Radiation

Effects
Ken Cuaresma
King De Castro
Anamae Carillo
JB Audie Elcarte
Radiation Effects
subcellular radiation effects

▪- subcellular means occurring within a cell

▪- subcellular components of the cell includes the
organelles which works together for the cell
How does radiation affect the
cell?
Radiation affects DNA

▪ DNA
■ - Is the most important molecule in the human body
■ It contains genetic information of each cell
■ NUCLEUS contains DNA with other molecules in the form of
CHROMOSOMES
How does radiation affect the
DNA?
How does radiation affect the DNA

▪ When cells are exposed to radiation or

carcinogens, DNA sometimes breaks, and the broken
ends may rejoin in different patterns from their
original arrangement. The abnormalities that result
are termed “chromosome aberrations” and may be
visualized at mitosis when cells divide.
 Chromosome aberration

A chromosomal abnormality, or chromosomal aberration, is a disorder

characterized by a morphological or numerical alteration in single or multiple
chromosomes, affecting autosomes, sex chromosomes, or both.
Has 4 types
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
Translocation
How radiation affect DNA

- Abnormal metabolic activity

- Structural change
- A molecular lesion of DNA
- Destroys the triplet code
- May not be reversible
THREE PRINCIPAL OBSERVABLE EFFECTS

■ CELL DEATH
■ MALIGNANT DISEASE
■ GENETIC DAMAGE
RADIATION EFFECTS OF CHROMOSOMES

■ Terminal deletion
■ Dicentric formation
■ Ring Formation
RADIOLYSIS OF WATER

▪ Dissociation of water into other molecular products as

a result of irradiation
▪INITIAL RESULT:
■ ION PAIR: HOH+ & e-
▪FINAL RESULT:
■ ION PAIR: H+ & OH-
■ TWO FREE RADICALS: H* & OH*
FREE RADICALS

■ An uncharged molecule that contains a single UNPAIRED electron in the outer shell
■ Lifetime: < 1 ms
■ HYDROGEN PEROXIDE: poisonous to the cell and therefore acts as toxic agent
■ HYDROPEROXYL RADICAL: principal damaging product after radiolysis of water along with
Hydrogen Peroxide
▪ 
 Cellular function

They provide structure for the body, take in

nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into
energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells
also contain the body's hereditary material and can
make copies of themselves.
 the major cellular functions

▪ Cells provide six main functions. They provide structure and support,

facilitate growth through mitosis, allow passive and active
transport, produce energy, create metabolic reactions and aid in
reproduction.
Provide Structure and Support

▪ Like a classroom is made of bricks, every organism is made of cells. While some
cells such as the collenchyma and sclerenchyma are specifically meant for
structural support, all 
cells generally provide the structural basis of all organisms.
Facilitate Growth Through Mitosis

▪ In complex organisms, tissues grow by simple multiplication of cells. This takes

place through the process of mitosis in which the parent cell breaks down to
form two daughter cells identical to it. Mitosis is also the process through
which simpler organisms reproduce and give rise to new organisms.
Allow Passive and Active Transport

▪ Cells import nutrients to use in the various chemical processes that go on

inside them. These processes produce waste which a cell needs to get rid of.
Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethanol get across the cell
membrane through the process of simple diffusion. This is regulated with a
concentration gradient across the cell membrane. This is known as passive
transport.
Produce Energy

▪ An organism's survival depends upon the thousands of chemical reactions that

cells carry out relentlessly. For these reactions, cells require energy. Most
plants get this energy through the process of photosynthesis, whereas animals
get their energy through a mechanism called respiration.
Create Metabolic Reactions

Metabolism includes all the chemical reactions that take place inside an organism
to keep it alive. These reactions can be catabolic or anabolic. The process of energy
production by breaking down molecules (glucose) is known as catabolism. Anabolic
reactions, on the other hand, use energy to make bigger substances from simpler
ones.
Aids in Reproduction

▪ Reproduction is vital for the survival of a species. A cell helps in reproduction

through the processes of mitosis (in more evolved organisms) and meiosis. In
mitosis cells simply divide to form new cells. This is termed 
asexual reproduction. Meiosis takes place in gametes or reproductive cells
where there is a mixing of genetic information.
3 cellular functions

▪ Movement of substances across the cell membrane-The survival of the cell depends on maintaining the
difference between extracellular and intracellular material. Mechanisms of movement across the cell
membrane include simple diffusion, osmosis, filtration, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis
▪ Cell division-Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed for growth, repair, and replacement
in the body. This process includes division of the nuclear material and division of the cytoplasm. All cells in
the body (somatic cells), except those that give rise to the eggs and sperm (gametes), reproduce by 
mitosis. Egg and sperm cells are produced by a special type of nuclear division called meiosis in which the
number of chromosomes is halved. Division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.
▪ DNA replication and protein synthesis-Proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm function as structural
materials, enzymes that regulate chemical reactions, hormones, and other vital substances. DNA in the 
nucleus directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. A gene is the portion of a DNA molecule that controls
the synthesis of one specific protein molecule. Messenger RNA carries the genetic information from the
DNA in the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
 basic cell chemistry

Cells are composed of water, inorganic ions, and carbon-containing (organic) molecules.
Water is the most abundant molecule in cells, accounting for 70% or more of total cell
mass. Consequently, the interactions between water and the other constituents of cells are
of central importance in biological chemistry.
cell biology in chemistry

▪ Cell Chemical Biology is a Cell Press journal that aims to publish the most
important advances in chemical biology research of exceptional interest for our
diverse community, from basic scientists to clinicians.
meant by cell basic
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed
of trillions of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food,
convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions.
 METABOLISM

▪ Metabolism is the process by which the body changes food and drink into energy.
During this process, calories in food and drinks mix with oxygen to make the energy the
body needs. Even at rest, a body needs energy for all it does.
The 2 types of metabolism
▪ There are two categories of metabolism: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism is the
breakdown of organic matter, and anabolism uses energy to construct components of
cells, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
What causes high metabolism?
Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) – the gland releases larger quantities of hormones
than necessary and speeds the metabolism. The most common cause of this condition is
Graves' disease. Some of the symptoms of hyperthyroidism include increased appetite,
weight loss, nervousness and diarrhoea.
5 ways to boost metabolism

▪ Exercise more. Add interval training to your cardio routine and burn more
calories in less time.
▪ Weight train. Add muscle mass to your body and you can burn more calories at
rest.
▪ Don't skip meals, especially breakfast. 
▪ Eat fat-burning foods.
▪ Get a good night's sleep every night.
metabolism important

▪ Your metabolism constantly provides your body with energy for essential

body functions like breathing and digestion. Your body needs a
minimum number of calories (the basal metabolic rate or BMR) to
sustain these functions. Factors like age, sex, muscle mass and physical
activity affect metabolism or BMR.
An example of metabolism
▪ Building glucose from carbon dioxide is one example. Other examples
include the synthesis of proteins from amino acids, or of DNA strands
from nucleic acid building blocks (nucleotides).
organic and inorganic compounds

▪ Organic compounds are derived from or produced by living organisms and have carbon-hydrogen
covalent bonds. Inorganic compounds are derived from nonliving components, and generally
have ionic bonds, lack carbon-hydrogen bonds, and rarely, if ever, contain any carbon atoms.

The difference between organic and inorganic

chemistry
While organic chemistry is defined as the study of carbon-containing compounds, inorganic chemistry
is the study of the remaining (i.e., not carbon-containing) subset of compounds.
organic and inorganic compounds examples
-Fats, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, enzymes, proteins, and hydrocarbon fuels are
examples of organic molecules. Non-metals, salts, metals, acids, bases, and things
derived from a single element are examples of inorganic compounds.
cell proliferation

▪ Cell proliferation, the process by which a cell grows and divides to produce two
daughter cells, occurs by combining cell growth with the cell cycle to generate
many diploid cell progenies. This process is tightly controlled by the
intracellular gene regulatory network and extracellular growth factors.
 cell proliferation and why is it important
▪ Cell proliferation is an increase in cell number due to cell division, or
cytokinesis, the final step of the cell cycle. Cell proliferation is necessary for
normal tissue development and maintenance over the lifespan.
example of cell proliferation
One example of the controlled proliferation of these cells, discussed earlier in this
chapter, is the rapid proliferation of skin fibroblasts to repair damage resulting from
a cut or wound. Another striking example is provided by liver cells, which normally
divide only rarely.
factors affecting energy transfer

▪ The rate at which an object transfers energy by heating depends on: the

surface area, volume and material of the object and the nature of the
surface with which the object is in contact. The bigger the temperature
difference between a body and its surroundings, the faster the rate at
which heat is transferred.
▪ the effect of energy transfer-When work is done, energy is transferred
from the agent to the object, which results in a change in the object's
motion (more specifically, a change in the object's kinetic energy).
There are 4 ways energy can be transferred

▪ Mechanically - By the action of a force.

▪ Electrically - By an electrical current.
▪ By radiation - By Light waves or Sound waves.
▪ By heating - By conduction, convection or radiation.
two factor that affect heat energy
 -Heat energy is dependent on mass, specific heat, and changes in the temperature
of the body.
examples of energy transfer

▪ Energy transfers
▪ A swinging pirate ship ride at a theme park. Kinetic energy is transferred
into gravitational potential energy.
▪ A boat being accelerated by the force of the engine. The boat pushes
through the water as chemical energy is transferred into kinetic energy.
▪ Bringing water to the boil in an electric kettle
Linear energy transfer (LET)

▪ linear energy transfer (LET) is the amount of energy that an ionizing

particle transfers to the material traversed per unit distance. It describes
the action of radiation into matter. A high LET will slow down the
radiation more quickly, generally making shielding more effective and
preventing deep penetration. On the other hand, the higher
concentration of deposited energy can cause more severe damage to
any microscopic structures near the particle track. 
Linear Energy Transfer

▪ Inorganic Ion
▪ DNA Damage.
▪ Alpha Radiation.
▪ Ionizing Radiation.
▪ Gamma Radiation
▪ X Ray.
▪ Low Drug Dose.
▪ Relative Biologic Effectiveness.
Why is linear energy transfer important?

▪ Linear energy transfer describes the energy deposition density of a

particular type of radiation, which largely determines the biological
consequence of radiation exposure.
HIGH LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER
High linear energy transfer (LET) radiation from neutrons and heavy charged
particles causes direct damage to DNA and is characterized by a reduced
oxygen enhancement factor (OER)
relative biological effectiveness(RBE)

▪ RBE (relative biological effectiveness) is a relative measure of the

damage done by a given type of radiation per unit of energy deposited
in biological tissues.
relative biological effectiveness determined
-RBE is the ratio of the dose of a reference radiation (usually high energy γ
or x rays) and the dose of a test radiation type, to give the same level of
biological effect. The value is generally higher at lower doses, and higher for
mutational endpoints than for cell killing.
factors that influence relative biological effectiveness

▪ The RBE is an empirical value that varies depending on the

type of ionizing radiation, the energies involved, the biological
effects being considered such as cell death, and the oxygen
tension of the tissues or so-called oxygen effect.
What is the relationship between LET and RBE?

▪ While the RBE often increases with LET, the relationship is not

always obvious. It is typical for RBE values to reach a
maximum as saturation effects of energy deposition become
evident. In some cases the RBE may increase with increasing
LET and then decline above certain LET values
Factors influencing RBE

▪ radiation quality
▪ dose per fraction
▪ dose rate
▪ the presence or absence of oxygen
▪ biologic system
▪ cell type involved
LET
▪ Linear energy transfer (LET) is the average (radiation)
energy deposited per unit path length along the track of an
ionizing particle.

Oxygen Effect
Tissue is more sensitive to radiation when irradiated in the
oxygenated state than when irradiated under anoxic (without
oxygen) or hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions. This
characteristic of tissue radiation response is called the
oxygen effect and is described numerically by the oxygen
enhancement ratio (OER).
 Cellular Radiation Effects

▪ Radiation in sufficient doses can inhibit mitosis, that is,

the cell's ability to divide and proliferate indefinitely. The

inhibition of cellular proliferation is the mechanism by

which radiation kills most mammalian cells.

 Types of cell death
▪ INTERPHASE DEATH
cell death before reaching the first mitosis following to the exposure of
ionizing irradiation.

▪ Mitotic (genetic) death

a mode of cell death that results from premature or inappropriate
entry of cells into mitosis and can be caused by chemical or physical
stresses.
Oxygen enhancement ratio (OER)

▪ Oxygen enhancement effect in radiobiology refers to the enhancement of

therapeutic or detrimental effect of ionizing radiation due to the presence of
oxygen.

Fractionation

A way of dividing a total dose of radiation or chemotherapy into separate

doses that are larger or smaller than usual.Delivering a small fraction of the
total radiation dose allows time for normal cells to repair themselves between
treatments, thereby reducing side effects.
Protraction

The dose is delivered continuously but a lower dose rate until all of the dose is
given.

Dose protraction and fractionation cause less effect because time is allowed for
intracellular repair and tissue recovery.
High dose

High dose radiation tend to kill cells, it causes immediate problems to any body organ

Several effects of high dose radiation

Skin burn
Hair loss
Sterility

Low dose

Low dose radiation damage the cells and spread out over long period of time

Effect of exposure to low dose of radiation:

Genetic
Somatic
 
Mitotic delay
Exposure of cells with high mitotic activity to high dose radiation would result in severe delay in mitotic
activity for an extended period before the mitotic rate would return to normal.
Reproductive failure

In males:

Infertility: the testicles are very sensitive to the effects of radiation. Radiation can reduce
the number of sperm produced or damage sperm and affect their ability to function.
Aspermia: direct irradiation to the testis will, in lower doses, affect the germinal
epithelium.
Erectile dysfunction: radiation therapy to the pelvic aria may cause erectile dysfunction
(ED). It happens because radiation lowers testosterone levels and can affect the arteries
that carry blood to the penis, which is necessary for a firm erection.
In females:

Sterility: an ovarian dose of 4 Gy may cause a 30% incidence of sterility in

young women, but 100% sterility in women over 40 years of age.
Failure of uterine-expansion and premature labour: pelvic irradiation may
also have a profound effect on the uterus, with arrested growth in pre-
pubertal girls, and failure of uterine expansion during pregnancy with
subsequent miscarriage and premature labour.
Menopausal problems: loss ovarian function can occur 2-3 weeks into
treatment. Menstrual may stop and symptoms of menopause may occur in
premenopausal.
 
 
 
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