the wound site
TISSUE INFLAMMATION, DAMAGE
and REPAIR
3. Proliferative Phase
➢New blood vessels are formed around the wound site ( angiogenesis)
➢Clot is replaced by granulation tissue
➢Edges of the wound pull against each other to contract the size of the
wound

4. Remodeling phase
➢Granulation is converted to a scar which appears bright red at first
➢Scar turns to white as collagen accumulates and blood vessels
decreased in number
Tissue Repair

• When cells died, they are substituted by viable cells

• Tissue repair occurs by regeneration or by replacement
• In regeneration, new cells of the same type as those
destroyed and normal function is usually restored
• In replacement, new type of tissue develops, producing a
scar and causes loss of some tissue function.
Common stimulus that affect cells
1. Physical agents – trauma, burn, pressure
2. Chemical agents – poisoning, drugs
3. Micro-organisms – bacteria, fungi, parasites, virus
4. Hypoxia – inadequate oxygen in the blood; the most
common cause
5. Genetic defects – inborn errors of metabolism or gross
malformation
6. Nutritional imbalances
7. Immunologic reaction – hypersensitibity reaction
Cellular Adaptive changes
NEOPLASMS

✓An abnormal mass of tissue that forms when cell divide

more than they should or when cell do not die when they
should
✓Also referred to as tumors
✓Could be benign ( not cancer ) or malignant ( cancerous)
✓Benign tumors grow in size but do not spread to other
nearby tissues
✓Malignant tumors grow in size, multiply and spread to
other parts of the body
WE CAN DO IT!