Sapota

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AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE

SAPOTA

Directorate of Plant Protection, National Institute of Plant Health


Quarantine and Storage Management
N. H.- IV, Faridabad, Haryana Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telangana

Department of Agriculture and Cooperation


Ministry of Agriculture
Government of India

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The AESA based IPM – Sapota, was compiled by the NIPHM working group under the
Chairmanship of Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, DG, NIPHM, and guidance of Shri. Utpal
Kumar Singh, IAS. JS (PP). The package was developed taking into account the advice of
experts listed below on various occasions before finalization.

NIPHM Working Group:

Chairman : Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, Director General


Vice-Chairmen : Dr. S. N. Sushil, Plant Protection Advisor
: Dr. P. Jeyakumar, Director (PHM)
Core Members :
1. Er. G. Shankar, Joint Director (PHE), Pesticide Application Techniques
Expertise.
2. Dr. O. P. Sharma, Joint Director (A & AM), Agronomy Expertise.
3. Dr. Satish Kumar Sain, Assistant Director (PHM), Pathology Expertise.
4. Dr. M. Narsi reddy Assistant Scientific Officer (PHM), Entomology Expertise.

Other members
5. Dr. N. Srinivasa, Assistant Director (RPM), Rodent Expertise.
6. Dr. B. S. Sunanda, Assistant Scientific Officer (PHM), Nematology Expertise.

Contributions by DPPQ&S Experts:


1. Shri. Ram Asre, Additional Plant Protection Advisor (IPM),
2. Dr. K. S. Kapoor, Deputy Director (Entomology),
3. Dr. Sanjay Arya, Deputy Director (Plant Pathology),
4. Dr. Subhash Kumar, Deputy Director (Weed Science)
5. Dr. C. S. Patni, Plant Protection Officer (Plant Pathology)

Contributions by External Experts:

1. The Director, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta


lake Post,Banglore-560089
2. Dr. V. K. Kalra, HOD (Entomology), CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar- 125004, Haryana
3. Director of Research, CSK, Himachal Pradesh Krishi, Vishvavidyalaya,
Palampur.
4. Director of Research, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth,
Dapoli-415712,Dist-Ratnagiri.
5. Directorate of Experiment Station, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture &
Technology Pantnagar-263145, Dist. Udham singh Nagar (Uttarakhand,
India)
6. Dr. S. K. Panda, Professor & Head, Department of Entamology, College of
Agriculture, Odhisha University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar-
751003
7. Dr. K. C. Sahu, Professor & Head, Department of Plant pathology, College
of Agriculture, Odhisha University of Agriculture & Technology,
Bhubaneswar-751003

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8. Dr. S.N. Mohapatra, Professor & Head, Department of Nematology, College
of Agriculture, Odhisha University of Agriculture & Technology,
Bhubaneswar-751003
9. Dr. Jayalaxmi Ganguli, Asst. Professor (Entomology), IGKV, Raipur (CG)
492 012
10. Dr. Narendra Lakpale, Asst. Professor, (Plant Pathology) IGKV, Raipur
(CG) 492 012.

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Contents

Sapota-Plant description

I. Pests
A. Pests of National Significance
1. Insect and mite pests
2. Diseases
3. Nematodes
4. Weeds
B. Pests of Regional Significance
1. Insect pests
2. Diseases

II. Agro-Ecosystem Analysis based Integrated Pest Management (IPM)


A. AESA
B. Field scouting
C. Yellow pan water trap/sticky traps
D. Light traps
E. Nematode sampling

III. Ecological engineering for pest management


IV. Resistant/tolerant varieties
V. Crop stage-wise IPM

VI. Common weeds

VII. Description of insect pests

VIII. Description of diseases


IX. Insecticide resistance and its management
X. Nutritional deficiencies/disorders
XI. Safety measures
A. At the time of harvest
B. Post-harvest storage
XII. Do’s and Don’ts in IPM
XIII. Safety parameters in pesticide usage
XIV. Basic precautions in pesticides usage
XV. Pesticide application techniques
XV. Operational, calibration and maintenance guidelines in brief
XVI. References

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AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE FOR SAPOTA

Sapota-Plant description:
Sapota (Manilkara zapota (L.) P.Royen; Family: Sapotaceae) commonly known as
the sapodilla, is a long-lived, evergreen tree native to southern Mexico, Central America and
the Caribbean. Sapodilla can grow to more than 30 m (98 ft) tall with an average trunk
diameter of 1.5 m (4.9 ft). The average height of cultivated specimens, however, is usually
between 9 and 15 m (30 and 49 ft) with a trunk diameter not exceeding 50 cm (20 in). It is
wind-resistant and the bark is rich in a white, gummy latex called chicle. The
ornamental leaves are medium green and glossy. They are alternate, elliptic to ovate, 7–15 cm
long, with an entire margin. The white flowers are inconspicuous and bell-like, with a six-lobed
corolla. An unripe fruit has a firm outer skin and when picked, releases white chicle from its
stem. A fully ripened fruit has saggy skin and does not release chicle when picked. The fruit is
a large ellipsoid berry, normally 4–8 but up to 15 cm in diameter, containing two to five seeds.
Inside, its flesh ranges from a pale yellow to an earthy brown color with a grainy texture akin to
that of a well-ripened pear. The seeds are black and resemble beans, with a hook at one end
that can catch in the throat if swallowed.

I. PESTS
A. Pests of National significance:
1. Insect Pests
1.1 Leaf webber: Nephopteryx eugraphella Ragonot (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae)
1.2 Green scale: Coccus viridis Green (Hemiptera: Coccidae)
1.3. Fruit fly: Bactrocera (Dacus) dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae)
1.4. Bud borer: Anarsia achrasella, Latreille (Lepidoptera: Gelechidae)
1.5 Sapota Seed Borer: Trymalitis margarias Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

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2. Diseases
2.1 leaf spot: Phaeophleospora indica Chinnappa
2.2 Leaf blight: Fusicoccum sapoticola Chinnappa & V.G. Rao
2.3 Sooty mould: Capnodium sp.
2.4 Postharvest diseases
2.4.1 Soft rot: Pestalotiopsis mangiferae (Henn.) Steyaert
2.4.2 Fruit rot:

3. Weeds
Broad leaf
3.1 Tick weed: Cleome viscosa L. (Capparidaceae)
3.2 Coat buttons: Tridax procumbens L. (Fabaceae)
3.3 Congress grass: Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae)
3.4 Horse Purslane: Trainthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae)
3.5 Crofton weed: Eupatorium odoratum L. (Asteraceae)
3.6 Siam weed: Chromolaena odorata L. R.M. king & H. Rob (Asteraceae)
3.7 False amaranth: Digera arvensis L. (Amaranthaceae)
3.8 Spurge: Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae)

Grasses
3.5 Crab grass Digiteria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. Poaceae
3.6 Yellow foxtail Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv. Poaceae
3.7 Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae
3.8 Torpedo grass Panicum repens L. Poaceae
Sedges
3.9 Purple nutsedge Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae)
3.13 Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L. (Cyperaceae)
B. Pests of Regional significance
1. Insect Pests
1.1 Mealybug: Ferrisia virgata Ckll (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

2. Diseases
2.1 Faciation: Botrydiplodia theobromae Pat.
2.2 Phanerogamic parasites

II. AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS (AESA) BASED INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT


(IPM)

A. AESA:

The integrated pest management (IPM) has been evolving over the decades to address the
deleterious impacts of synthetic chemical pesticides on environment ultimately affecting the
interests of the farmers. The economic threshold level (ETL) was the basis for several
decades but in modern IPM (FAO 2002) emphasis is given to AESA where farmers take
decisions based on larger range of field observations. The health of a plant is determined by

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its environment which includes physical factors (i.e. soil, rain, sunshine hours, wind etc.) and
biological factors (i.e. pests, diseases and weeds). All these factors can play a role in the
balance which exists between herbivore insects and their natural enemies. Understanding the
intricate interactions in an ecosystem can play a critical role in pest management.

Decision making in pest management requires a thorough analysis of the agro-


ecosystem. Farmer has to learn how to observe the crop, how to analyze the field situation and
how to make proper decisions for their crop management. This process is called the AESA.
Participants of AESA will have to make a drawing on a large sized white sheet (60 x 80 cm), to
include all their observations. The advantage of using a drawing is that it requires the
participants/farmers to observe closely and intensively. It is a focal point for the analysis and for
the discussions that follow, and the drawing can be kept as a record.

AESA is an approach, which can be gainfully employed by extension functionaries and


farmers to analyze the field situations with regards to pests (insects, disease, weeds etc.),
defenders, soil conditions, plant health and the influence of climatic factors and their
relationship for growing a healthy crop. The basic components of AESA are
 Plant health at different stages
 Built-in compensation abilities of plants
 Pest and defender population dynamics
 Soil conditions
 Climatic factors
 Farmers past experience

Principles of AESA based Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

Grow a healthy crop:

 Select a variety resistant/tolerant to major pests


 Select healthy seeds and seedlings
 Follow proper spacing
 Soil health improvement (mulching and green manuring)
 Nutrient management especially organic manures and biofertilizers based on the soil
test results. If the dosage of nitrogenous fertilizers is too high the crop becomes too
succulent and therefore susceptible to insects and diseases. If the dosage is too low,
the crop growth is retarded. So, the farmers should apply an adequate for best results.
The phosphatic fertilizers should not be applied each and every season as the residual
phosphate of the previous season will be available for the current season also.
 Proper irrigation

Observe the orchard regularly (climatic factors, soil and biotic factors)

Farmers should:
 Monitor the field situations at least once a week (soil, water, plants, pests, natural
enemies, weather factors etc.)
 Make decisions based on the field situations and Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio)
 Take direct action when needed (e.g. collect egg masses, remove infested plants etc.)

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Understand and conserve defenders

 Know defenders/natural enemies to understand their role through regular observations


of the agro-ecosystem
 Avoid the use of chemical pesticides especially with broad-spectrum activity

Insect zoo:

In orchard various types of insects are present. Some are beneficial and some may be harmful.
Generally farmers are not aware about it. Predators (friends of the farmers) which feed on
pests are not easy to observe in orchard. Insect zoo concept can be helpful to enhance
farmers’ skill to identify beneficial and harmful insects. In this method, unfamiliar/unknown
predators are collected in plastic containers with brush from the orchard and brought to a place
for study. Each predator is placed inside a plastic bottle together with parts of the plant and
some known insect pests. Insects in the bottle are observed for certain time and determined
whether the test insect is a pest (feeds on plant) or a predator (feeds on other insects).

Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio):


Identifying the number of pests and beneficial insects helps the farmers to make appropriate
pest management decisions. Sweep net, visual counts etc. can be adopted to arrive at the
numbers of pests and defenders. The P: D ratio can vary depending on the feeding potential of
natural enemy as well as the type of pest. The natural enemies of sapota insect pests can be
divided into 3 categories 1. parasitoids; 2. predators; and 3. pathogens.

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Model Agro-Ecosystem Analysis Chart

Date:
Village:
Farmer:

Decision taken based on the analysis of field situations


Soil condition :
Weather condition :
Diseases types and severity :
Weeds types and intensity :
Rodent damage (if any) :
No. of insect pests :
No. of natural enemies :
P: D ratio :

The general rule to be adopted for management decisions relying on the P: D ratio is 2:
1. However, some of the parasitoids and predators will be able to control more than 2 pests.
Wherever specific P: D ratios are not found, it is safer to adopt the 2: 1, as P: D ratio.
Whenever the P: D ratio is found to be favourable, there is no need for adoption of other
management strategies. In cases where the P: D ratio is found to be unfavourable, the farmers
can be advised to resort to inundative release of parasitoids/predators depending upon the
type of pest. In addition to inundative release of parasitoids and predators, the usage of
microbial biopesticides and biochemical biopesticides such as insect growth regulators,
botanicals etc. can be relied upon before resorting to synthetic chemical pesticides.

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Decision making:

Farmers become experts in crop management:

Farmers have to make timely decisions about the management of their crops. AESA farmers
have learned to make these decisions based on observations and analysis viz. abiotic and
biotic factors of the crop ecosystem. The past experience of the farmers should also be
considered for decision making. However, as field conditions continue to change and new
technologies become available, farmers need to continue improving their skills and knowledge.

 Farmers are capable of improving farming practices by experimentation


 Farmers can share their knowledge with other farmers

AESA methodology:

 Go to the orchard in groups (about 5 farmers per group). Walk across the orchard and
choose 20 plants/acre randomly. Observe keenly each of these plants and record your
observations:

 Plant: Observe the plant height, number of branches, crop stage, deficiency
symptoms etc.
 Pests: Observe and count pests at different places on the plant.
 Defenders (natural enemies): Observe and count parasitoids and predators.
 Diseases: Observe leaves and stems and identify any visible disease symptoms
and severity.
 Rats: Count number of plants affected by rats.
 Weeds: Observe weeds in the field and their intensity.
 Water: Observe the water situation of the field.
 Weather: Observe the weather condition.

 While walking in the orchard, manually collect insects in plastic bags. Collect additional
insets and plant parts with disease symptoms in a plastic bag for further examination in
the laboratory. Find a shady place to sit as a group in a small circle for drawing and
discussion.
 If needed, kill the insects with some chloroform (if available) on a piece of cotton.
 Each group will first identify the pests, defenders and diseases collected.
 Each group will then analyze the field situation in detail and present their observations
and analysis in a drawing (the AESA drawing).
 Each drawing will show a plant representing the field situations. The weather
conditions, water level, disease symptoms, etc. will be shown in the drawing. Pest
insects will be drawn on one side. Defenders (beneficial insects) will be drawn on
another side. Write the number next to each insect. Indicate the plant part where the
pests and defenders were found. Try to show the interaction between pests and
defenders.
 Each group will discuss the situation and make a crop management recommendation.
 The small groups then join each other and a member of each group will now present
their analysis in front of all participants.
 The facilitator will facilitate the discussion by asking guiding questions and makes sure
that all participants (also shy or illiterate persons) are actively involved in this process.

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 Formulate a common conclusion. The whole group should support the decision on what
field management is required in the AESA plot.
 Make sure that the required activities (based on the decision) will be carried out.
 Keep the drawing for comparison purpose in the following weeks.

Data recording:

Farmers should record data in a notebook and drawing on a chart


 Keep records of what has happened, help us making an analysis and draw conclusions

Data to be recorded:
 Plant growth (weekly): Height of plant; Number of leaves
 Crop situation (e.g. for AESA): Plant health, Pests, diseases, weeds, Natural
enemies, Soil conditions, Irrigation, Weather conditions
 Input costs: Seeds, Fertilizer, Pesticides, Labour
 Harvest: Yield (Kg/acre), Price of produce (Rs./Kg)

Some questions that can be used during the discussion:


 Summarize the present situation of the field.
 What crop management aspect is most important at this moment?
 Is there a big change in crop situation compared to last visit? What kind of change?
 Is there any serious pest or disease outbreak?
 What is the situation of the beneficial insects?
 Is there a balance in the field between pests and defenders?
 Were you able to identify all pests and diseases?
 Do you think the crop is healthy?
 What management practices are needed at this moment?
 When will it be done? Who will do it? Make sure that responsibilities for all activities are
being discussed.
 Are you expecting any problems to emerge during the coming week such as congenial
weather conditions for pest build-up?
 What are the problems? How can we avoid it? How can we be prepared?
 Summarize the actions to be taken.

Advantages of AESA over ETL

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One of the problems of the ETL is that it is based on parameters that are changing all the time,
and that are often not known. The damage or losses caused by a certain density of insects
cannot be predicted at all. In ETL the due recognition of the role of natural enemies in
decreasing pest population is ignored. Farmers cannot base their decisions on just a simple
count of pests. They will have to consider many other aspects of the crop (crop ecology, growth
stage, natural enemies, weather condition, etc.) and their own economic and social situation
before they can make the right crop management decisions. In ETL based IPM, natural
enemies, plant compensation ability and abiotic factors are not considered. In AESA based
IPM emphasis is given to natural enemies, plant compensation ability, abiotic factors and P: D
ratio.

AESA and farmer field school (FFS)

AESA is a season-long training activity that takes place in the farmer field. It is season-long so
that it covers all the different developmental stages of the crop and their related management
practices. The process is always learner-centered, participatory and relying on an experiential
learning approach and therefore it has become an integral part of FFS.

Farmers can learn from AESA

 Identification of pests and their nature of damage


 Identification of natural enemies
 Management of pests
 Water and nutrient management
 Influence of weather factors on pest buildup
 Role of natural enemies in pest management

FFS to teach AESA based IPM skills

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Active involvement of the farmers
Participatory
Farmers learn from other IPM
farmers

Not classroom training


Practical
Active involvement of the farmers

Group meetings

Regular meetings Throughout cropping season

Guided by IPM facilitator


AESA based IPM
training for farmers Learning through Design studies to solve problems
field experiments
Learning by doing

Problem oriented Farmers choose topics

Learning about crop ecology

Understanding role of beneficial insects

B. Field scouting:

AESA requires skill. So only the trained farmers can undertake their exercise. However, other
farmers also can do orchard scouting in their own orchards at regular intervals to monitor the
major pest situation.
Undertake roving surveys at every 10 km distance 7-10 days intervals (depending upon
the pest population). Record the incidence of major pests and diseases on citrus tree and other
host plants of that locality. Observe at each spot 20 trees at random and 5 samples in each
tree all around. Record the population of all insect-pests on 3 leaves of new shoots of these
plants. Record the other insect-pests and disease occurring on the other parts of tree-plant.
Record the population potential of different bio-control fauna.

For sucking pests:


Fruit fly: Population should be counted on three leaves (top and middle portion) of new shoot
at 5 sites randomly in each tree.
Sampling in fruit crops: If someone is doing sampling he will be known as an inspector or
scout. The fruit crops are perennial in nature and before starting the surveillance process an
inspector or scout who is going to implement the activity should know about the nature of crop
as well as different crop stages and its growth stages. Knowing crop and its nature helps in
identifying the important diseases and pest, because the diseases and pests are infect/infect
certain stage or part of the crop plant.

Sampling patterns: Different methods of sampling are reported and being utilized for sampling
in crops as well as in fruit plants like aggravated, random, scattered etc. However, some of
them are specific to the crop/disease/pests and some of them are to be utilized at initial stage
and or for subsequent plant growth stage. Also the sampling methods may differ based upon
the nature and requirement of the study like estimating disease incidence and or disease
severity.

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However, for a common orchard studies the assessment methods should be easy and
quick in use for a wide range of conditions, but also adequately reliable and reproducible,
accurate and precise. Generally this is not always possible. In fruit crops generally following
sampling patterns are used:

 Zig-zag pattern. Sampling a fallow orchard or one with no obvious symptoms in the
current crop to see the incidence as well as sampling of viral, wilt disease.
 Circle pattern. Sampling within the drip line of trees and shrubs and for powdery
mildew, downy mildew and leaf spot diseases etc.
 Star pattern. Sampling from a damaged area.

Sampling frequency: Sampling frequency or interval depends on generation interval or


number of pathogen per year, potential for population increase between generations, stage of
crop- pathogen infection. Generally, if initial survey is already implemented and some results
are with the surveillance manager, then based upon the results of diseases/pests
incidence/intensity as well as weather parameters the surveillance frequency is decided to get
comprehensive view of the diseases and pests’ development/population dynamics as well as
biocontrol agent’s population if present in the crop ecosystem. In subsequent survey monitoring
for the pathogen, pest and biocontrol agent must be carried out to get following detailed
information:
 Relative pest measuring estimates: Counting the representative samples in a given area.
 Absolute pest measuring estimates: Counting all individuals in a population in a given
area which determine total pest population size in a given area. It is very effective pest
surveillance research too but very time consuming, not practical and or economically
feasible.
 Get an idea of pests per unit: The sampling to be organized to estimate the per plant and
or area to make the decision.
 Get an idea of weather in the site: In addition to the pest estimation the prevailing weather
conditions which may affect pest development and or population buildup must be
observed and recorded.
 Get an idea of biocontrol agents: More importantly to strengthen the management
strategies biocontrol agent population size if available in a given area should be
determined.

For Diseases:
Whenever scouting, be aware that symptoms of plant disease problems may be caused by any
biotic factors such as fungal, bacterial, viral pathogens or abiotic factors such as weather,
fertilizers, nutrient deficiencies, pesticides and abiotic soil problems. In many cases, the cause
of the symptom is not obvious. Close examination, and laboratory culture and analysis are
required for proper diagnosis of the causal agent of disease. Generally fungal diseases cause
the obvious symptoms with irregular growth, pattern & colour (except viruses), however abiotic
problems cause regular, uniform symptoms. Pathogen presence (signs) on the symptoms can
also be observed like fungal growth, bacterial ooze etc. Specific and characteristic symptoms
of the important plant diseases are given in description of diseases section.
Root sampling: Always check plants that appear unhealthy. If there are no obvious symptoms
on plants, examine plants randomly and look for lesions or rots on roots and stems. Observe
the signs of the causal organism (fungal growth or ooze). Always check plants that appear
unhealthy. It is often necessary to wash the roots with water to examine them properly. If the
roots are well developed, cut into them to examine the roots for internal infections

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(discolouration & signs). Count the total number of pseudostem damaged/infested/infected due
to rot should be counted and incidence should be recorded.
Leaf sampling: Examine all leaves and or sheaths on each plant for lesions and determine the
amount area of leaf infection. Leaf diseases cause most damage during the seedling and
flowering stages of plant growth. Observe for the symptoms and signs on the infected plant
parts. Count the number of leaves (leaf area diameter)/plant infected due to disease and
incidence should be recorded.
Stem, flower and fruit sampling: Carefully examine the stems, flowers and fruits of plants for
signs of fungal material diseases or lesions. The stems, flowers and fruits should be split or
taken apart and examined for discoloration caused by fungi and bacteria. Count the number of
plant, flower and fruit infected due to disease and incidence should be recorded.

D. Light traps
Set up light traps@ 1 trap/acre for monitoring and mass trapping of nocturnal insects. Light
traps with exit option for natural enemies of smaller size should be installed and operate
around the dusk time (6 pm to 10 pm).

III. Ecological engineering for pest management

Ecological engineering for pest management has recently emerged as a paradigm for
considering pest management approaches that rely on the use of cultural techniques to effect
habitat manipulation and to enhance biological control. Ecological engineering for pest
management is based on informed ecological knowledge rather than high technology
approaches such as synthetic pesticides and genetically engineered crops (Gurr et al. 2004, a,
b).

Ecological Engineering for Pest Management – Below Ground:

There is a growing realization that the soil borne, seed and seedling borne diseases can be
managed with microbial interventions, besides choosing appropriate plant varieties. The
following activities increase the beneficial microbial population and enhance soil fertility.

 Keep soils covered year-round with living vegetation and/or crop residue.
 Add organic matter in the form of farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost, crop residue
which enhance below ground biodiversity of beneficial microbes and insects.
 Application of balanced dose of nutrients using biofertilizers based on soil test report.
 Application of biofertilizers with special focus on mycorrhiza and plant growth promoting
rhizobia (PGPR)
 Application of Trichoderma harzianum/ viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens for
treatment of seed/seedling/planting materials in the nurseries and field application (if
commercial products are used, check for label claim. However, biopesticides produced
by farmers for own consumption in their fields, registration is not required).

Ecological Engineering for Pest Management – Above Ground:

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Natural enemies play a very significant role in control of foliar insect pests. Natural
enemy diversity contributes significantly to management of insect pests both below and above
ground.

Natural enemies may require:


1. Food in the form of pollen and nectar.
2. Shelter, overwintering sites and moderate microclimate etc.
3. Alternate hosts when primary hosts are not present.
In order to attract natural enemies following activities should be practiced:
 Raise the flowering plants / compatible cash crops along the field border by arranging
shorter plants towards main crop and taller plants towards the border to attract natural
enemies as well as to avoid immigrating pest population
 Grow flowering plants on the internal bunds inside the field.
 Not to uproot weed plants those are growing naturally such as Tridax procumbens,
Ageratum sp, Alternanthera sp etc. which act as nectar source for natural enemies,
 Not to apply broad spectrum chemical pesticides, when the P: D ratio is favourable. The
plant compensation ability should also be considered before applying chemical
pesticides.
 Reduce tillage intensity so that hibernating natural enemies can be saved.
 Select and plant appropriate companion plants which could be trap crops and pest
repellent crops. The trap crops and pest repellent crops will also recruit natural
enemies as their flowers provide nectar and the plants provide suitable microclimate.

Due to enhancement of biodiversity by the flowering plants, parasitoids and predators


(natural enemies) number also will increase due to availability of nectar, pollen and insects etc.
The major predators are a wide variety of spiders, ladybird beetles, long horned grasshoppers,
lacewing, earwigs, etc.

Plants Suitable for Ecological Engineering for Pest Management

Cluster bean Cowpea Carrot

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Sunflower Buckwheat Alfalfa

Maize Mustard French bean

Marigold Coriander Chrysanthemum

The flowering plants suggested under Ecological Engineering for pest management strategy
are known as attractant plants to the natural enemies of the selected pests. The information
is based on published research literature. However, the actual selection of flowering plants
could be based on availability, agro-climatic conditions and soil types

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IV. RESISTANT/TOLERANT VARIETIES

Pest Tolerant/ Resistant variety*

Tolerant to leaf spot and leaf webber PKM.3 (1994)

*For detailed information and further updates nearest KVK, SAU / ICAR Institute may be
contacted

V. CROP STAGE-WISE IPM

Management Activity
Pre-planting
Common cultural practices:
 Harrowing, levelling and application of FYM to the
soil help in achieving to conserve soil moisture,
and ensure excellent bearing of fruits and resist to
insect invasion later
 Field sanitation, rogueing
 Destroy the alternate host plants
 Apply manures and fertilizers as per soil test
recommendations
 Nutrient should be applied on the basis of soil test
Nutrients report and recommendation for the particular agro-
climatic zone.
 Prepare land by ploughing and harrowing.
 The pits are dug in summer about a fortnight before
planting.
 Dig pits of about 1 m x 1 m x 1 m at a distance of 10
m x 10 m apart (high density planting of 5 X 5 m up to
the age of 13 years may be adopted). Fill the pits with
top soil mixed with 25 kg FYM treated with
Trichoderma cultures.
 Plough the field before planting to destroy existing
Weeds weeds in the field.
 Remove existing weeds in and around the pits at the
time of planting.
Cultural control:
Soil borne pathogens,  Grow resistant/tolerant varieties, if any.
resting stages of insects  Deep summer ploughing of field to control resting
stages of insect pests.
 Avoid excessive watering and provide proper drainage
in the field.
Planting
Nutrients  Planting is done in pits already filled with top soil and
farm yard manure.
 Apply 20 g each of Azospirillum and mycorrhizae per

22
plant during planting.
Weeds  Remove weeds from the pit, if any at the time of
plant
 Use fibrous biological mulch to reduce the weed
problems and conserve the soil moisture.
 Adopt the intercropping of recommended crops
between the rows of sapota depending upon the
stage of orchard e.g. banana, papaya, pine apple,
cocoa, French bean, peas, tomato, brinjal,
cabbage, cauliflower and cucurbits.
Insect & Diseases Mechanical Practices
 Neem
cake must be incorporated @ 40kg/acre,
to protect from pest attack.
 Growing of forage crops as a mixed crop,
helps in "maintaining ecological balance".
Vegetative stage (2 nd to 4th years)
Common cultural practices:
 Collect and destroy diseased and insect infected
plant parts.
 Provide irrigation at critical stages of the crop
 Avoid water stagnation.
 Enhance parasitic activity by avoiding chemical
spray, when 1-2 larval parasitoids are observed
Common mechanical practices:
 Collection and destruction of eggs and early stage
larvae
 Handpick the older larvae during early stages
 The infested curd and seed capsules may be
collected and destroyed
 Handpick the gregarious caterpillars and the pupae
which are found on leaves and destroy them in
kerosene mixed water.
 Use light trap @ 1/acre and operate between 6 pm
and 10 pm
 Erecting of bird perches @ 20/acre for encouraging
predatory birds such as King crow, common mynah
etc.
 Set up bonfire during evening hours at 7-8 pm
Common biological practices:
 Conserve natural enemies through ecological
engineering
 Augmentative release of natural enemies
Nutrients  Apply fertilizers according to the age of plant as
mentioned below;

Age of Nitroge Phosp Potash

23
the tree n horus

(grams /tree)

1-3 Years 50 25 75

4-6 Years 100 40 150

7-10 years 200 80 300

11 years 400 160 450


and
onward

Weeds Cultural control:


 Use black polythene mulch for suppressing
the weeds growth.
 Remove the existing weeds around the pits by
using hand tools as and when required.
 Inter-cultivation by suitable plough or cultivator
between the rows of sapota plants immediately after
onset of the monsoon and may be repeated after
suitable interval.
Leaf webber Cultural control:
 Follow common cultural, mechanical and
biological practices.
Biological control:
 Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5 %
Scale insects and mealy  Follow common cultural, mechanical and
bug biological practices.
Biological control:
 After two weeks release 20 predator beetles
viz., Cryptolaemus. montrouzieri beetle per tree
Flowering stage
Nutrients  Apply recommended micronutrients, if symptoms are
observed.
 Micro-nutrients viz. ZnSO4 (0.5%) and H2BO3 (0.1%)
are sprayed in order to increase growth and yield
characters

Weeds  Remove weeds around the plants.


 Use straw or plastic Mulch to avoid weed growth and
to maintain soil moisture for longer period
Bud borer  Follow common cultural, mechanical and biological
practices.
Fruit laden phase

24
Leaf webber  Same as in vegetative stage.

Sapota caterpillar  Follow common cultural, mechanical and biological


practices.
Cultural control:
 Field sanitation
 Free from weeds and debris
Mechanical control:
 Collect and destroy the egg mass
 Burning the groups of larvae found on tree trunks
with torches
Harvesting stage
 Fruits should be harvested in the month of
January
Fruit fly  Follow common cultural, mechanical and biological
practices.
Mechanical control:
 Collect fallen infested fruits and dispose them by
dumping in a pit and covering with soil.
 Raking the soil around the tree to expose the pupa
 Monitor and mass trap the fruit flies with methyl
eugenol traps.
 Use bait spray combining any one of the insecticides
and molasses
Seed Borer  Follow common cultural, mechanical and biological
practices.
Mechanical control
 Sanitation: Sanitation is to be maintained for
eliminating the sources of seed borer infestation.
 Collection and destruction of the off season stray
mature sapota fruits after main harvest till November
will bring down the pest incidence.
Note: The pesticide dosages and spray fluid volumes are based on high volume spray.

VI. INSECTICIDE RESISTANCDE AND ITS MANAGEMENT

Insecticide resistance: Resistance to insecticides may be defined as ‘a heritable change in


the sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to
achieve the expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for
that pest species’ (IRAC). Cross-resistance occurs when resistance to one insecticide confers
resistance to another insecticide, even where the insect has not been exposed to the latter
product.

Causes of resistance development: The causes and rate at which insecticide resistance
develops depend on several factors, including the initial frequency of resistance alleles present
in the population, how rapidly the insects reproduce, the insects’ level of resistance, the
migration and host range of the insects, the insecticide's persistence and specificity, and the

25
rate, timing and number of applications of insecticide made. For instance, insect pests that
survive in large populations and breed quickly are at greater advantage of evolving insecticide,
especially when insecticides are misused or over-used.

General strategy for insecticide resistance management: The best strategy to avoid
insecticide resistance is prevention and including insecticide resistance management tactics as
part of a larger integrated pest management (IPM) approach.

1) Monitor pests: Monitor insect population development in fields to determine if and when
control measures are warranted. Monitor and consider natural enemies when making control
decisions. After treatment, continue monitoring to assess pest populations and their control.
2) Focus on AESA. Insecticides should be used only as a last resort when all other non-
chemical management options are exhausted and P: D ratio is above 2: 1. Apply
biopesticides/chemical insecticides judiciously after observing unfavourable P: D ratio and
when the pests are in most vulnerable life stage. Use application rates and intervals as per
label claim.
3) Ecological engineering for pest management: Flowering plants that attract natural
enemies as well as plants that repel pests can be grown as border/intercrop.
4) Take an integrated approach to managing pests. Use as many different control measures
as possible viz., cultural, mechanical, physical, biological etc. Select insecticides with care and
consider the impact on future pest populations and the environment. Avoid broad-spectrum
insecticides when a narrow-spectrum or more specific insecticide will work. More preference
should be given to green labeled insecticides.
5) Mix and apply carefully. While applying insecticides care should be taken for proper
application of insecticides in terms of dose, volume, timing, coverage, application techniques
as per label claim.
6) Alternate different insecticide classes. Avoid the repeated use of the same insecticide,
insecticides in the same chemical class, or insecticides in different classes with same mode of
action and rotate/alternate insecticide classes and modes of action.
7) Preserve susceptible genes. Preserve susceptible individuals within the target population
by providing unsprayed areas within treated fields, adjacent "refuge" fields, or habitat
attractions within a treated field that facilitate immigration. These susceptible individuals may
outcompete and interbreed with resistant individuals, diluting the resistant genes and therefore
the impact of resistance.
VII. NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES

Nutrients Appearance
Nitrogen: Stunted growth. The bark of the
shoots turned reddish-brown in colour. On
elongating shoots, the immature leaves
become amber to bright red while the mature
leaves remained small and yellow-green in
colour. Early abscission of leaves, smaller
and fewer fruits.
Correction Measure: Foliar sprays of urea
@ 2% with 250 g N per tree from both
sources increase the fruit weight and yield.

26
Phosphorus: Pigmentation seen in older
leaves; leaf size become small.
Correction Measure: Foliar spray of DAP
2% at fortnightly intervals.

Potassium: Light brown specks scattered all


over the leaves which appeared later merged
forming necrotic patches between the large
veins. Browning on the under side of the
leaves and chlorotic areas between veins
due to K deficiency.
Correction Measure: Application of KCl on
soil test basis.

Calcium:Tip of the twig and flower bud


affected and growth retarded.
Correction Measure:
Apply gypsum of lime based on soil test
recommendation.

Magnesium: Leaves become lighter green


which gradually turned greenish yellow,
remaining deeper green along the mid rib
and larger veins. Leaves turned yellow with
scattered brown lesion on the leaf blade.
Interveinial chlorosis on older leaves followed
by necrosis of distal leaf edge.
Correction Measure:
Application of dolomite or spraying
magnesium nitrate @ 1% can avoid the
deficiency.

Sulphur: Yellowing of young leaves; growth


of the leaf is affected.
Correction Measure:
Foliar spray of CaSO4@1%.

27
Boron: Leaves turn yellowish-green in colour
the older leaves show signs of burning at the
tips and along the margins which abscised
prematurely. The tip burning of young leaves
and splits or crack on the midrib and large
veins on the underside of the leaf is
observed.
Correction Measure:
Soil application of borax at 2 kg/acre.

Copper: The leaf veins developed a reddish-


brown colour, premature defoliation and die
back of twigs also occurred. The tip of the
twigs developed multiple buds which died
soon.
Correction Measure: Application CuSO4 @
2 to 4 Kg/acre. Cu-fungicide sprays will be
helpful in correcting the deficiency.

Iron: yellowing of young leaves; occurrence


of interveinal chlorosis is commonly
observed and severe iron deficiency.
Correction Measure: Foliar spray of
FeSO4@0.5 % at fortnightly intervals.

Manganese: Light colored spots on the


leaves and sometimes necrotic spots also
appear. Green bands of varying width
appear along the midrib and veins with
yellow areas between the veins. Interveinal
chlorosis, premature dropping of the leaves
and dye back of terminals due to Mn
deficiency can also be observed.
Correction Measure: Spraying of MnSO4 @
0.3% at fortnightly intervals.

Zinc: Symptoms seen in young leaves; size


of the leaf become small.
Correction Measure: Foliar spray of
ZnSO4@0.5%.

28
VIII. COMMON WEEDS

1. Tick weed: Cleome 2. Coat buttons: (Tridax 3. Congress grass:


viscosa L. procumbens) L. Fabaceae Parthenium
(Capparidaceae) hysterophorus L.
(Asteraceae)

4. Horse purslane: 6. Siam weed:


5. Crofton weed: Eupatorium
Trainthema Chromolaena odorata L.
odoratum L. (Asteraceae)
portulacastrum L. R.M. king & H. Rob
(Aizoaceae) (Asteraceae)

7. False amaranth: Digera 8. Spurge: Euphorbia hirta L.


arvensis L. (Euphorbiaceae)
(Amaranthaceae)

29
11
. Bermuda grass
1 Cynodon dactylon (L.)
9. Crab grass: Digiteria 0. Yellow foxtail Setaria Pers. (Poaceae)
sanguinalis (L.) Scop. glauca (L.) P. Beauv.
(Poaceae) (Poaceae)

12
. Torpedo grass: Panicum
repens L. (Poaceae)
13. Purple nutsedge: 14. Flat sedge: Cyperus
Cyperus rotundus L. iria L. (Cyperaceae)
(Cypraceae)

IX. DESCRIPTION OF INSECT PESTS

1. Leaf webber:
Biology
Egg: Freshly laid eggs were soft, pale yellow but semi-transparent and fertile eggs turned pink
within 24 hrs. Eggs are laid usually in small batches of 4 to 30 along the mid rib of the
underside of leaf or tender branches.
Larva: neonate larvae measured 1.35 mm in length. Initially it is pink and become yellow within
24 h and later turns into greenish in colour. Head is pale yellow. Dorsal side of body is pink in
colour while ventral side is green. First and third pair of strips are pink in colour blended with
black spots on each segment while second pair is purple.
Pupa: Pupation takes place in plant debris or in soil.
Adult: Adult is grayish in colour with compound black eyes with setaceous antennae. Fore
wings are grayish with four black transverse wavy lines. Hind wings are membranous white.
Both the wings are fringed at the outer margins. A brownish line is present near the outer
margins of the wings.
Damage symptoms:
Caterpillar webs and feed on leaves by scrapping chlorophyll content Caterpillar also bores into
flower buds and tender fruits leading to withering and shedding.

30
2. Green scale:
Egg: Eggs are whitish green and elongate-oval and are laid singly and hatch beneath the
female where they are protected. Eggs hatch from a few minutes to several hours after being
laid
Nymphs (Crawlers): Nymphs, or immature green scales are oval, flat and yellowish green in
color, and have six short legs. There are three nymphal stages before becoming an adult, each
stage being larger and more convex than the previous stage
Adults: The adult female is shiny pale green with a conspicuous black, irregular U-shaped
internal marking that is dorsally visible to the naked eye. Two sub-marginal black eye spots are
also present and can be seen with a hand lens. The outline shape may be described as
elongate- oval and moderately convex. Adult scales are 2.5-3.25 mm. Dead scales are light
brown or buff color and the black internal marking is lost.
Life cycle:

Nature and symptoms of damage:


Scales damage plants by sucking out plant sap as a result leaves to yellow and wilt.
Natural enemies of scale insects:
Parasitoids: Coccophgagus cowperi
Predators: C. montrouzieri
3.Striped mealy bug:
Biology: Mealy bugs are soft pinkish-white insects with a waxy appearance. Adult females are
soft-bodied, wingless insects that grow between 1/20 and 1/5 inch long. Mealy bugs lay large
clusters of several hundred eggs on the surface of a leaf, which then hatch into yellow nymphs,
which feed on plant sap.

31
3. Adult

Mealy bugs

1. Eggs
2. Nymphs 150- 600 eggs

Natural enemies of mealy bug:


Parasitoids: Parasitic wasp
Predators: Hover flies, ladybird beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
5.Fruit fly:
Biology
Egg: The eggs of Bactrocera species are very similar. Size, 0.8 mm long, 0.2 mm wide, with
the micropyle protruding slightly at the anterior end. The chorion is reticulate (requires scanning
electron microscope examination). White to yellow-white in colour.
Maggot: The third-instar, which has a typical maggot appearance, is about 10 mm in length
and creamy white. The only band of spinules encircling the body is found on the first segment.
The external part of the anterior respiratory organs, the spiracles, located one on each side of
the pointed or head end of the larva, has an exaggerated and deflexed lobe at each side and
bears many small tubercles. The caudal segment is very smooth. The posterior spiracles are
located in the dorsal third of the segment as viewed from the rear of the larva. The mature larva
emerges from the fruit, drops to the ground, and forms a tan to dark brown puparium about 4.9
mm in length. The entire larval stage lasts for 11-15 days.
Pupa: When mature, larvae drop to the ground and pupate in the soil. The puparium is
yellowish-brown and seed-like. Adults emerge in about 10 days.
Adult: Generally, the abdomen has two horizontal black stripes and a longitudinal median
stripe extending from the base of the third segment to the apex of the abdomen. These
markings may form a "T" shaped pattern, but the pattern varies considerably. Females begin to
lay eggs about 8 days after emergence from the puparium. Under optimum conditions, a
female can lay more than 3,000 eggs during her lifetime, but under field conditions
approximately 1,200 to 1,500 eggs per female is considered to be the usual production.Ripe
fruit are preferred for egg laying, but immature ones may be also attacked.
Life cycle:

32
Symptoms of damage:
 Maggot bore into semi-ripen fruits with decayed spots and dropping of fruits.
 Oozing of fluid
 Brownish rotten patches on fruits
Natural enemies of fruit fly:
Parasitoids: Fopius arisanus, Diachasmimorpha kraussi
6. Bud borer
Biology:
Eggs: The eggs of A. achrasella were smooth, oval and white in colour at the time of
oviposition and turned to light brown before hatching. The length of eggs ranged from 0.37 to
0.49 mm with an average of 0.46 ± 0.04 mm, while the breadth varied from 0.20 to 0.29 mm
with an average of 0.25 ± 0.03 mm. The incubation period varied from 4 to 6 days with an
average of 4.64 ± 0.70 days.
Larva -. The larva is small, slender, pinkish brown with black head and passed through four
instars on sapota buds. The newly hatched caterpillar was light yellow in colour, shiny with
black head. It was tiny and delicate with slender body.
Pupa: This pre-pupal condition lasted for about one day during which the larva did not exhibit
any movement unless it was disturbed. The prepupal period lasted for 1 to 2 days with an
average of 1.52 ± 0.51 days. The length of pre-pupa varied from 6.10 to 7.20 mm with an
average of 6.62 ± 0.34 mm, while breadth ranged from 1.61 to 2.10 with an average of 1.41 ±
0.05 mm. A newly formed pupa was obtect type, brick-red in colour and changed into dark
brown prior to the emergence as adult. The pupation took place either inside or out side of the
flower buds.
Adult: Grey moth with black patch on wings. The adults development was completed and legs
and the wings are clearly visible through the pupal skin under microscope.
Damage
 The bud borer webs together flower buds and flowers and reported to
cause huge
damage ranged from 2-15%.
 The bud borer feeds by making holes into the petals and ovary resulting
in significant crop loss.
 Larvae damages inflorescences of the trees
7. Seed Borer:
Bioolgy
Eggs:
 A female moth lays eggs on medium sized immature fruits of sapota with
the fecundity of 29 to 255 eggs/female.

33
Larva: The larvae are very minute, white in colour with pinkish tinge.
 The larvae feed only on endosperm of the seed and complete its larval
period inside the seed.
 For pupation, the mature larva comes out by tunneling out the fruit which
usually coincides with the fruit harvest.

Damage symptoms
The seed borer is a monophagous pest attacking immature fruits of sapota. A neonate larva
bore into the fruit and finally enters the seed. The larvae feed only on endosperm of the seed .
Full grown larvae prepare a tunnel to come out for pupation. Due to the infestation of the pest
quality of the fruit deteriorates and hence the market price goes down.

Natural Enemies of Sapota Insect Pests

Parasitoids

1. Coccophagus cowperi 2.Parasitic wasp 3. F. arisanus 4. Diachasmimorpha kraussi

1. http://www2.hawaii.edu/~messing/projects.htm
2. https://www.spc.int/pacifly/Control/Biocontrol.htm
3. https://uribotanicalgardens.wordpress.com/tag/biocontrol/

Predators

1. Cryptolaemus montrouzieri 2. Hover flies 3. Ladybird bettle 4. Geocoris sp

34
5. Lacewing 6. Lady beetle 7. Big-eyed bugs
(mirid bug)
1. http://www.macro-
world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
2. http://ucanr.edu/blogs/bugsquad/index.cfm?tagname=ho
ver%20flies
3. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
4. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geocoris_puncti
pes.jpg
5. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured_insects/Coccophagus-
cowperi.php
6. http://bugguide.net/node/view/175277

VIII. DESCRIPTION OF DISEASES

1.Leaf spot:
Disease symptom:
 Numerous, small, circular, pinkish to reddish brown, conspicuous spots with whitish center on
mature leaves
 Spots coalesce and leaves drop prematurely

http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_prot_crop%20diseases_fruits_sapota.html
2. Sooty mould :
Disease symptom:
1. It is a fungal disease developed on honeydew-like excretion secreted by aphids and scale
insects.
2. The fungus slowly covers the entire leaf area severely affecting the process of photosynthesis.
3. This results in reduced translocation of food to the fruits, which leads to reduction in their size.

35
http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_prot_crop%20diseases_fruits_sapota.html

3. Fasiation:
Disease symptom:
 Branches of affected trees become flat and twisted
 Leaves become thin, small and yellow
 Cluster of leaves and flowers on affected twigs
 Flowers remain infertile
 If fruits are set, they are undersized, hard and fail to ripen
4. Postharvest Diseases:
1. Soft rot –Pestalotiopsis mangiferae
Disease symptoms:
 The diseases appear as water-soaked spots covering the entire fruit within 3 to 4 days.
 Rotted fruits become soft and dark brown and later numerous acervuli are seen in rotted zones.
 The fungal colonies are yellowish white.
 Mycelium is branched & septate.
 Acervuli are black, globose to sub-globose
 Conidiophores are short and simple
 Conidia are fusiform, 4-septata.
 Middle three cells are dark brown.
 End cells are hyaline and pointed.
 Apical cell is with 1 to 3 hyaline setulae.
2. Fruit rots:
Disease symptoms:
 Diseased fruits exhibited water-soaked lesions which become brown within 2 to 3 days.
Subsequently the whole fruit is covered with tufts of mycelium

IX. SAFETY MEASURES

A. At the time of pre-harvest:


Harvest when:
 The brown scaly external material from the fruit sheds off.
 Fruit becomes corky brown in color.
 Latex does not flow when the fruit is scratched with the finger nail.
Harvesting:
 Harvest with the use of appropriate harvesting tools.
 Detached fruits must not be allowed to fall to the ground.
B. During postharvest storage:
 Fruit must be carefully handled in order to prevent bruising and wounding.
 Harvested fruit must not be exposed to direct sunlight, but should be kept under shade.

36
 Harvested fruit must be collected in clean and dry plastic crates.
 Defective fruits, i.e., those that are diseased, mechanically damaged and not marketable
must be separated out.
 Fruits must be cleaned by wiping or brushing. They must not be immersed in water as
the corky fruit peel can retain moisture.
 Fruits must be transported during the cooler part of the day, in well ventilated plastic
crates under clean and dry conditions.
 Wetting of fruit during transportation must be avoided.
 Fruit must be transported as quickly as possible to the final destination, to prevent
spoilage.
 Fruit destined for export must be packed in cardboard cartons lined with shredded paper
to protect against injury.
Storage
 Ambient conditions. For temporary storage under ambient conditions, fruit must be
stored in a cool, dry place with adequate ventilation.
 Cool storage. The naseberry/sapodilla can be transported and stored at 13–15 °C and a
relative humidity 85–90%
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/exotic_fruit_book_web.pdf

X. DO’S AND DON’TS IN IPM

S. Do’s Don’ts
No.
1. Deep ploughing is to be done on bright Do not plant or irrigate the orchard after
sunny days during the months of May and ploughing, at least for 2-3 weeks, to allow
June. The orchard should be kept exposed desiccation of weed’s bulbs and/or rhizomes
to sun light at least for 2-3 weeks. of perennial weeds.
2. Plant only recommended varieties. Do not plant varieties not suitable for the
season or the region.
3. Always treat the seeds with approved Do not use seeds without seed treatment with
chemicals/biopesticides for the control of biopesticides/chemicals.
seed borne diseases/pests.
4. Plant in rows at optimum depths under Do not plant seeds/seedlings beyond 5-7 cm
proper moisture conditions for better depth.
establishment.
5. Apply only recommended herbicides at Pre-emergent as well as soil incorporated
recommended dose, proper time, as herbicides should not be applied in dry soils.
appropriate spray solution with standard Do not apply herbicides along with irrigation
equipment along with flat fan or flat jet water or by mixing with soil, sand or urea.
nozzles.
6. Maintain optimum and healthy crop stand Crops should not be exposed to moisture
which would be capable of competing with deficit stress at their critical growth stages.
weeds at a critical stage of crop weed
competition
7. Use NPK fertilizers as per the soil test Avoid imbalanced use of fertilizers.
recommendation.

37
8. Use micronutrient mixture after sowing Do not apply any micronutrient mixture after
based test recommendations. sowing without test recommendations.

9. Conduct AESA weekly in the morning Do not take any management decision
preferably before 9 a.m. Take decision on without considering AESA and P: D ratio
management practice based on AESA and
P: D ratio only.
10. In case of pests which are active during Do not spray pesticides at midday since,
night spray recommended biocides/ most of the insects are not active during this
chemicals at the time of their appearance in period.
the night.
11. Spray pesticides thoroughly to treat the Do not spray pesticides only on the upper
undersurface of the leaves, particularly for surface of leaves.
mites, scales, thrips, etc.
12. Apply short persistent pesticides to avoid Do not apply pesticides during preceding 7
pesticide residue in the soil and produce. days before harvest.
13 Follow the recommended procedure of trap Do not apply long persistent on trap crop,
or border crops technology. otherwise it may not attract the pests and
natural enemies.

XI. BASIC PRECAUTIONS IN PESTICIDES USAGE

A. Purchase
1. Purchase only just required quantity e.g. 100, 250, 500, 1000 g/ml for single
application in specified area.
2. Do not purchase leaking containers, loose, unsealed or torn bags; Do not purchase
pesticides without proper/approved labels.
3. While purchasing insist for invoice/bill/cash memo
B. Storage
1. Avoid storage of pesticides in house premises.
2. Keep only in original container with intact seal.
3. Do not transfer pesticides to other containers; Do not expose to sunlight or rain
water; Do not store weedicides along with other pesticides.
4. Never keep them together with food or feed/fodder.
5. Keep away from reach of children and livestock.
C. Handling
1. Never carry/ transport pesticides along with food materials.
2. Avoid carrying bulk pesticides (dust/granules) on head shoulders or on the back.
D. Precautions for preparing spray solution
1. Use clean water.
2. Always protect your nose, eyes, mouth, ears and hands.
3. Use hand gloves, face mask and cover your head with cap.
4. Use polythene bags as hand gloves, handkerchiefs or piece of clean cloth as mask
and a cap or towel to cover the head (Do not use polythene bag contaminated with
pesticides).
5. Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution.
6. Prepare the spray solution as per requirement

38
7. Do not mix granules with water; Do not eat, drink, smoke or chew while preparing
solution.
8. Concentrated pesticides must not fall on hands etc while opening sealed container.
Do not smell pesticides.
9. Avoid spilling of pesticides while filling the sprayer tank.
10. The operator should protect his bare feet and hands with polythene bags
E. Equipments
1. Select right kind of equipment.
2. Do not use leaky and defective equipments
3. Select right kind of nozzles
4. Don’t blow/clean clogged nozzle with mouth. Use old tooth brush tied with the
sprayer and clean with water.
5. Do not use same sprayer for weedicide and insecticide.
F. Precautions for applying pesticides
1. Apply only at recommended dose and dilution
2. Do not apply on hot sunny day or strong windy condition; Do not apply just before
the rains and after the rains; Do not apply against the windy direction.
3. Emulsifiable concentrate formulations should not be used for spraying with battery
operated ULV sprayer
4. Wash the sprayer and buckets etc with soap water after spraying
5. Containers buckets etc used for mixing pesticides should not be used for domestic
purpose
6. Avoid entry of animals and workers in the orchard immediately after spraying
G. Disposal
1. Left over spray solution should not be drained in ponds or water lines etc. throw it in
barren isolated area if possible
2. The used/empty containers should be crushed with a stone/stick and buried deep
into soil away from water source.
3. Never reuse empty pesticides container for any other purpose.

XII. PESTICIDE APPLICATION TECHNIQUES

Equipment

Category A: Stationary, crawling pest/ disease

Vegetative Insecticides and  Lever operated


stage fungicides knapsack sprayer
(Droplets of big size)
i) for crawling  Hollow cone nozzle @
and soil borne 35 to 40 psi
pests  Lever operating speed =
15 to 20 strokes/min
or
 Motorized knapsack
sprayer or mist blower
(Droplets of small size)
 Airblast nozzle
 Operating speed: 2/3rd
ii) for small throttle

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sucking leaf
borne pests

Reproductive Insecticides and  Lever operated


stage fungicides knapsack sprayer
(Droplets of big size)
 Hollow cone nozzle @
35 to 40 psi
 Lever operating speed =
15 to 20 strokes/min

Category B: Orchard Flying pest/ airborne pest

Vegetative Insecticides and  Motorized knapsack


stage fungicides sprayer or mist blower
(Droplets of small size)
Reproductive  Airblast nozzle
stage  Operating speed: 2/3rd
throttle Or
(Orchard  Battery operated low
Pests) volume sprayer
(Droplets of small size)
Spinning disc nozzle

Mosquito/ Insecticides and  Fogging machine and


locust and fungicides ENV (Exhaust nozzle
spatial vehicle) (Droplets of
application very small size)
 Hot tube nozzle
(migratory
Pests)

Category C: Weeds

Post- Weedicide  Lever operated


emergence knapsack sprayer
application (Droplets of big size)
 Flat fan or floodjet
nozzle @ 15 to 20 psi
 Lever operating speed
= 7 to 10 strokes/min

40
Pre- Weedicide  Trolley mounted low
emergence volume sprayer
application (Droplets of small size)
 Battery operated low
volume sprayer
(Droplets of small size)

41
XIII. OPERATIONAL, CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE GUIDELINES IN BRIEF

1. For application rate and dosage see


the label and leaflet of the particular
pesticide.

2. It is advisable to check the output of


the sprayer (calibration) before
commencement of spraying under
guidance of trained person.

3. Clean and wash the machines and


nozzles and store in dry place after
use.

4. It is advisable to use protective


clothing, face mask and gloves while
preparing and applying pesticides.

5. Do not apply in hot or windy


conditions.

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6. Operator should maintain normal
walking speed while undertaking
application.

7. Do not smoke, chew or eat while


undertaking the spraying operation

8. Operator should take proper bath


with soap after completing spraying

9. Do not blow the nozzle with mouth


for any blockages. Clean with water
and a soft brush.

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XIV. REFERENCES
1. http://www2.hawaii.edu/~messing/projects.htm
2. https://www.spc.int/pacifly/Control/Biocontrol.htm
3. https://uribotanicalgardens.wordpress.com/tag/biocontrol/
4. http://www.macro-
world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
5. http://ucanr.edu/blogs/bugsquad/index.cfm?tagname
=hover%20flies
6. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
7. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geocoris_pu
nctipes.jpg
8. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured_insects/Coccophag
us-cowperi.php
9. http://bugguide.net/node/view/175277
10. http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_
prot_crop%20diseases_fruits_sapota.htm
11. http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_prot_crop%20diseases_fruits_sapota.html
12. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/exotic_fruit_book_web.pdf

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