Sapota
Sapota
Sapota
SAPOTA
1
The AESA based IPM – Sapota, was compiled by the NIPHM working group under the
Chairmanship of Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, DG, NIPHM, and guidance of Shri. Utpal
Kumar Singh, IAS. JS (PP). The package was developed taking into account the advice of
experts listed below on various occasions before finalization.
Other members
5. Dr. N. Srinivasa, Assistant Director (RPM), Rodent Expertise.
6. Dr. B. S. Sunanda, Assistant Scientific Officer (PHM), Nematology Expertise.
2
8. Dr. S.N. Mohapatra, Professor & Head, Department of Nematology, College
of Agriculture, Odhisha University of Agriculture & Technology,
Bhubaneswar-751003
9. Dr. Jayalaxmi Ganguli, Asst. Professor (Entomology), IGKV, Raipur (CG)
492 012
10. Dr. Narendra Lakpale, Asst. Professor, (Plant Pathology) IGKV, Raipur
(CG) 492 012.
3
4
5
6
Contents
Sapota-Plant description
I. Pests
A. Pests of National Significance
1. Insect and mite pests
2. Diseases
3. Nematodes
4. Weeds
B. Pests of Regional Significance
1. Insect pests
2. Diseases
7
AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE FOR SAPOTA
Sapota-Plant description:
Sapota (Manilkara zapota (L.) P.Royen; Family: Sapotaceae) commonly known as
the sapodilla, is a long-lived, evergreen tree native to southern Mexico, Central America and
the Caribbean. Sapodilla can grow to more than 30 m (98 ft) tall with an average trunk
diameter of 1.5 m (4.9 ft). The average height of cultivated specimens, however, is usually
between 9 and 15 m (30 and 49 ft) with a trunk diameter not exceeding 50 cm (20 in). It is
wind-resistant and the bark is rich in a white, gummy latex called chicle. The
ornamental leaves are medium green and glossy. They are alternate, elliptic to ovate, 7–15 cm
long, with an entire margin. The white flowers are inconspicuous and bell-like, with a six-lobed
corolla. An unripe fruit has a firm outer skin and when picked, releases white chicle from its
stem. A fully ripened fruit has saggy skin and does not release chicle when picked. The fruit is
a large ellipsoid berry, normally 4–8 but up to 15 cm in diameter, containing two to five seeds.
Inside, its flesh ranges from a pale yellow to an earthy brown color with a grainy texture akin to
that of a well-ripened pear. The seeds are black and resemble beans, with a hook at one end
that can catch in the throat if swallowed.
I. PESTS
A. Pests of National significance:
1. Insect Pests
1.1 Leaf webber: Nephopteryx eugraphella Ragonot (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae)
1.2 Green scale: Coccus viridis Green (Hemiptera: Coccidae)
1.3. Fruit fly: Bactrocera (Dacus) dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae)
1.4. Bud borer: Anarsia achrasella, Latreille (Lepidoptera: Gelechidae)
1.5 Sapota Seed Borer: Trymalitis margarias Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)
8
2. Diseases
2.1 leaf spot: Phaeophleospora indica Chinnappa
2.2 Leaf blight: Fusicoccum sapoticola Chinnappa & V.G. Rao
2.3 Sooty mould: Capnodium sp.
2.4 Postharvest diseases
2.4.1 Soft rot: Pestalotiopsis mangiferae (Henn.) Steyaert
2.4.2 Fruit rot:
3. Weeds
Broad leaf
3.1 Tick weed: Cleome viscosa L. (Capparidaceae)
3.2 Coat buttons: Tridax procumbens L. (Fabaceae)
3.3 Congress grass: Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae)
3.4 Horse Purslane: Trainthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae)
3.5 Crofton weed: Eupatorium odoratum L. (Asteraceae)
3.6 Siam weed: Chromolaena odorata L. R.M. king & H. Rob (Asteraceae)
3.7 False amaranth: Digera arvensis L. (Amaranthaceae)
3.8 Spurge: Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae)
Grasses
3.5 Crab grass Digiteria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. Poaceae
3.6 Yellow foxtail Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv. Poaceae
3.7 Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae
3.8 Torpedo grass Panicum repens L. Poaceae
Sedges
3.9 Purple nutsedge Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae)
3.13 Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L. (Cyperaceae)
B. Pests of Regional significance
1. Insect Pests
1.1 Mealybug: Ferrisia virgata Ckll (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)
2. Diseases
2.1 Faciation: Botrydiplodia theobromae Pat.
2.2 Phanerogamic parasites
A. AESA:
The integrated pest management (IPM) has been evolving over the decades to address the
deleterious impacts of synthetic chemical pesticides on environment ultimately affecting the
interests of the farmers. The economic threshold level (ETL) was the basis for several
decades but in modern IPM (FAO 2002) emphasis is given to AESA where farmers take
decisions based on larger range of field observations. The health of a plant is determined by
9
its environment which includes physical factors (i.e. soil, rain, sunshine hours, wind etc.) and
biological factors (i.e. pests, diseases and weeds). All these factors can play a role in the
balance which exists between herbivore insects and their natural enemies. Understanding the
intricate interactions in an ecosystem can play a critical role in pest management.
Observe the orchard regularly (climatic factors, soil and biotic factors)
Farmers should:
Monitor the field situations at least once a week (soil, water, plants, pests, natural
enemies, weather factors etc.)
Make decisions based on the field situations and Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio)
Take direct action when needed (e.g. collect egg masses, remove infested plants etc.)
10
Understand and conserve defenders
Insect zoo:
In orchard various types of insects are present. Some are beneficial and some may be harmful.
Generally farmers are not aware about it. Predators (friends of the farmers) which feed on
pests are not easy to observe in orchard. Insect zoo concept can be helpful to enhance
farmers’ skill to identify beneficial and harmful insects. In this method, unfamiliar/unknown
predators are collected in plastic containers with brush from the orchard and brought to a place
for study. Each predator is placed inside a plastic bottle together with parts of the plant and
some known insect pests. Insects in the bottle are observed for certain time and determined
whether the test insect is a pest (feeds on plant) or a predator (feeds on other insects).
11
Model Agro-Ecosystem Analysis Chart
Date:
Village:
Farmer:
The general rule to be adopted for management decisions relying on the P: D ratio is 2:
1. However, some of the parasitoids and predators will be able to control more than 2 pests.
Wherever specific P: D ratios are not found, it is safer to adopt the 2: 1, as P: D ratio.
Whenever the P: D ratio is found to be favourable, there is no need for adoption of other
management strategies. In cases where the P: D ratio is found to be unfavourable, the farmers
can be advised to resort to inundative release of parasitoids/predators depending upon the
type of pest. In addition to inundative release of parasitoids and predators, the usage of
microbial biopesticides and biochemical biopesticides such as insect growth regulators,
botanicals etc. can be relied upon before resorting to synthetic chemical pesticides.
12
Decision making:
Farmers have to make timely decisions about the management of their crops. AESA farmers
have learned to make these decisions based on observations and analysis viz. abiotic and
biotic factors of the crop ecosystem. The past experience of the farmers should also be
considered for decision making. However, as field conditions continue to change and new
technologies become available, farmers need to continue improving their skills and knowledge.
AESA methodology:
Go to the orchard in groups (about 5 farmers per group). Walk across the orchard and
choose 20 plants/acre randomly. Observe keenly each of these plants and record your
observations:
Plant: Observe the plant height, number of branches, crop stage, deficiency
symptoms etc.
Pests: Observe and count pests at different places on the plant.
Defenders (natural enemies): Observe and count parasitoids and predators.
Diseases: Observe leaves and stems and identify any visible disease symptoms
and severity.
Rats: Count number of plants affected by rats.
Weeds: Observe weeds in the field and their intensity.
Water: Observe the water situation of the field.
Weather: Observe the weather condition.
While walking in the orchard, manually collect insects in plastic bags. Collect additional
insets and plant parts with disease symptoms in a plastic bag for further examination in
the laboratory. Find a shady place to sit as a group in a small circle for drawing and
discussion.
If needed, kill the insects with some chloroform (if available) on a piece of cotton.
Each group will first identify the pests, defenders and diseases collected.
Each group will then analyze the field situation in detail and present their observations
and analysis in a drawing (the AESA drawing).
Each drawing will show a plant representing the field situations. The weather
conditions, water level, disease symptoms, etc. will be shown in the drawing. Pest
insects will be drawn on one side. Defenders (beneficial insects) will be drawn on
another side. Write the number next to each insect. Indicate the plant part where the
pests and defenders were found. Try to show the interaction between pests and
defenders.
Each group will discuss the situation and make a crop management recommendation.
The small groups then join each other and a member of each group will now present
their analysis in front of all participants.
The facilitator will facilitate the discussion by asking guiding questions and makes sure
that all participants (also shy or illiterate persons) are actively involved in this process.
13
Formulate a common conclusion. The whole group should support the decision on what
field management is required in the AESA plot.
Make sure that the required activities (based on the decision) will be carried out.
Keep the drawing for comparison purpose in the following weeks.
Data recording:
Data to be recorded:
Plant growth (weekly): Height of plant; Number of leaves
Crop situation (e.g. for AESA): Plant health, Pests, diseases, weeds, Natural
enemies, Soil conditions, Irrigation, Weather conditions
Input costs: Seeds, Fertilizer, Pesticides, Labour
Harvest: Yield (Kg/acre), Price of produce (Rs./Kg)
14
One of the problems of the ETL is that it is based on parameters that are changing all the time,
and that are often not known. The damage or losses caused by a certain density of insects
cannot be predicted at all. In ETL the due recognition of the role of natural enemies in
decreasing pest population is ignored. Farmers cannot base their decisions on just a simple
count of pests. They will have to consider many other aspects of the crop (crop ecology, growth
stage, natural enemies, weather condition, etc.) and their own economic and social situation
before they can make the right crop management decisions. In ETL based IPM, natural
enemies, plant compensation ability and abiotic factors are not considered. In AESA based
IPM emphasis is given to natural enemies, plant compensation ability, abiotic factors and P: D
ratio.
AESA is a season-long training activity that takes place in the farmer field. It is season-long so
that it covers all the different developmental stages of the crop and their related management
practices. The process is always learner-centered, participatory and relying on an experiential
learning approach and therefore it has become an integral part of FFS.
15
Active involvement of the farmers
Participatory
Farmers learn from other IPM
farmers
Group meetings
B. Field scouting:
AESA requires skill. So only the trained farmers can undertake their exercise. However, other
farmers also can do orchard scouting in their own orchards at regular intervals to monitor the
major pest situation.
Undertake roving surveys at every 10 km distance 7-10 days intervals (depending upon
the pest population). Record the incidence of major pests and diseases on citrus tree and other
host plants of that locality. Observe at each spot 20 trees at random and 5 samples in each
tree all around. Record the population of all insect-pests on 3 leaves of new shoots of these
plants. Record the other insect-pests and disease occurring on the other parts of tree-plant.
Record the population potential of different bio-control fauna.
Sampling patterns: Different methods of sampling are reported and being utilized for sampling
in crops as well as in fruit plants like aggravated, random, scattered etc. However, some of
them are specific to the crop/disease/pests and some of them are to be utilized at initial stage
and or for subsequent plant growth stage. Also the sampling methods may differ based upon
the nature and requirement of the study like estimating disease incidence and or disease
severity.
16
However, for a common orchard studies the assessment methods should be easy and
quick in use for a wide range of conditions, but also adequately reliable and reproducible,
accurate and precise. Generally this is not always possible. In fruit crops generally following
sampling patterns are used:
Zig-zag pattern. Sampling a fallow orchard or one with no obvious symptoms in the
current crop to see the incidence as well as sampling of viral, wilt disease.
Circle pattern. Sampling within the drip line of trees and shrubs and for powdery
mildew, downy mildew and leaf spot diseases etc.
Star pattern. Sampling from a damaged area.
For Diseases:
Whenever scouting, be aware that symptoms of plant disease problems may be caused by any
biotic factors such as fungal, bacterial, viral pathogens or abiotic factors such as weather,
fertilizers, nutrient deficiencies, pesticides and abiotic soil problems. In many cases, the cause
of the symptom is not obvious. Close examination, and laboratory culture and analysis are
required for proper diagnosis of the causal agent of disease. Generally fungal diseases cause
the obvious symptoms with irregular growth, pattern & colour (except viruses), however abiotic
problems cause regular, uniform symptoms. Pathogen presence (signs) on the symptoms can
also be observed like fungal growth, bacterial ooze etc. Specific and characteristic symptoms
of the important plant diseases are given in description of diseases section.
Root sampling: Always check plants that appear unhealthy. If there are no obvious symptoms
on plants, examine plants randomly and look for lesions or rots on roots and stems. Observe
the signs of the causal organism (fungal growth or ooze). Always check plants that appear
unhealthy. It is often necessary to wash the roots with water to examine them properly. If the
roots are well developed, cut into them to examine the roots for internal infections
17
(discolouration & signs). Count the total number of pseudostem damaged/infested/infected due
to rot should be counted and incidence should be recorded.
Leaf sampling: Examine all leaves and or sheaths on each plant for lesions and determine the
amount area of leaf infection. Leaf diseases cause most damage during the seedling and
flowering stages of plant growth. Observe for the symptoms and signs on the infected plant
parts. Count the number of leaves (leaf area diameter)/plant infected due to disease and
incidence should be recorded.
Stem, flower and fruit sampling: Carefully examine the stems, flowers and fruits of plants for
signs of fungal material diseases or lesions. The stems, flowers and fruits should be split or
taken apart and examined for discoloration caused by fungi and bacteria. Count the number of
plant, flower and fruit infected due to disease and incidence should be recorded.
D. Light traps
Set up light traps@ 1 trap/acre for monitoring and mass trapping of nocturnal insects. Light
traps with exit option for natural enemies of smaller size should be installed and operate
around the dusk time (6 pm to 10 pm).
Ecological engineering for pest management has recently emerged as a paradigm for
considering pest management approaches that rely on the use of cultural techniques to effect
habitat manipulation and to enhance biological control. Ecological engineering for pest
management is based on informed ecological knowledge rather than high technology
approaches such as synthetic pesticides and genetically engineered crops (Gurr et al. 2004, a,
b).
There is a growing realization that the soil borne, seed and seedling borne diseases can be
managed with microbial interventions, besides choosing appropriate plant varieties. The
following activities increase the beneficial microbial population and enhance soil fertility.
Keep soils covered year-round with living vegetation and/or crop residue.
Add organic matter in the form of farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost, crop residue
which enhance below ground biodiversity of beneficial microbes and insects.
Application of balanced dose of nutrients using biofertilizers based on soil test report.
Application of biofertilizers with special focus on mycorrhiza and plant growth promoting
rhizobia (PGPR)
Application of Trichoderma harzianum/ viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens for
treatment of seed/seedling/planting materials in the nurseries and field application (if
commercial products are used, check for label claim. However, biopesticides produced
by farmers for own consumption in their fields, registration is not required).
18
Natural enemies play a very significant role in control of foliar insect pests. Natural
enemy diversity contributes significantly to management of insect pests both below and above
ground.
19
Sunflower Buckwheat Alfalfa
The flowering plants suggested under Ecological Engineering for pest management strategy
are known as attractant plants to the natural enemies of the selected pests. The information
is based on published research literature. However, the actual selection of flowering plants
could be based on availability, agro-climatic conditions and soil types
20
21
IV. RESISTANT/TOLERANT VARIETIES
*For detailed information and further updates nearest KVK, SAU / ICAR Institute may be
contacted
Management Activity
Pre-planting
Common cultural practices:
Harrowing, levelling and application of FYM to the
soil help in achieving to conserve soil moisture,
and ensure excellent bearing of fruits and resist to
insect invasion later
Field sanitation, rogueing
Destroy the alternate host plants
Apply manures and fertilizers as per soil test
recommendations
Nutrient should be applied on the basis of soil test
Nutrients report and recommendation for the particular agro-
climatic zone.
Prepare land by ploughing and harrowing.
The pits are dug in summer about a fortnight before
planting.
Dig pits of about 1 m x 1 m x 1 m at a distance of 10
m x 10 m apart (high density planting of 5 X 5 m up to
the age of 13 years may be adopted). Fill the pits with
top soil mixed with 25 kg FYM treated with
Trichoderma cultures.
Plough the field before planting to destroy existing
Weeds weeds in the field.
Remove existing weeds in and around the pits at the
time of planting.
Cultural control:
Soil borne pathogens, Grow resistant/tolerant varieties, if any.
resting stages of insects Deep summer ploughing of field to control resting
stages of insect pests.
Avoid excessive watering and provide proper drainage
in the field.
Planting
Nutrients Planting is done in pits already filled with top soil and
farm yard manure.
Apply 20 g each of Azospirillum and mycorrhizae per
22
plant during planting.
Weeds Remove weeds from the pit, if any at the time of
plant
Use fibrous biological mulch to reduce the weed
problems and conserve the soil moisture.
Adopt the intercropping of recommended crops
between the rows of sapota depending upon the
stage of orchard e.g. banana, papaya, pine apple,
cocoa, French bean, peas, tomato, brinjal,
cabbage, cauliflower and cucurbits.
Insect & Diseases Mechanical Practices
Neem
cake must be incorporated @ 40kg/acre,
to protect from pest attack.
Growing of forage crops as a mixed crop,
helps in "maintaining ecological balance".
Vegetative stage (2 nd to 4th years)
Common cultural practices:
Collect and destroy diseased and insect infected
plant parts.
Provide irrigation at critical stages of the crop
Avoid water stagnation.
Enhance parasitic activity by avoiding chemical
spray, when 1-2 larval parasitoids are observed
Common mechanical practices:
Collection and destruction of eggs and early stage
larvae
Handpick the older larvae during early stages
The infested curd and seed capsules may be
collected and destroyed
Handpick the gregarious caterpillars and the pupae
which are found on leaves and destroy them in
kerosene mixed water.
Use light trap @ 1/acre and operate between 6 pm
and 10 pm
Erecting of bird perches @ 20/acre for encouraging
predatory birds such as King crow, common mynah
etc.
Set up bonfire during evening hours at 7-8 pm
Common biological practices:
Conserve natural enemies through ecological
engineering
Augmentative release of natural enemies
Nutrients Apply fertilizers according to the age of plant as
mentioned below;
23
the tree n horus
(grams /tree)
1-3 Years 50 25 75
24
Leaf webber Same as in vegetative stage.
Causes of resistance development: The causes and rate at which insecticide resistance
develops depend on several factors, including the initial frequency of resistance alleles present
in the population, how rapidly the insects reproduce, the insects’ level of resistance, the
migration and host range of the insects, the insecticide's persistence and specificity, and the
25
rate, timing and number of applications of insecticide made. For instance, insect pests that
survive in large populations and breed quickly are at greater advantage of evolving insecticide,
especially when insecticides are misused or over-used.
General strategy for insecticide resistance management: The best strategy to avoid
insecticide resistance is prevention and including insecticide resistance management tactics as
part of a larger integrated pest management (IPM) approach.
1) Monitor pests: Monitor insect population development in fields to determine if and when
control measures are warranted. Monitor and consider natural enemies when making control
decisions. After treatment, continue monitoring to assess pest populations and their control.
2) Focus on AESA. Insecticides should be used only as a last resort when all other non-
chemical management options are exhausted and P: D ratio is above 2: 1. Apply
biopesticides/chemical insecticides judiciously after observing unfavourable P: D ratio and
when the pests are in most vulnerable life stage. Use application rates and intervals as per
label claim.
3) Ecological engineering for pest management: Flowering plants that attract natural
enemies as well as plants that repel pests can be grown as border/intercrop.
4) Take an integrated approach to managing pests. Use as many different control measures
as possible viz., cultural, mechanical, physical, biological etc. Select insecticides with care and
consider the impact on future pest populations and the environment. Avoid broad-spectrum
insecticides when a narrow-spectrum or more specific insecticide will work. More preference
should be given to green labeled insecticides.
5) Mix and apply carefully. While applying insecticides care should be taken for proper
application of insecticides in terms of dose, volume, timing, coverage, application techniques
as per label claim.
6) Alternate different insecticide classes. Avoid the repeated use of the same insecticide,
insecticides in the same chemical class, or insecticides in different classes with same mode of
action and rotate/alternate insecticide classes and modes of action.
7) Preserve susceptible genes. Preserve susceptible individuals within the target population
by providing unsprayed areas within treated fields, adjacent "refuge" fields, or habitat
attractions within a treated field that facilitate immigration. These susceptible individuals may
outcompete and interbreed with resistant individuals, diluting the resistant genes and therefore
the impact of resistance.
VII. NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES
Nutrients Appearance
Nitrogen: Stunted growth. The bark of the
shoots turned reddish-brown in colour. On
elongating shoots, the immature leaves
become amber to bright red while the mature
leaves remained small and yellow-green in
colour. Early abscission of leaves, smaller
and fewer fruits.
Correction Measure: Foliar sprays of urea
@ 2% with 250 g N per tree from both
sources increase the fruit weight and yield.
26
Phosphorus: Pigmentation seen in older
leaves; leaf size become small.
Correction Measure: Foliar spray of DAP
2% at fortnightly intervals.
27
Boron: Leaves turn yellowish-green in colour
the older leaves show signs of burning at the
tips and along the margins which abscised
prematurely. The tip burning of young leaves
and splits or crack on the midrib and large
veins on the underside of the leaf is
observed.
Correction Measure:
Soil application of borax at 2 kg/acre.
28
VIII. COMMON WEEDS
29
11
. Bermuda grass
1 Cynodon dactylon (L.)
9. Crab grass: Digiteria 0. Yellow foxtail Setaria Pers. (Poaceae)
sanguinalis (L.) Scop. glauca (L.) P. Beauv.
(Poaceae) (Poaceae)
12
. Torpedo grass: Panicum
repens L. (Poaceae)
13. Purple nutsedge: 14. Flat sedge: Cyperus
Cyperus rotundus L. iria L. (Cyperaceae)
(Cypraceae)
1. Leaf webber:
Biology
Egg: Freshly laid eggs were soft, pale yellow but semi-transparent and fertile eggs turned pink
within 24 hrs. Eggs are laid usually in small batches of 4 to 30 along the mid rib of the
underside of leaf or tender branches.
Larva: neonate larvae measured 1.35 mm in length. Initially it is pink and become yellow within
24 h and later turns into greenish in colour. Head is pale yellow. Dorsal side of body is pink in
colour while ventral side is green. First and third pair of strips are pink in colour blended with
black spots on each segment while second pair is purple.
Pupa: Pupation takes place in plant debris or in soil.
Adult: Adult is grayish in colour with compound black eyes with setaceous antennae. Fore
wings are grayish with four black transverse wavy lines. Hind wings are membranous white.
Both the wings are fringed at the outer margins. A brownish line is present near the outer
margins of the wings.
Damage symptoms:
Caterpillar webs and feed on leaves by scrapping chlorophyll content Caterpillar also bores into
flower buds and tender fruits leading to withering and shedding.
30
2. Green scale:
Egg: Eggs are whitish green and elongate-oval and are laid singly and hatch beneath the
female where they are protected. Eggs hatch from a few minutes to several hours after being
laid
Nymphs (Crawlers): Nymphs, or immature green scales are oval, flat and yellowish green in
color, and have six short legs. There are three nymphal stages before becoming an adult, each
stage being larger and more convex than the previous stage
Adults: The adult female is shiny pale green with a conspicuous black, irregular U-shaped
internal marking that is dorsally visible to the naked eye. Two sub-marginal black eye spots are
also present and can be seen with a hand lens. The outline shape may be described as
elongate- oval and moderately convex. Adult scales are 2.5-3.25 mm. Dead scales are light
brown or buff color and the black internal marking is lost.
Life cycle:
31
3. Adult
Mealy bugs
1. Eggs
2. Nymphs 150- 600 eggs
32
Symptoms of damage:
Maggot bore into semi-ripen fruits with decayed spots and dropping of fruits.
Oozing of fluid
Brownish rotten patches on fruits
Natural enemies of fruit fly:
Parasitoids: Fopius arisanus, Diachasmimorpha kraussi
6. Bud borer
Biology:
Eggs: The eggs of A. achrasella were smooth, oval and white in colour at the time of
oviposition and turned to light brown before hatching. The length of eggs ranged from 0.37 to
0.49 mm with an average of 0.46 ± 0.04 mm, while the breadth varied from 0.20 to 0.29 mm
with an average of 0.25 ± 0.03 mm. The incubation period varied from 4 to 6 days with an
average of 4.64 ± 0.70 days.
Larva -. The larva is small, slender, pinkish brown with black head and passed through four
instars on sapota buds. The newly hatched caterpillar was light yellow in colour, shiny with
black head. It was tiny and delicate with slender body.
Pupa: This pre-pupal condition lasted for about one day during which the larva did not exhibit
any movement unless it was disturbed. The prepupal period lasted for 1 to 2 days with an
average of 1.52 ± 0.51 days. The length of pre-pupa varied from 6.10 to 7.20 mm with an
average of 6.62 ± 0.34 mm, while breadth ranged from 1.61 to 2.10 with an average of 1.41 ±
0.05 mm. A newly formed pupa was obtect type, brick-red in colour and changed into dark
brown prior to the emergence as adult. The pupation took place either inside or out side of the
flower buds.
Adult: Grey moth with black patch on wings. The adults development was completed and legs
and the wings are clearly visible through the pupal skin under microscope.
Damage
The bud borer webs together flower buds and flowers and reported to
cause huge
damage ranged from 2-15%.
The bud borer feeds by making holes into the petals and ovary resulting
in significant crop loss.
Larvae damages inflorescences of the trees
7. Seed Borer:
Bioolgy
Eggs:
A female moth lays eggs on medium sized immature fruits of sapota with
the fecundity of 29 to 255 eggs/female.
33
Larva: The larvae are very minute, white in colour with pinkish tinge.
The larvae feed only on endosperm of the seed and complete its larval
period inside the seed.
For pupation, the mature larva comes out by tunneling out the fruit which
usually coincides with the fruit harvest.
Damage symptoms
The seed borer is a monophagous pest attacking immature fruits of sapota. A neonate larva
bore into the fruit and finally enters the seed. The larvae feed only on endosperm of the seed .
Full grown larvae prepare a tunnel to come out for pupation. Due to the infestation of the pest
quality of the fruit deteriorates and hence the market price goes down.
Parasitoids
1. http://www2.hawaii.edu/~messing/projects.htm
2. https://www.spc.int/pacifly/Control/Biocontrol.htm
3. https://uribotanicalgardens.wordpress.com/tag/biocontrol/
Predators
34
5. Lacewing 6. Lady beetle 7. Big-eyed bugs
(mirid bug)
1. http://www.macro-
world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
2. http://ucanr.edu/blogs/bugsquad/index.cfm?tagname=ho
ver%20flies
3. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
4. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geocoris_puncti
pes.jpg
5. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured_insects/Coccophagus-
cowperi.php
6. http://bugguide.net/node/view/175277
1.Leaf spot:
Disease symptom:
Numerous, small, circular, pinkish to reddish brown, conspicuous spots with whitish center on
mature leaves
Spots coalesce and leaves drop prematurely
http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_prot_crop%20diseases_fruits_sapota.html
2. Sooty mould :
Disease symptom:
1. It is a fungal disease developed on honeydew-like excretion secreted by aphids and scale
insects.
2. The fungus slowly covers the entire leaf area severely affecting the process of photosynthesis.
3. This results in reduced translocation of food to the fruits, which leads to reduction in their size.
35
http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_prot_crop%20diseases_fruits_sapota.html
3. Fasiation:
Disease symptom:
Branches of affected trees become flat and twisted
Leaves become thin, small and yellow
Cluster of leaves and flowers on affected twigs
Flowers remain infertile
If fruits are set, they are undersized, hard and fail to ripen
4. Postharvest Diseases:
1. Soft rot –Pestalotiopsis mangiferae
Disease symptoms:
The diseases appear as water-soaked spots covering the entire fruit within 3 to 4 days.
Rotted fruits become soft and dark brown and later numerous acervuli are seen in rotted zones.
The fungal colonies are yellowish white.
Mycelium is branched & septate.
Acervuli are black, globose to sub-globose
Conidiophores are short and simple
Conidia are fusiform, 4-septata.
Middle three cells are dark brown.
End cells are hyaline and pointed.
Apical cell is with 1 to 3 hyaline setulae.
2. Fruit rots:
Disease symptoms:
Diseased fruits exhibited water-soaked lesions which become brown within 2 to 3 days.
Subsequently the whole fruit is covered with tufts of mycelium
36
Harvested fruit must be collected in clean and dry plastic crates.
Defective fruits, i.e., those that are diseased, mechanically damaged and not marketable
must be separated out.
Fruits must be cleaned by wiping or brushing. They must not be immersed in water as
the corky fruit peel can retain moisture.
Fruits must be transported during the cooler part of the day, in well ventilated plastic
crates under clean and dry conditions.
Wetting of fruit during transportation must be avoided.
Fruit must be transported as quickly as possible to the final destination, to prevent
spoilage.
Fruit destined for export must be packed in cardboard cartons lined with shredded paper
to protect against injury.
Storage
Ambient conditions. For temporary storage under ambient conditions, fruit must be
stored in a cool, dry place with adequate ventilation.
Cool storage. The naseberry/sapodilla can be transported and stored at 13–15 °C and a
relative humidity 85–90%
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/exotic_fruit_book_web.pdf
S. Do’s Don’ts
No.
1. Deep ploughing is to be done on bright Do not plant or irrigate the orchard after
sunny days during the months of May and ploughing, at least for 2-3 weeks, to allow
June. The orchard should be kept exposed desiccation of weed’s bulbs and/or rhizomes
to sun light at least for 2-3 weeks. of perennial weeds.
2. Plant only recommended varieties. Do not plant varieties not suitable for the
season or the region.
3. Always treat the seeds with approved Do not use seeds without seed treatment with
chemicals/biopesticides for the control of biopesticides/chemicals.
seed borne diseases/pests.
4. Plant in rows at optimum depths under Do not plant seeds/seedlings beyond 5-7 cm
proper moisture conditions for better depth.
establishment.
5. Apply only recommended herbicides at Pre-emergent as well as soil incorporated
recommended dose, proper time, as herbicides should not be applied in dry soils.
appropriate spray solution with standard Do not apply herbicides along with irrigation
equipment along with flat fan or flat jet water or by mixing with soil, sand or urea.
nozzles.
6. Maintain optimum and healthy crop stand Crops should not be exposed to moisture
which would be capable of competing with deficit stress at their critical growth stages.
weeds at a critical stage of crop weed
competition
7. Use NPK fertilizers as per the soil test Avoid imbalanced use of fertilizers.
recommendation.
37
8. Use micronutrient mixture after sowing Do not apply any micronutrient mixture after
based test recommendations. sowing without test recommendations.
9. Conduct AESA weekly in the morning Do not take any management decision
preferably before 9 a.m. Take decision on without considering AESA and P: D ratio
management practice based on AESA and
P: D ratio only.
10. In case of pests which are active during Do not spray pesticides at midday since,
night spray recommended biocides/ most of the insects are not active during this
chemicals at the time of their appearance in period.
the night.
11. Spray pesticides thoroughly to treat the Do not spray pesticides only on the upper
undersurface of the leaves, particularly for surface of leaves.
mites, scales, thrips, etc.
12. Apply short persistent pesticides to avoid Do not apply pesticides during preceding 7
pesticide residue in the soil and produce. days before harvest.
13 Follow the recommended procedure of trap Do not apply long persistent on trap crop,
or border crops technology. otherwise it may not attract the pests and
natural enemies.
A. Purchase
1. Purchase only just required quantity e.g. 100, 250, 500, 1000 g/ml for single
application in specified area.
2. Do not purchase leaking containers, loose, unsealed or torn bags; Do not purchase
pesticides without proper/approved labels.
3. While purchasing insist for invoice/bill/cash memo
B. Storage
1. Avoid storage of pesticides in house premises.
2. Keep only in original container with intact seal.
3. Do not transfer pesticides to other containers; Do not expose to sunlight or rain
water; Do not store weedicides along with other pesticides.
4. Never keep them together with food or feed/fodder.
5. Keep away from reach of children and livestock.
C. Handling
1. Never carry/ transport pesticides along with food materials.
2. Avoid carrying bulk pesticides (dust/granules) on head shoulders or on the back.
D. Precautions for preparing spray solution
1. Use clean water.
2. Always protect your nose, eyes, mouth, ears and hands.
3. Use hand gloves, face mask and cover your head with cap.
4. Use polythene bags as hand gloves, handkerchiefs or piece of clean cloth as mask
and a cap or towel to cover the head (Do not use polythene bag contaminated with
pesticides).
5. Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution.
6. Prepare the spray solution as per requirement
38
7. Do not mix granules with water; Do not eat, drink, smoke or chew while preparing
solution.
8. Concentrated pesticides must not fall on hands etc while opening sealed container.
Do not smell pesticides.
9. Avoid spilling of pesticides while filling the sprayer tank.
10. The operator should protect his bare feet and hands with polythene bags
E. Equipments
1. Select right kind of equipment.
2. Do not use leaky and defective equipments
3. Select right kind of nozzles
4. Don’t blow/clean clogged nozzle with mouth. Use old tooth brush tied with the
sprayer and clean with water.
5. Do not use same sprayer for weedicide and insecticide.
F. Precautions for applying pesticides
1. Apply only at recommended dose and dilution
2. Do not apply on hot sunny day or strong windy condition; Do not apply just before
the rains and after the rains; Do not apply against the windy direction.
3. Emulsifiable concentrate formulations should not be used for spraying with battery
operated ULV sprayer
4. Wash the sprayer and buckets etc with soap water after spraying
5. Containers buckets etc used for mixing pesticides should not be used for domestic
purpose
6. Avoid entry of animals and workers in the orchard immediately after spraying
G. Disposal
1. Left over spray solution should not be drained in ponds or water lines etc. throw it in
barren isolated area if possible
2. The used/empty containers should be crushed with a stone/stick and buried deep
into soil away from water source.
3. Never reuse empty pesticides container for any other purpose.
Equipment
39
sucking leaf
borne pests
Category C: Weeds
40
Pre- Weedicide Trolley mounted low
emergence volume sprayer
application (Droplets of small size)
Battery operated low
volume sprayer
(Droplets of small size)
41
XIII. OPERATIONAL, CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE GUIDELINES IN BRIEF
42
6. Operator should maintain normal
walking speed while undertaking
application.
43
XIV. REFERENCES
1. http://www2.hawaii.edu/~messing/projects.htm
2. https://www.spc.int/pacifly/Control/Biocontrol.htm
3. https://uribotanicalgardens.wordpress.com/tag/biocontrol/
4. http://www.macro-
world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
5. http://ucanr.edu/blogs/bugsquad/index.cfm?tagname
=hover%20flies
6. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
7. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geocoris_pu
nctipes.jpg
8. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured_insects/Coccophag
us-cowperi.php
9. http://bugguide.net/node/view/175277
10. http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_
prot_crop%20diseases_fruits_sapota.htm
11. http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_prot_crop%20diseases_fruits_sapota.html
12. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/exotic_fruit_book_web.pdf
44