Boiler and Steam System

Why Steam?

• Used for power generation and as process fluid

• High heat content, easily available, cheap
• Steam lines are light-weight
• Steam flows in response to pressure drop; no need for circulating
pump
• High heat transfer coefficient
• Low maintenance
• Steam – Commonly used for process heat
 Process Steam

• Saturated steam is used for process heating

• Latent heat is released very fast
• Superheated steam is gas with very slow heat release and low heat
transfer coeff.
• Small boiler generates saturated steam
• Saturated steam is never 100% dry
• Pressure should be closed to requirement and
pressure reduction should be at requirement
 Boilers
• Boilers – burn fuel, produces steam
• Processes- flow of fuel and air
• Mixing
• flow of flue gases
• combustion of fuel
• heat transfer to water/steam
• Boilers in India are regulated by Indian Boilers Regulation (IBR).
IBR

• IBR Steam Boilers includes vessel exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity,

used expressively for generating steam under pressure and attached
fittings
• IBR Steam Pipe means any steam pipe with pressure exceeds 3.5
kg/cm2g or pipe exceeds 254 mm in internal diameter and attached
fittings
Boiler Evaporation Ratio
• kilogram of steam generated per kilogram of fuel consumed
• Coal fired boiler: 6
• Oil fired boiler: 13
• depends upon type of boiler, calorific value of the fuel and associated
efficiencies
“From & At” Rating
• Mass flow (F) of saturated steam generated at 1 atmospheric pressure
from if the feed water is at 100°C
• Each kg of steam will require 2257 kJ of heat
• Increase in pressure and reduction in feed water temperature reduces
the capacity
• Capacity = (F×2257)/(houtput – hsupply)
Performance Evaluation
• Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing (IS 8753 and BS845)

• The Direct Method: energy gain of the working fluid is compared with
the energy content of the boiler fuel

• The Indirect Method: efficiency is calculated based on losses and

energy input
Boiler Efficiency

• Efficiency
• Efficiency can be measured by direct or indirect methods

• Based on Net or Gross Calorific Values

• Boiler Efficiency test at operating loads
Direct Efficiency

• Steam flow rate

• Steam conditions (p,T)
• Water inlet conditions (T,p)
• Fuel flow rate and temperature
• Fuel composition
• Air flow rate and temperature
• Normally for steady operation for an hour
 Typical Boiler Efficiencies
Boiler Type Internationl Indian Actual
Manual - Coal 66-75 55-60 40-60
Stoker -coal 80-85 75-80 65-70

Bagasse 70-75 65-70 55-60

Oil & Gas (< 20T/hr) 82-85 80-85 70-80

(> 20T/hr) 87-93 85-90 80-85

Fluidised Bed 80-90 78-85 75-80

Waste Heat 60-80 60-80 55-75

Pulverised Coal 85-92 85-90 80-85

Advantages/Disadvantages
Advtg
• Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers
• Requires few parameters for computation
• Needs few instruments for monitoring
Disadvg
• Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is
lower
• Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency
levels
Indirect Efficiency
• Output = Input - Flue gas losses -Blowdown losses -Surface losses-
Refuse losses(Solid fuels)
• Important to compute air quantity
• Stoichiometric air = Mass of air required for unit mass of fuel to burn
completely
• Excess Air Factor (X) = Actual air/Stoich air
Indirect Efficiency
• Fuel composition and calorific value.
• Flue gas composition and temperature (O2 , CO2 and CO).
• Surface temperatures (heat fluxes).
• Total dissolved solids in Boiler feedwater, blowdown, make-up.
• Unburnt carbon in refuse (solid fuels)
• Relative Humidity
Preparations for the test

• Burn the specified fuel(s) at the required rate

• Do the tests under steady load. Avoid during warming up
• Obtain charts /tables for the additional data.
• Predetermination of general method of operation
• Sampling and analysis of fuel and ash.
• Check the type of blow down and method of measurement
• Ensure proper operation of all instruments.
• Check for any air infiltration in the combustion zone
Precautions for Indirect Method

• The efficiency test does not account for:

– Standby losses: losses occur between firing intervals
– Blowdown loss
– Soot blower steam
– Auxiliary equipment energy consumption:

• energy usage by auxiliary equipments viz.burners, fans, pumps, etc.

Boiler Blowdown

• To remove dissolved solids contained in the water

• These solids cause foaming, carryover with the steam
• Also leads to scale formation inside the boiler, resulting in localized
overheating and finally causing boiler tube failure
• water is blown off and is automatically replaced by feed water
Recommended TDS Levels
Boiler Type Maximum TDS (ppm)

1 Lancashire 10000

2 Smoke and Water Tube 5000

3 Low pressure Water Tube 2000-3000

4 High Pressure Water Tube with 3000-3500

Superheater
5 Package and economic boilers 3000

6 Coil boilers and steam generators 2000

Two kinds of blowdown – intermittent and continuous
Conductivity as Indicator of Boiler Water Quality
Since it is tedious and time consuming to measure total dissolved solids
(TDS) in boiler water system, conductivity measurement is used for
monitoring the overall TDS present in the boiler. A rise in conductivity
indicates a rise in the "contamination" of the boiler water.
Intermittent Blowdown

The intermittent blown down is given by manually operating a valve fitted to

discharge pipe at the lowest point of boiler shell

In intermittent blowdown, a large diameter line is opened for a short period of

time, based on a thumb rule such as “once in a shift for 2 minutes”.
Intermittent blowdown requires large short-term increases in the amount of
feed water put into the boiler

 It necessitate larger feed water pumps than if continuous blow down is used.
 TDS level will be varying
 substantial amount of heat energy is lost with intermittent blowdown.
Continuous Blowdown
There is a steady and constant dispatch of small stream of
concentrated boiler water, and replacement by steady and constant
inflow of feed water. This ensures constant TDS and steam purity at
given steam load.

Though large quantities of heat are wasted, opportunity exists for

recovering this heat by blowing into a flash tank and generating flash
steam.

This flash steam can be used for pre-heating boiler feed water or for
any other purpose (see Figure 2.8 for blow down heat recovery
system). This type of blow down is common in high-pressure boilers.
Benefits of Blowdown
Good boiler blow down control can significantly reduce treatment and
operational costs that include:
− Lower pretreatment costs
− Less make-up water consumption
− Reduced maintenance down me
− Increased boiler life
− Lower consump on of treatment chemicals
Energy Conservation Opportunities
The various energy efficiency opportunities in boiler system can be related to
combustion, heat transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary power consumption,
water quality and blowdown.
1. Stack Temperature
 The stack temperature should be as low as possible.
 However, it should not be so low that water vapor in the exhaust condenses on
the stack walls. This is important in fuels containing signficant sulphur as low
temperature can lead to sulphur dew point corrosion.
 Stack temperatures greater than 200°C indicates potential for recovery of waste
heat.
 It also indicate the scaling of heat transfer/recovery equipment and hence the
urgency of taking an early shut down for water / flue side cleaning.
2. Feed Water Preheating using Economiser
Typically, the flue gases leaving a modern 3-pass shell boiler are at
temperatures of 200 to 300 o C. Thus, there is a potential to recover
heat from these gases.
For a typically older model shell boiler, with a flue gas exit temperature
of 260 o C, an economizer could be used to reduce it to 200 o C,
increasing the feed water temperature by 15 o C. Increase in overall
thermal efficiency would be in the order of 3%
3. Combustion Air Preheat
Combustion air preheating is an alternative to feedwater heating. In order to
improve thermal efficiency by 1%, the combustion air temperature must be
raised by 20oC.
4. Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor
distribution of fuel. It is usually obvious from the colour or smoke, and must be
corrected immediately.
In the case of oil and gas fired systems resons could be
 burner system problems
 poor mixing of fuel and air at the burner
 improper fuel viscosity
 worn tips, carbonization on tips and deterioration of diffusers or
spinner plates.
5. Excess Air Control
Excess air is required in all practical cases to ensure complete combustion,
to allow for the normal variations in combustion and to ensure
satisfactory stack conditions for some fuels.
Controlling excess air to an optimum level always results in reduction in
flue gas losses; for every 1% reduction in excess air there is
approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency.
Portable oxygen analysers and draft gauges can be used to make periodic
readings to guide the operator to manually adjust the flow of air for
optimum operation. Excess air reduction up to 20% is feasible.
continuous oxygen analyzer, remote controlled pneumatic damper, the
automatic stack damper control can be used for further improvement.
6. Radiation and Convection Heat Loss
The heat loss from the boiler shell is normally a fixed energy loss,
irrespective of the boiler output. Repairing or augmenting insulation
can reduce heat loss through boiler walls and piping.

7. Automatic Blowdown Control

Uncontrolled continuous blowdown is very wasteful. Automatic
blowdown controls can be installed that sense and respond to boiler
water conductivity and pH. A 10% blow down in a 15 kg/cm2 boiler
results in 3% efficiency loss.
8. Reduction of Scaling and Soot Losses
In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an insulator against heat
transfer.Any such deposits should be removed on a regular basis.
Elevated stack temperatures may indicate excessive soot buildup. Also same result
will occur due to scaling on the water side.High exit gas temperatures at normal
excess air indicate poor heat transfer performance.
9. Reduction of Boiler Steam Pressure
This is an effective means of reducing fuel consumption, if permissible, by as much
as 1 to 2%.
Steam is generated at pressures normally dictated by the highest pressure /
temperature requirements for a particular process. In some cases, the process
does not operate all the time, and there are periods when the boiler pressure
could be reduced.
10. Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and Pumps
Variable speed control is an important means of achieving energy savings.
Though dampers are simple means of control, they lack accuracy, giving
poor control characteristics at the top and bottom of the operating
range. In general, if the load characteristic of the boiler is variable, the
possibility of replacing the dampers by a VSD should be evaluated.
11. Effect of Boiler Loading on Efficiency
The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not occur at full load, but at
about two-thirds of the full load. If the load on the boiler decreases
further, efficiency also tends to decrease.
In general, efficiency of the boiler reduces significantly below 25% of the
rated load and as far as possible, operation of boilers below this level
should be avoided.
12. Proper Boiler Scheduling
Since, the optimum efficiency of boilers occurs at 65-85% of full load, it is usually more
efficient, on the whole, to operate a fewer number of boilers at higher loads, than
to operate a large number at low loads.
13. Boiler Replacement
The potential savings from replacing a boiler depend on the anticipated change in
overall efficiency. A change in a boiler can be financially attractive if the existing
boiler is :
 old and inefficient
 not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
 over or under-sized for present requirements
 not designed for ideal loading conditions
 Steam Trapping
•Steam loses heat to atmosphere –some of the steam
condenses. It is necessary to remove condensate from steam
lines
•Apart from proper sizing of pipe lines, provision must be made
for proper draining of condensate which is bound to form as
steam travels along the pipe.
•A 100mm well lagged pipe of 30-meter length carrying steam at
7 kg/cm2 pressure can condense nearly 10 kg. of water in the
pipe in one hour unless it is removed from the pipe through
traps.
 Steam Trapping
lSteam Trap – Automatic drain valve that senses the
difference between steam and condensate and permits the
condensate and air to pass through while retaining the
steam
lThe three important functions of steam traps are:

A)To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed

B)Not to allow steam to escape
C)To be capable of discharging air and other non-
condensable gases
 Locations of Steam Traps
•Steam Distribution mains
• elevation changes

• intervals of 60-150 m horizontal runs

• ahead of dead ended areas

•Steam tracing lines

•Steam operated equipment
Ahead of turbines
Draining below heat exchangers, driers
 Thermostatic Steam Trap
•Operating principle: changes in fluid temperature
•Reduction in condensate temperature due to heat loss
•A thermostatic trap will pass condensate when lower
temperature is sensed
•As steam reaches the trap, temperature increases and
the trap closes.
 Mechanical Steam Trap
•Operating principle: changes in fluid density
ball float traps
inverted bucket traps
•condensate helps the ball
float to rise, lifting the valve to
release condensate
•use of thermostatic air vent
continuously discharge
condensate
•High turndown
•can be damaged by severe
freezing
 Advantages of the float-thermostatic steam trap
l

The trap continuously discharges condensate at steam

temperature. This makes it the first choice for applications
where the rate of heat transfer is high for the area of heating
surface available.
It is able to handle heavy or light condensate loads equally

well and is not affected by wide and sudden fluctuations of

pressure or flowrate. As long as an automatic air vent is
fitted, the trap is able to discharge air freely.
It has a large capacity for its size.

It is resistant to waterhammer.

 Disadvantages of the float-thermostatic steam trap
l

lAlthough less susceptible than the inverted bucket trap, the

float type trap can be damaged by severe freezing and the
body should be well lagged, and / or complemented with a
small supplementary thermostatic drain trap, if it is to be
fitted in an exposed position.
lAs with all mechanical type traps, different internals are

required to allow operation over varying pressure ranges.

Traps operating on higher differential pressures have smaller
orifices to balance the bouyancy of the float.
•The bucket hangs down,
•pulling the valve off its
•seat, condensate flows
•out
•The arrival of steam
•causes the bucket to
•become buoyant, it then
•rises and shuts the outlet
•The trap remains shut
•until the steam in the
•bucket has condensed
•Vent hole is essential to
•allow air to escape
 Advantages of the inverted bucket steam trap
l

The inverted bucket steam trap can be made to withstand

l

high pressures.

Like a float-thermostatic steam trap, it has a good tolerance to

l

water hammer conditions.

Can be used on superheated steam lines with the addition of

l

a check valve on the inlet.

Failure mode is usually open, so it’s safer on those

l

applications that require this feature, for example turbine

drains.
 Disadvantages of the inverted bucket steam trap
l

The small size of the hole in the top of the bucket means
l

that this type of trap can only discharge air very slowly. The
hole cannot be enlarged, as steam would pass through too
quickly during normal operation.

There should always be enough water in the trap body to

l

act as a seal around the lip of the bucket. If the trap loses
this water seal, steam can be wasted through the outlet
valve
 Thermodynamic Steam Trap
•Operating principle: changes in fluid dynamics
•Thermodynamic steam traps rely partly on the
formation of flash steam from condensate
 Steam Trap Testing
•Visual Observation
•Temperature
•Sound
lStethoscope,

lUltrasonic

•Conductivity
lCold Trap

lFailure- Open

lFailure- Closed

lFunctioning
 Steam Trap Selection
Application Feature Suitable Trap

Steam Mains Open to atmosphere, small Thermodynamic Type

capacity.
Frequent change in pressure
High pressure / low pressure

Equipment Large Capacity Mechanical Trap, Bucket,

Reboiler Variation in pressure and Inverted bucket, float
Heater temperature is undesirable.
Dryer Efficiency of equipment is a
Heat exchanger etc. problem

Tracer line / Reliability with no over heating Thermodynamic and

instrumentation Bimetalic
 Condensate Recovery
•30-40% of the heat in steam contained in the
condensate
•Condensate – Use in process, return to de-
aerator
•Compute % condensate return – by de-aerator
energy balance
•Estimate maximum condensate return and
viability of additional return
 Flash Steam Calculations
•Assuming No Heat Loss
m1hf1=mshg2 + (m1-ms)hf2

fs =ms/m1 =(hf1-hf2)/(hg2-hf2)
 Industrial Heating Furnaces
• Furnace is by definition a device for heating
materials and therefore a user of energy.
• Heating furnaces can be divided into batch-
type (Job at stationary position) and
continuous type (large volume of work output
at regular intervals).
 Purpose of the Performance Test
• To find out the efficiency of the furnace
• To find out the Specific energy consumption

• Heat Balance of a Furnace

• Heat balance helps us to numerically understand
the present heat loss and efficiency and improve
the furnace operation using these data. Thus,
preparation of heat balance is a pre-requirement
for assessing energy conservation potential.
 Reference Standards
• In addition to conventional methods, Japanese
Industrial Standard (JIS) GO702 “Method of
heat balance for continuous furnaces for steel”
is used for the purpose of establishing the heat
losses and efficiency of reheating furnaces.
 Fuel
• Equalization of the temperature within the
stock
• Since the products of flue gases directly contact
the stock, type of fuel chosen is of importance
(For example, some stock will not tolerate
sulphur).
• Solid fuels generate particulate matter, that
interferes with the stock
• liquid fuel, gaseous fuel or electricity
Performance Evaluation
 Performance Evaluation

• The Direct Method: energy gain of the stock

is compared with the energy content of the
fuel
• The Indirect Method: efficiency is calculated
based on losses and energy input
 Losses
• The various losses that occur in the fuel fired furnace
1. Heat lost through exhaust gases either as sensible
heat or as incomplete combustion
2. Heat loss through furnace walls and hearth
3. Heat loss to the surroundings by radiation and
convection from the outer surface of the walls.
4. Heat loss through gases leaking through cracks,
openings and doors.
 Heat Loss due to Openings
• Calculate diameter to wall thickness ratio (D/X)
• Calculate radiation factor (nomogram)
• Assume emissivity = 0.8
• Calculate black body radiation
• Heat loss = black body radiation × emissivity ×
radiation factor × area
 Factors Affecting Furnace Performance
The important factors, which affect the efficiency, are listed below
for critical analysis.
• Under loading due to poor hearth loading and improper
production scheduling
• Improper Design
• Use of inefficient burner
• Insufficient draft/chimney
• Absence of Waste heat recovery
• Absence of Instruments/Controls
• Improper operation/Maintenance
• High stack loss
• Improper insulation /Refractories
 Energy Efficiency Measures
• Complete combustion with minimum excess air
• Correct heat distribution
• Operating at the desired temperature
• Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
• Maintaining correct amount of furnace draught
• Optimum capacity utilization
• Waste heat recovery from the flue gases
• Minimum refractory losses
• Use of Ceramic Coatings
 Energy Efficiency Issues
• The flame should not touch any solid object and
should propagate clear of any solid object
(black smoke or scale)
• More burners of less capacity for better heat
distribution and longer furnace life
• Heat recovery through:
– Charge (stock) preheating
– Preheating of combustion air
– Utilizing waste heat for other process
HVAC AND REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
 HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

The Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) and

refrigeration system transfers the heat energy from or to the
products, or building environment. Energy in form of
electricity or heat is used to power mechanical equipment
designed to transfer heat from a colder, low-energy level to a
warmer, high-energy level.

Refrigeration deals with the transfer of heat from a low

temperature level at the heat source to a high temperature
level at the heat sink by using a low boiling refrigerant.
 Heat Transfer Loops In Refrigeration System
Thermal energy moves from left to right as it is extracted from the space
and expelled into the outdoors through five loops of heat transfer:
 Indoor air loop.
 Chilled water loop
 Refrigerant loop
 Condenser water loop
 Cooling tower loop
 Air-Conditioning Systems

Depending on applications, there are several

options / combinations, which are available for use
as given below:

Air Conditioning (for comfort / machine)

Split air conditioners

Fan coil units in a larger system

Air handling units in a larger system

 Refrigeration Systems (for processes)

Small capacity modular units of direct expansion type similar to

domestic refrigerators, small capacity refrigeration units.

Centralized chilled water plants with chilled water as a secondary

coolant for temperature range over 5oC typically. They can also be used
for ice bank formation.

Brine plants, which use brines as lower temperature, secondary coolant,

for typically sub zero temperature applications, which come as modular
unit capacities as well as large centralized plant capacities.

The plant capacities upto 50 TR are usually considered as small

capacity, 50 – 250 TR as medium capacity and over 250 TR as large
capacity units.
 Types of Refrigeration System
Vapour Compression Refrigeration

Schematic of a Basic Vapor Compression Refrigeration System

Schematic of Absorption Refrigeration System
 Absorption Refrigeration System
The absorption chiller is a machine, which produces
chilled water by using heat such as steam, hot water,
gas, oil etc. Chilled water is produced by the principle
that liquid (refrigerant), which evaporates at low
temperature, absorbs heat from surrounding when it
evaporates. Pure water is used as refrigerant and
lithium bromide solution is used as absorbent
Heat for the vapour absorption refrigeration system can
be provided by waste heat extracted from process,
diesel generator sets etc. Absorption systems require
electricity to run pumps only. Depending on the
temperature required and the power cost, it may even
be economical to generate heat / steam to operate the
absorption system.
 Alternative Refrigerants for Vapour
Compression Systems
The use of CFCs is now beginning to be phased out due to their damaging
impact on the protective tropospheric ozone layer around the earth.
the refrigeration industry has developed two alternative refrigerants; one
based on Hydrochloro Fluorocarbon (HCFC), and another based on
Hydro Fluorocarbon (HFC).
The HCFCs have a 2 to 10% ozone depleting potential as compared to
CFCs and also, they have an atmospheric lifetime between 2 to 25 years
as compared to 100 or more years for CFCs
However, even HCFCs are mandated to be phased out by 2005, and only
the chlorine free (zero ozone depletion) HFCs would be acceptable.
Until now, only one HFC based refrigerant, HFC 134a, has been
developed. HCFCs are comparatively simpler to produce and the three
refrigerants 22, 123, and 124 have been developed.
The use of HFCs and HCFCs results in slightly lower efficiencies as
compared to CFCs, but this may change with increasing efforts being
made to replace CFCs.
 Factors Affecting Performance & Energy Efficiency
of Refrigeration Plants

 Design of Process Heat Exchangers - A 10C raise in

. evaporator temperature can help to save almost 3 % on power
consumption. The TR capacity of the same machine will also increase
with the evaporator temperature,

 Maintenance of Heat Exchanger Surfaces - Fouled

condenser tubes force the compressor to work harder to attain the
desired capacity. For example, a 0.8 mm scale build-up on condenser
tubes can increase energy consumption by as much as 35 %.
Similarly, fouled evaporators (due to residual lubricating oil or
infiltration of air) result in increased power consumption.

Multi-Staging For Efficiency- Efficient compressor operation

requires that the compression ratio be kept low, to reduce discharge
pressure and temperature. For low temperature applications involving
high compression ratios, and for wide temperature requirements, it is
preferable (due to equipment design limitations) and often economical
to employ multi-stage reciprocating machines or centrifugal / screw
compressors.
 Matching Capacity to System Load - During part-load
operation, the evaporator temperature rises and the condenser
temperature falls, effectively increasing the COP. But at the same
time, deviation from the design operation point and the fact that
mechanical losses form a greater proportion of the total power negate
the effect of improved COP, resulting in lower part-load efficiency.

 Capacity Control and Energy Efficiency - The capacity

of compressors is controlled in a number of ways. Capacity control of
reciprocating compressors through cylinder unloading results in
incremental (step-by-step) modulation as against continuous capacity
modulation of centrifugal through vane control and screw compressors
through sliding valves. Capacity regulation through speed control is
the most efficient option.

 Multi-level Refrigeration for Plant Needs - The

selection of refrigeration systems also depends on the range of
temperatures required in the plant. For diverse applications requiring
a wide range of temperatures, it is generally more economical to
provide several packaged units (several units distributed throughout
the plant) instead of one large central plant.
 Chilled Water Storage - Depending on the nature of the load, it is
economical to provide a chilled water storage facility with very good cold
insulation. Also, the storage facility can be fully filled to meet the process
requirements so that chillers need not be operated continuously.
This system is usually economical if small variations in temperature are
acceptable. This system has the added advantage of allowing the chillers to
be operated at periods of low electricity demand to reduce peak demand
charges

 System Design Features - In overall plant design, adoption of good

practices improves the energy efficiency significantly. Some areas for
consideration are:
 Design of cooling towers with FRP impellers and film fills, PVC drift
eliminators, etc.
 Use of softened water for condensers in place of raw water.
 Use of economic insulation thickness on cold lines, heat exchangers.
 Adoption of roof coatings / cooling systems, false ceilings / as
applicable, to minimize refrigeration load.
 Adoption of energy efficient heat recovery devices like air to air heat
exchangers to pre-cool the fresh air by indirect heat exchange; control
of relative humidity through indirect heat exchange rather than use of
duct heaters after chilling.
 Energy Saving Opportunities
 Cold Insulation - Insulate all cold lines / vessels using
economic insulation thickness to minimize heat gains; and
choose appropriate (correct) insulation.
 Building Envelope - Optimise air conditioning volumes by
measures such as use of false ceiling and segregation of
critical areas for air conditioning by air curtains.
 Building Heat Loads Minimisation - Minimise the air
conditioning loads by measures such as roof cooling, roof
painting, efficient lighting, pre-cooling of fresh air by air- to-
air heat exchangers, variable volume air system, otpimal
thermo-static setting of temperature of air conditioned
spaces, sun film applications, etc.
 Contd...
 Process Heat Loads Minimisation - Minimize process heat
loads in terms of TR capacity as well as refrigeration level,
i.e., temperature required, by way of:
1. Flow optimization
2. Heat transfer area increase to accept higher temperature
coolant
3. Avoiding wastages like heat gains, loss of chilled water,
idle flows.
4. Frequent cleaning / de-scaling of all heat exchangers
At the Refrigeration A/C Plant Area
1. Ensure regular maintenance of all A/C plant components as per
manufacturer guidelines.
2. Ensure adequate quantity of chilled water and cooling water
flows, avoid bypass flows by closing valves of idle equipment.
3. Minimize part load operations by matching loads and plant
capacity on line; adopt variable speed drives for varying process
load.
4. Make efforts to continuously optimize condenser and evaporator
parameters for minimizing specific energy consumption and
maximizing capacity.
5. Adopt VAR system where economics permit as a non-CFC
solution.
 Cogeneration &
Waste Heat Recovery
 Need for cogeneration
• The conventional method of power generation and supply to
the customer is wasteful in the sense that only about a third of
the primary energy fed into the power plant is actually made
available to the user in the form of electricity.
• In conventional power plant, efficiency is only 35% and
remaining 65% of energy is lost or rejected to the surrounding
water or air due to the inherent constraints of the different
thermodynamic cycles employed in power generation.
• Also further losses of around 10-15% are associated with the
transmission and distribution of electricity in the electrical grid.
Principle of Cogeneration
• Cogeneration or Combined Heat
and Power (CHP) is defined as the
sequential generation of two
different forms of useful energy
from a single primary energy
source, typically mechanical
energy and thermal energy.
• Cogeneration provides a wide
range of technologies for
application in various domains of
economic activities. The overall
efficiency of energy use in
cogeneration mode can be up to
85 per cent and above in some
cases.
• Along with the saving of fossil fuels, cogeneration also allows
to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases (particularly CO2
emission).
• The production of electricity being on-site, the burden on the
utility network is reduced and the transmission line losses
eliminated.
• At the macro level, cogeneration allows a part of the financial
burden of the national power utility to be shared by the
private sector; in addition, indigenous energy sources are
conserved.
• At the micro level, the overall energy bill of the users can be
reduced, particularly when there is a simultaneous need for
both power and heat at the site, and a rational energy tariff is
practiced in the country.
 Technical Options for Cogeneration
1. Steam turbine cogeneration systems
The two types of steam turbines most widely used are the back pressure and the
extraction-condensing types (see Figure). The choice between backpressure
turbine and extraction-condensing turbine depends mainly on the quantities of
power and heat, quality of heat, and economic factors. The extraction points of
steam from the turbine could be more than one, depending on the temperature
levels of heat required by the processes
2. Gas turbine cogeneration systems

Gas turbine cogeneration systems can produce all or a part of the

energy requirement of the site, and the energy released at high
temperature in the exhaust stack can be recovered for various heating
and cooling applications (see Figure 7.4). Though natural gas is most
commonly used, other fuels such as light fuel oil or diesel can also be
employed. The typical range of gas turbines varies from a fraction of a
MW to around 100 MW. If more power is required at the site, it is
possible to adopt a combined cycle that is a combination of gas
turbine and steam turbine cogeneration.
3. Reciprocating engine cogeneration systems
Also known as internal combustion (I. C.) engines, these cogeneration systems have
high power generation efficiencies in comparison with other prime movers. There
are two sources of heat for recovery: exhaust gas at high temperature and engine
jacket cooling water system at low temperature (see Figure). As heat recovery can be
quite efficient for smaller systems, these systems are more popular with smaller
energy consuming facilities, particularly those having a greater need for electricity
than thermal energy and where the quality of heat required is not high, e.g. low
pressure steam or hot water.

Schematic diagram of reciprocating engine cogeneration

 Classification of Cogeneration Systems
• A cogeneration system can be classified as either a topping or a
bottoming cycle on the basis of the sequence of energy use.
• In a topping cycle, the fuel supplied is used to first produce
power and then thermal energy, which is the by-product of the
cycle and is used to satisfy process heat or other thermal
requirements.
• Topping cycle cogeneration is widely used and is the most
popular method of cogeneration.
• Topping Cycle :- There are four types of topping cycle
cogeneration systems as explained ahead.
 Types of topping Cycles

1. A gas turbine or diesel engine producing electrical or

mechanical power followed by a heat recovery boiler to
create steam to drive a secondary steam turbine. This is called
a combined-cycle topping system.
2. The second type of system burns fuel (any type) to produce
high-pressure steam that then passes through a steam turbine
to produce power with the exhaust provides low-pressure
process steam. This is a steam-turbine topping system.
3. A third type employs heat recovery from an engine exhaust
and/or jacket cooling system flowing to a heat recovery boiler,
where it is converted to process steam / hot water for further
use.
4. The fourth type is a gas-turbine topping system. A natural gas
turbine drives a generator. The exhaust gas goes to a heat
recovery boiler that makes process steam and process heat
• Bottoming Cycle - In a bottoming cycle, the primary fuel
produces high temperature thermal energy and the heat
rejected from the process is used to generate power through a
recovery boiler and a turbine generator. Bottoming cycles are
suitable for manufacturing processes that require heat at high
temperature in furnaces and kilns, and reject heat at
significantly high temperatures. Typical areas of application
include cement, steel, ceramic, gas and petrochemical
industries. Bottoming cycle plants are much less common than
topping cycle plants.
• Figure illustrates the bottoming cycle where fuel is burnt in a
furnace to produce synthetic rutile (TiO2). The waste gases
coming out of the furnace is utilized in a boiler to generate
steam, which drives the turbine to produce electricity.
 Factors Influencing Cogeneration Choice
• Base electrical load matching - In this configuration, the
cogeneration plant is sized to meet the minimum electricity
demand of the site based on the historical demand curve. The
rest of the needed power is purchased from the utility grid.
The thermal energy requirement of the site could be met by the
cogeneration system alone or by additional boilers. If the
thermal energy generated with the base electrical load exceeds
the plant’s demand and if the situation permits, excess thermal
energy can be exported to neighboring customers.
• Base thermal load matching - Here, the cogeneration system is sized to
supply the minimum thermal energy requirement of the site. Stand-by
boilers or burners are operated during periods when the demand for heat
is higher.
The prime mover installed operates at full load at all times. If the electricity
demand of the site exceeds that which can be provided by the prime
mover, then the remaining amount can be purchased from the grid.
Likewise, if local laws permit, the excess electricity can be sold to the
power utility.
• Electrical load matching
• In this operating scheme, the facility is totally independent of the power
utility grid. All the power requirements of the site, including the reserves
needed during scheduled and unscheduled maintenance, are to be taken
into account while sizing the system. This is also referred to as a “stand-
alone” system. If the thermal energy demand of the site is higher than that
generated by the cogeneration system, auxiliary boilers are used. On the
other hand, when the thermal energy demand is low, some thermal energy
is wasted. If there is a possibility, excess thermal energy can be exported to
neighbouring facilities.
• Thermal load matching - The cogeneration system is designed
to meet the thermal energy requirement of the site at any
time.
The prime movers are operated following the thermal
demand. During the period when the electricity demand
exceeds the generation capacity, the deficit can be
compensated by power purchased from the grid. Similarly, if
the local legislation permits, electricity produced in excess at
any time may be sold to the utility.
 Important Technical Parameters for Cogeneration
1. Heat-to-power ratio - It is defined as the ratio of thermal energy to
electricity required by the energy consuming facility.
2. Quality of thermal energy needed - The quality of thermal energy
required (temperature and pressure) also determines the type of
cogeneration system.
e.g. For a sugar mill needing thermal energy at about 120°C, a topping
cycle cogeneration system can meet the heat demand. On the other
hand, for a cement plant requiring thermal energy at about 1450°C, a
bottoming cycle cogeneration system can meet both high quality
thermal energy and electricity demands of the plant.
3. Load patterns - The heat and power demand patterns of the user affect
the selection (type and size) of the cogeneration system.
4. System reliability- Some energy consuming facilities require very reliable
power and/or heat; for instance, a pulp and paper industry cannot
operate with a prolonged unavailability of process steam. In such
instances, the cogeneration system to be installed must be modular, i.
5. Fuels available - Depending on the availability of fuels, some potential
cogeneration systems may have to be rejected. The availability of cheap
fuels or waste products that can be used as fuels at a site is one of the
major factors in the technical consideration because it determines the
competitiveness of the cogeneration system.
6. Grid dependent system versus independent system - A grid-dependent
system has access to the grid to buy or sell electricity. The grid-
independent system is also known as a “stand-alone” system that meets
all the energy demands of the site.
7. Retrofit versus new installation - If the cogeneration system is installed as
a retrofit, the system must be designed so that the existing energy
conversion systems, such as boilers, can still be used.
8. Electricity buy-back - The technical consideration of cogeneration system
must take into account whether the local regulations permit electric
utilities to buy electricity from the cogenerators or not.
9. Local environmental regulation - The local environmental regulations can
limit the choice of fuels to be used for the proposed cogeneration
systems.
 Waste Heat Recovery
• Waste heat is heat, which is generated in a process by way of fuel
combustion or chemical reaction, and then “dumped” into the environment
even though it could still be reused for some useful and economic purpose.
• The strategy of how to recover this heat depends in part on the
temperature of the waste heat gases and the economics involved.
• Large quantity of hot flue gases is generated from Boilers, Kilns, Ovens and
Furnaces. If some of this waste heat could be recovered, a considerable
amount of primary fuel could be saved.
• In any study of waste heat recovery, it is absolutely necessary that there
should be some use for the recovered heat. Typical examples of use would
be preheating of combustion air, space heating, or pre-heating boiler feed
water or process water.
WASTE SOURCE AND QUALITY
 Classification and Application
• High Temperature Heat Recovery
• The following Table gives temperatures of waste gases from
industrial process equipment in the high temperature range. All of
these results from direct fuel fired processes.

Types of Device Temperature, oC

Nickel refining furnace 1370 –1650

Aluminium refining furnace 650-760
Zinc refining furnace 760-1100
Copper refining furnace 760-815
Steel heating furnaces 925-1050
Copper reverberatory furnace 900-1100
Open hearth furnace 650-700
Cement kiln (Dry process) 620-730
Glass melting furnace 1000-1550
• Medium Temperature Heat Recovery
• The following Table gives the temperatures of waste gases from process
equipment in the medium temperature range. Most of the waste heat in
this temperature range comes from the exhaust of directly fired process
units.

Types of Device Temperature, oC

Steam boiler exhausts 230-480

Gas turbine exhausts 370-540
Reciprocating engine exhausts 315-600
Reciprocating engine exhausts (turbo 230- 370
charged)
Heat treating furnaces 425 - 650
Drying and baking ovens 230 - 600
Catalytic crackers 425 - 650
Annealing furnace cooling systems 425 - 650
• Low Temperature Heat Recovery
• The following Table lists some heat sources in the low temperature range. In
this range it is usually not practical to extract work from the source, though
steam production may not be completely excluded if there is a need for low-
pressure steam. Low temperature waste heat may be useful in a
supplementary way for preheating purposes.

Source Temperature, oC

Process steam condensate 55-88

Cooling water from:
Furnace doors 32-55
Welding machines 32-88
Injection molding machines 32-88
Annealing furnaces 66-230
Air compressors 27-50
Internal combustion engines 66-120
 Benefits of Waste Heat Recovery
Direct Benefits:
• Recovery of waste heat has a direct effect on the efficiency of the process.
This is reflected by reduction in the utility consumption & costs, and
process cost.
Indirect Benefits:
• a) Reduction in pollution: A number of toxic combustible wastes when
burnt in the incinerators serves dual purpose i.e. recovers heat and reduces
the environmental pollution levels.
• b) Reduction in equipment sizes: Waste heat recovery reduces the fuel
consumption, which leads to reduction in the flue gas produced. This
results in reduction in equipment sizes of all flue gas handling equipments
such as fans, stacks, ducts, burners, etc.
• c) Reduction in auxiliary energy consumption: Reduction in equipment sizes
gives additional benefits in the form of reduction in auxiliary energy
consumption like electricity for fans, pumps etc..
 Development of a Waste Heat Recovery System
• Understanding the process
• Understanding the process is essential for development of Waste
Heat Recovery system. This can be accomplished by reviewing the
process flow sheets, layout diagrams, piping isometrics, electrical
and instrumentation cable ducting etc. Detail review of these
documents will help in identifying:
a) Sources and uses of waste heat
b) Upset conditions occurring in the plant due to heat recovery
c) Availability of space
d) Any other constraint, such as dew point occurring in an equipments
etc.

• After identifying source of waste heat and the possible use of it, the
next step is to select suitable heat recovery system and equipments
to recover and utilise the same.
• Economic Evaluation of Waste Heat Recovery System
• It is necessary to evaluate the selected waste heat recovery
system on the basis of financial analysis such as investment,
depreciation, payback period, rate of return etc. In addition
the advice of experienced consultants and suppliers must be
obtained for rational decision.
 Commercial Waste Heat Recovery Devices
• In a recuperator, heat
exchange takes place between
the flue gases and the air
through metallic or ceramic
walls.
• second common configuration
for recuperators is called the
tube type or convective
recuperator.
• Radiation/Convective Hybrid
Recuperator:
• For maximum effectiveness of heat
transfer, combinations of radiation and
convective designs are used, with the
high-temperature radiation
recuperator being first followed by
convection type.
• Ceramic Recuperator
• The principal limitation on the heat
recovery of metal recuperators is the
reduced life of the liner at inlet
temperatures exceeding 1100oC. In
order to overcome the temperature
limitations of metal recuperators,
ceramic tube recuperators have been
developed whose materials allow
operation on the gas side to 1550oC
and on the preheated air side to 815oC
on a more or less practical basis.
 • The Regeneration which is
preferable for large capacities
has been very widely used in
glass and steel melting furnaces.
Important relations exist
between the size of the
regenerator, time between
reversals, thickness of brick,
conductivity of brick and heat
storage ratio of the brick.

A heat wheel is finding increasing

applications in low to medium temperature
waste heat recovery systems. Figure is a
sketch illustrating the application of a heat
wheel.
It is a sizable porous disk, fabricated with
material having a fairly high heat capacity,
which rotates between two side-by-side
ducts: one a cold gas duct, the other a hot
gas duct.
• Heat Pipe
• A heat pipe can transfer up to 100 times more thermal
energy than copper, the best known conductor. In other
words, heat pipe is a thermal energy absorbing and
transferring system and have no moving parts and hence
require minimum maintenance.
 • Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger:
• When the medium containing
waste heat is a liquid or a vapor
which heats another liquid, then
the shell and tube heat
exchanger must be used since
both paths must be sealed to
contain the pressures of their
respective fluids.

Economiser
In case of boiler system, economizer
can be provided to utilize the flue
gas heat for pre-heating the boiler
feed water. On the other hand, in an
air pre-heater, the waste heat is
used to heat combustion air.
• Plate heat exchanger
• The cost of heat exchange surfaces
is a major cost factor when the
temperature differences are not
large. One way of meeting this
problem is the plate type heat
exchanger, which consists of a series
of separate parallel plates forming
thin flow pass.
• Each plate is separated from the
next by gaskets and the hot stream
passes in parallel through
alternative plates whilst the liquid
to be heated passes in parallel
between the hot plates. To improve
heat transfer the plates are
corrugated.
• Waste Heat Boilers
• Waste heat boilers are ordinarily water tube
boilers in which the hot exhaust gases from gas
turbines, incinerators, etc., pass over a number of
parallel tubes containing water. The water is
vaporized in the tubes and collected in a steam
drum from which it is drawn off for use as heating
or processing steam.
• Because the exhaust gases are usually in the
medium temperature range and in order to
conserve space, a more compact boiler can be
produced if the water tubes are finned in order to
increase the effective heat transfer area on the gas
side.
• If the waste heat in the exhaust gases is
insufficient for generating the required amount of
process steam, auxiliary burners which burn fuel in
the waste heat boiler or an after-burner in the
exhaust gases flue are added. Waste heat boilers
are built in capacities from 25 m3 almost 30,000 m3
/ min. of exhaust gas.
• Heat Pumps: The majority of heat pumps work on the principle of the vapour
compression cycle. In this cycle, the circulating substance is physically separated
from the source (waste heat, with a temperature of Tin) and user (heat to be used in
the process, Tout) streams, and is re-used in a cyclical fashion, therefore called 'closed
cycle'.
• Heat pump applications are most promising when both the heating and cooling
capabilities can be used in combination. One such example of this is a plastics
factory where chilled water from a heat pump is used to cool injection-moulding
machines whilst the heat output from the heat pump is used to provide factory or
office heating.

Thermocompressor :
In many cases, very low pressure steam
are reused as water after condensation
for lack of any better option of reuse. In
many cases it becomes feasible to
compress this low pressure steam by
very high pressure steam and reuse it as
a medium pressure steam.
• Direct Contact Heat Exchanger :
Low pressure steam may also be
used to preheat the feed water or
some other fluid where miscibility
is acceptable. This principle is used
in Direct Contact Heat Exchanger
and finds wide use in a steam
generating station. They essentially
consists of a number of trays
mounted one over the other or
packed beds. Steam is supplied
below the packing while the cold
water is sprayed at the top. The
steam is completely condensed in
the incoming water thereby
heating it.
• Typical application is in the
deaerator of a steam generation
station.
Electrical Systems
Typical Electric Power Supply Systems
 Transmission and Distribution Lines
• The power plants typically produce 50 cycle/second (Hertz),
alternating-current (AC) electricity with voltages between 11kV and
33kV.
• At the power plant site, the 3-phase voltage is stepped up to a higher
voltage for transmission on cables strung on cross-country towers.
• High voltage (HV) and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission is the
next stage from power plant to transport A.C. power over long
distances at voltages like; 220 kV & 400 kV.
• Where transmission is over 1000 kM, high voltage d.c. transmission is
also favoured to minimize the losses.
• Sub-transmission network at 132 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV or 33 kV
constitutes the next link towards the end user.
• Distribution at 11 kV / 6.6 kV / 3.3 kV constitutes the last link to the
consumer, who is connected directly or through transformers
• The transmission and distribution network include sub-
stations, lines and distribution transformers.
• High voltage transmission is used so that smaller, more
economical wire sizes can be employed to carry the lower
current and to reduce losses.
• Sub-stations, containing step-down transformers, reduce the
voltage for distribution to industrial users.
• The voltage is further reduced for commercial facilities.
• Electricity must be generated, as and when it is needed since
electricity cannot be stored virtually in the system.
• There is no difference between a transmission line and a
distribution line except for the voltage level and power
handling capability.
• Transmission lines are usually capable of transmitting large
quantities of electric energy over great distances. They
operate at high voltages.
• Distribution lines carry limited quantities of power over
shorter distances.
• For the same quantity of power handled, lower the voltage,
higher the current drawn and higher the voltage drop. Since P
= VxI.
• The power loss in line is proportional to resistance and square
of current. (i.e. PLoss=I2R)
 Cascade
Efficiency
• If we consider the
electricity flow from
generation to the user
in terms of cascade
energy efficiency,
typical cascade
efficiency profile from
generation to 11 – 33 kV
user industry will be as
shown:
 Industrial End User
• At the industrial end
user premises, again
the plant network
elements like
transformers at
receiving sub-station,
switchgear, lines and
cables, load-break
switches, capacitors
cause losses, which
affect the input-
received energy.
However the losses in
such systems are
meager and
unavoidable.

ONE Unit saved = TWO Units Generated

 Analysis of System Load Curve

• A load curve defines power vs time

Load Factor = (Average Power)
Peak Power
Capacity Factor (plant load factor)
= Energy generated by a plant .
Energy generated if operating at max capacity
 Loads and Demands
• Connected Load - sum of the continuous (or nameplate)
ratings of equipment.
• Contract Demand: electric power that the
consumer agreed upon with the utility.
• Average Demand
• Load Factor - ratio of the average demand to
the maximum demand.
• Demand factor- ratio of maximum demand
to connected load.
• Power Factor (PF) is the ratio of active
power (kW) to the apparent power (kVA).
 Electricity Tariff
• Residential - Block - Energy charge
• Agricultural – Horsepower
• Industrial – Two part –Energy, Demand
• Commercial – Block
• Public Works
 Electricity Tariff-Components
• Maximum demand Charges
• Energy Charges
• Power factor penalty or bonus rates
• Fuel cost adjustment charges
• Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units
consumed
• Meter rentals
• Time Of Day (TOD)
• Penalty for exceeding contract demand
• Surcharge if metering is at LT side in some of the
utilities
 Example (MSEB LT tariff-1/6/08)
• LT Domestic
• Less than 30 kWh/month Rs 0.40/kWh +Rs 3 service
• 30-100 kWh/month Rs 2.05/kWh
• 101-300 kWh/month Rs 3.90/kWh
• 301-500 kWh/month Rs 5.30/kWh
• >500 kWh/month Rs 6.20/kWh

• Service connection: Rs 30/single ph, Rs 100/3-ph

• Additional Fixed charge of Rs. 100 per 10 kW load or part
thereof above 10 kW load shall be payable.
 Example (MSEB LT tariff-1/6/08)
• LT Non-Domestic
Less than 20 kW Rs 3.40/kWh +Rs 150 service
20-50 kW Rs 5.50/kWh + Rs 150/kVA
>50 kW Rs 7.50/kWh + Rs 150/kVA

• LT Public Works
20-40 kW Rs 1.75/kWh + Rs 50/kVA

• LT Agriculture
• Non-metered: Rs 2.41/kW
• Metered: Rs 1.10/kWh + Rs 20/kW
 Example (MSEB HT Tariff-1/6/08)
• HT Industrial
Demand charges Rs 150/kVA/month
Energy charge Rs 4.00-5.00/kWh
• TOD – Energy charge
2200 hrs – 0600 hrs (-0.85)
0600 hrs – 0900 hrs 0
0900 hrs – 1200 hrs 0.80
1200 hrs – 1800 hrs 0
1800 hrs – 2200 hrs 1.10
 Maximum Demand Control
• Typically, demand charges constitute a considerable portion of the electricity bill
• Integrated load management to effectively control the maximum demand
– Generate load curve
– Analyse load curve for various demands
– Identification of critical and re-schedulable loads for maximum demand and TOD
tariff
• Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipment operations
– prepare an operation flow chart and a process chart
• Reduce the maximum demand by building up storage capacity
• Shedding of Non-Essential Loads
• Operation of Captive Generation
• Maintain the desired Power factor of system
 Reactive Power Compensation
• The maximum demand can also be reduced at the plant level by
using capacitor banks and maintaining the optimum power factor.
• Capacitor banks are available with microprocessor based control
systems. These systems switch on and off the capacitor banks to
maintain the desired Power factor of system and optimize maximum
demand thereby.
Power Factor Correction
• Static Capacitors (Fixed/
Switchable)
• Automatic PF Correction
• Reduced line current
(and I2R losses)
• Improved Voltage
• Reduced Maximum Demand
• Capacity for expansion
• Reduction in tariff
 Cost Benefits
• Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility
bill
• Reduced distribution losses (kWh) within the plant
network
• Better voltage at motor terminals and improved
performance of motors
• A high power factor eliminates penalty charges
imposed and may be reduction in utility bill
• Capacity deferred costs
 Location of Capacitors
• Maximum benefit of capacitors is derived by locating
them as close as possible to the load
• The rating of the capacitor should not be greater than
the no-load magnetizing kVAr of the motor, if connected
directly (over voltage protection)
• motor manufacturers specify maximum capacitor ratings
• A circuit breaker or switch will be required if a capacitor
is installed for many appliances with high voltage
breaker, capacitor bank to feeder
 Locations C1A, C1B and C1C, all
three locations extra switches are
not required, since the
Capacitor is either switched with
the motor starter or the breaker
before the starter.
Case C1A is recommended for
new installation, since the
maximum benefit is derived and
the size of the motor thermal
protector is reduced. In Case C1B,
as in Case C1A, the capacitor is
energized only when the motor is
in operation.

Power Distribution Diagram Illustrating

Capacitor Locations
Case C1B is recommended in cases where the installation already exists and the
thermal protector does not need to be re-sized. In position C1C, the capacitor is
permanently connected to the circuit but does not require a separate switch, since
capacitor can be disconnected by the breaker before the starter.
 Transformers
• A transformer can accept energy at one voltage and deliver it at
another voltage. This permits electrical energy to be generated at
relatively low voltages and transmitted at high voltages and low
currents, thus reducing line losses and voltage drop
• Transformers are classified as two categories:
– power transformers and
– distribution transformers.
• Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher
voltages, deployed for step-up and step down transformer
application (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV)
• Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribution
networks as a means to end user connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV,
440V, 230V)
 Transformer Losses and Efficiency
The efficiency varies anywhere between 96 to 99 percent.
• The efficiency of the transformers not only depends on the design, but also, on
the effective operating load.
• Transformer losses consist of two parts: No-load loss and Load loss

1. No-load loss (also called core loss) is the power consumed to sustain the
magnetic field in the transformer's steel core. Core loss occurs whenever the
transformer is energized; core loss does not vary with load. Core losses are
caused by two factors: hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis loss is
that energy lost by reversing the magnetic field in the core as the magnetizing
AC rises and falls and reverses direction. Eddy current loss is a result of induced
currents circulating in the core.
2. Load loss (also called copper loss) is associated with full-load current flow in the
transformer windings. Copper loss is power lost in the primary and secondary
windings of a transformer due to the ohmic resistance of the windings. Copper
loss varies with the square of the load current. (P=I2R).
 Transformer loss vs %Load

• For a given transformer, the manufacturer can supply values for no-load loss, PNO-
LOAD, and load loss, PLOAD. The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, at any load level can then
be calculated from:
PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD+ (% Load/100)2 x PLOAD
Where transformer loading is known, the actual transformers loss at given load can be
computed as:
 System Distribution Losses
• In an electrical system often the constant no load losses and the variable load
losses are to be assessed alongside, over long reference duration, towards
energy loss estimation.
• In system distribution loss optimization, the various options available include:
– Relocating transformers and sub-stations near to load centers
– Re-routing and re-conductoring such feeders and lines where the losses /
voltage drops are higher.
– Power factor improvement by incorporating capacitors at load end.
– Optimum loading of transformers in the system.
– Opting for lower resistance All Aluminum Alloy Conductors (AAAC) in
place of conventional Aluminum Cored Steel Reinforced (ACSR) lines
– Minimizing losses due to weak links in distribution network such as
jumpers, loose contacts, old brittle conductors.
 ELECTRIC MOTORS
• Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by the
interaction between the magnetic fields set up in the stator and
rotor windings. Industrial electric motors can be broadly classified
as induction motors, direct current motors or synchronous motors.
All motor types have the same four operating components: stator
(stationary windings), rotor (rotating windings), bearings, and frame
(enclosure).
 Induction Motors
• Induced magnetic field of the stator winding
induces a current in the rotor
• Induced rotor current produces a second
magnetic field, which tries to oppose the
stator magnetic field, and this causes the rotor
to rotate
• The 3-phase squirrel cage motor is the
workhorse of industry; it is rugged and
reliable, and is by far the most common motor
type used in industry.
 DC and Synchronous Motors
• DC motors are used in special applications
where high starting torque or where smooth
acceleration over a broad speed range is
required
• AC power is fed to the stator of the
synchronous motor. The rotor is fed by DC
from a separate source.
• The rotor magnetic field locks onto the stator
rotating magnetic field and rotates at the
same speed.
 Motor Characteristics
• Synchronous Speed (SS) = 120 f/p
Where f = frequency & p = No. of poles.
• Slip (s) = 1 - (Rated speed/SS)
• Power Factor: lagging due to induction
– At part load, the active current reduces.
– However, no reduction in the magnetizing current
(proportional to supply voltage)
– Reduction in power factor
 Motor Efficiency
• Ratio of mechanical output to electrical input
• May be determined directly or indirectly through
intrinsic losses
• Efficiency is a function of operating temperature,
type of motor, speed, rating, etc.
• Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient
than slip-ring motors
• Higher-speed motors are normally more efficient
than lower-speed motors
• Core losses vary with the core material, core geometry, and input
voltage
• Friction and windage losses are caused by friction in the bearings of
the motor, aerodynamic losses associated with ventilation fan, and
other rotating parts
• Copper losses are I2R losses
• Stray losses arise from a variety of sources. Typically, proportional
to the square of the rotor current.
 ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS
• Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are
incorporated specifically to increase operating efficiency over motors of
standard design. Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor
losses. Improvements include the use of lower-loss silicon steel, a longer core
(to increase active material), thicker wires (to reduce resistance), thinner
laminations, smaller air gap between stator and rotor, copper instead of
aluminum bars in the rotor, superior bearings and a smaller fan, etc.
 Efficiency Testing Methods
• Load Test – No load test and six load tests
• Equivalent Circuit Test – No load test, Locked Rotor test , Variable
voltage (IEEE Std 112-1984, JEC 37, IEC –34-2, ISI –4889)
No Load Test
• The motor is run at rated voltage and frequency without any shaft
load
• Input power, current, frequency and voltage are noted
• The no load P.F. is quite low and hence low PF watt-meters are
required
• From the input power, stator I2R losses under no load are
subtracted to give the sum of Friction and Windage (F&W) and core
losses
• plot no-load input kW versus Voltage; the intercept is Friction &
Windage kW loss component
• F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) - (No load current)2 ×
Stator resistance
 Stator and Rotor I2R Losses
• The stator winding resistance is directly measured
• The resistance must be corrected to the operating temperature

• The rotor I2R losses are calculated

Rotor I2R losses = Slip × (Stator Input –Stator I2R Losses – Core Loss)

• Stray Load Losses fixed at 0.5%

 Motor Loading
• Part load = measured i/p to nameplate i/p
• Part load = i/p load current to i/p rated current
– Current varies approximately linearly with load
up 75% of full load.
– Below the 75% load, pf degrades and the
relation is non-linear
• Part load = actual slip to rated slip
• With voltage correction:
 Energy Conservation Opportunities
for motors
• Replace with std motor of lower size
• Replace with EE motor of lower size
• Add capacitors to improve pf
• Replace V belt drive by flat belt
• Put timer/controller to switch off during idling
• Two-speed motor/ variable speed(application
specific)
Lighting
 Why Lighting?
Quantity and quality of light determine
How well we see, work, and play
• Affects health, safety, morale, comfort, and
productivity
• Three categories:
– Ambient lighting: security, safety, daily activities
– Task lighting: specific task
– Accent lighting: beautification
 Energy Consumption

• Lighting accounts for 15-25% of all electricity

consumed in India.
• In India, we spend about one-fifth of our
electricity budget on lighting
 LIGHTING SYSTEM
• Lighting is an essential service in all the
industries. The power consumption by the
industrial lighting varies between 2 to 10% of
the total power depending on the type of
industry.
• Innovation and continuous improvement in
the field of lighting, has given rise to
tremendous energy saving opportunities in
this area.
 Lamps
Incandescent lamps:
• Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament
heated to incandescence by the flow of electric current through
it. The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also known as
GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp include the filament, the
bulb, the fill gas and the cap.
Reflector lamps:
• Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high
quality internal mirror, which follows exactly the parabolic
shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus
making the lamp maintenance free and output efficient.
Gas discharge lamps:
• The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the
excitation of gas contained in either a tubular or elliptical
outer bulb.
The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:
– Fluorescent tube lamps (FTL)
– Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
– Mercury Vapour Lamps
– Sodium Vapour Lamps
– Metal Halide Lamps
• Luminaire
• Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the
light emitted from one or more lamps.
• The luminaire includes, all the parts necessary for fixing and
protecting the lamps, except the lamps themselves.
• In some cases, luminaires also include the necessary circuit
auxiliaries, together with the means for connecting them to
the electric supply.
• The basic physical principles used in optical luminaire are
reflection, absorption, transmission and refraction.
 Control Gear

The gears used in the lighting equipment are as follows:

Ballast:
• A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance
characteristics of any discharge lamps. In case of fluorescent
lamps, it aids the initial voltage build-up, required for starting.

Ignitors:
• These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and
Sodium vapour lamps.
 Illumination
Lumen (lm) is measure of the total amount of visible light (to the
human eye) from a lamp or lightsource.
• Illumination (lux = lm/m2)
• Lighting Efficacy (lm/W)
• Load efficacy (lux/(W/m2))
• Installed load efficacy ratio (Actual to target load efficacy)
• Glare (excessive brightness)
• Colour
• Colour rendering indexes (CRI)
Illuminance
• This is the quotient of the illuminous flux incident on an element of the
surface at a point of surface containing the point, by the area of that
element.
• The lighting level produced by a lighting installation is usually qualified by
the illuminance produced on a specified plane.
• In most cases, this plane is the major plane of the tasks in the interior and is
commonly called the working plane.
• The illuminance provided by an installation affects both the performance of
the tasks and the appearance of the space.
Lux (lx)
• This is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lumen, uniformly
distributed over a surface area of one square metre. One lux is equal to one
lumen per square meter.
• Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)
• This is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the
power consumed by the lamp. It is a reflection of efficiency of
energy conversion from electricity to light form.
• Colour Rendering Index (RI)
• Is a measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces
illuminated by a given light source confirm to those of the
same surfaces under a reference illuminent; suitable
allowance having been made for the state of Chromatic
adaptation.
Types of Lighting
 Improving Energy Efficiency
• Using day lighting
• Reducing the light source’s on-time
• Performing simple maintenance
• Lowering wattage through re-lamping
• Improved electromagnetic/electronic ballasts
• Use CFLs
 Recommended Illuminance Levels for Various Tasks /
Activities / Locations
• Recommendations on Illuminance Scale of Illuminance: The minimum
illuminance for all non-working interiors, has been mentioned as 20 Lux (as per
IS 3646). A factor of approximately 1.5 represents the smallest significant
difference in subjective effect of illuminance. Therefore, the following scale of
illuminances is recommended.
20–30–50–75–100–150–200–300–500–750–1000–1500–2000, Lux
• Illuminance ranges: Because circumstances may be significantly different for
different interiors used for the same application or for different conditions for
the same kind of activity, a range of illuminances is recommended for each type
of interior or activity intended of a single value of illuminance. Each range
consists of three successive steps of the recommended scale of illuminances. For
working interiors the middle value (R) of each range represents the
recommended service illuminance that would be used unless one or more of the
factors mentioned below apply.
The higher value (H) of the range should be used at exceptional cases where
low reflectances or contrasts are present in the task, errors are costly to
rectify, visual work is critical, accuracy or higher productivity is of great
importance and the visual capacity of the worker makes itnecessary.

Similarly, lower value (L) of the range may be used when reflectances or
contrasts are unusually high, speed & accuracy is not important and the task
is executed only occasionally.

Recommended Illumination
• The following Table gives the recommended illuminance range for different
tasks and activities for chemical sector. The values are related to the visual
requirements of the task, to user's satisfaction, to practical experience and
to the need for cost effective use of energy.(Source IS 3646 (Part I) : 1992).