CHAPTER 2

DECONSTRUCTING PATRIARCHY- HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

WHAT IS PATRIARCHY?

To understand patriarchy, we must first explore its historical origins. Patriarchy is a social
construct where men predominantly wield power, and it has existed for centuries, dating back to
the agricultural revolution. The shift from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled
agricultural communities marked the beginning of patriarchal systems.
In agrarian societies, land ownership and surplus food production became central to power and
wealth. Consequently, men, who typically performed physically demanding tasks, such as
plowing and hunting, gained a dominant position. This newfound control over resources led to
the subjugation of women, who were often relegated to domestic roles, deemed less valuable in
the eyes of society. Consequently, women were often relegated and subjected to societal norms
that limited their opportunities and autonomy. The enduring impact of patriarchy continues to
shape gender dynamics, perpetuating gender inequality and reinforcing harmful stereotypes,
ultimately hindering progress toward gender equality.

NORMALISATION OF PATRIARCHY

The transmission of patriarchal values and ideas from one generation to another occurs in the
socialisation process. Socialisation is the process of internalising the norms and ideologies of
society. During and at the end of the process, the individuals, be it men or women adjusts to the
group or the society from which they socialised, and learns to behave in a manner as approved by
the society. This socialisation process forms the basis for the normalisation of patriarchy in
society. So, any attempt for a social change that is sustainable and egalitarian, should start from
the socialisation process.
Primary and Secondary Socialisation
Socialisation occurs at two levels – primary and secondary.
In primary socialization, a child accepts and learns a set of norms, values, attitudes. For example,
if a child sees his or her mother expressing hatred towards anybody, the child may think this
behaviour is acceptable and could continue to practice hatred towards others.
In secondary socialization, the child learns what is the appropriate behaviour as a member of a
smaller group in a larger society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. The
children and adults learn how to act in an appropriate way in a situation. Schools require very
different behaviour from the home, and children must act according to new rules.
The Chain of Transmission
So, the social institutions involving in the process of socialisation- both primary and secondary-
should undergo a radical change from the present, in their approaches of socialising the new
generation. Socialisation by any of these institutions is influenced by the patriarchal values of the
society. Identifying the patriarchal values and norms in these institutions and replacing them with
egalitarian value will break the transmission chain that helps in carry patriarchy across
generations.

THE IMPACT OF PATRIARCHY

The patriarchy’s impact on society has been profound, affecting various aspects of our lives,
including politics, economics, and culture. Here are some key areas where the influence of
patriarchy is still felt:

Gender Inequality: Patriarchy perpetuates gender inequality, leading to disparities in education,

employment opportunities, and income. Women continue to earn less than men for the same
work, and leadership roles are disproportionately occupied by men.

Gender-Based Violence: The patriarchal system normalizes gender-based violence, as it

reinforces male dominance and control over women. This contributes to the persistence of issues
like domestic violence and sexual harassment.

Reproductive Rights: Patriarchy often limits women’s control over their reproductive choices,
including access to contraception and safe abortions. This restricts women’s autonomy and
bodily autonomy.

Stereotypes and Objectification: The media and popular culture play a significant role in
perpetuating gender stereotypes and the objectification of women, reinforcing patriarchal norms.

DECONSTRUCTING PATRIARCHY:
Feminism, a movement advocating for gender equality , has been instrumental in challenging
and dismantling patriarchy. Feminism is a multifaceted social and political movement that
advocates for gender equality and the recognition of women’s rights on par with those of men. It
seeks to dismantle systemic gender-based discrimination and challenge ingrained societal norms
that perpetuate gender disparities. Feminism encompasses a wide range of perspectives and
approaches, from promoting equal pay and reproductive rights to addressing issues such as
sexism, misogyny, and violence against women. In the digital age, feminism continues to gain
prominence as a vital force for change, fostering inclusive and equitable societies that value and
empower individuals of all genders. Prominent feminists have spoken out against these
oppressive systems, inspiring change and progress

FEMINIST MOVEMENT AND DECONSTRUCTION OF PATRIARCHY

First Wave Feminism (19th to early 20th century)

The first wave of feminism emerged in the late 19 th and early 20th centuries, focusing primarily
on legal issues, particularly women’s suffrage and property rights. Women activists campaigned
for the right to vote, own property, and access higher education. Pioneering figures like Susan B.
Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Emmeline Pankhurst were instrumental in these efforts.
This wave culminated in significant achievements such as the passage of the Nineteenth
Amendment in the United States (1920) and the Representation of the People Act in the United
Kingdom (1918), granting women the right to vote. By challenging legal barriers and advocating
for women’s inclusion in public and political life, first-wave feminists laid the groundwork for
future movements to further deconstruct patriarchal structures.

Second Wave Feminism (1960s-1980s)

Second wave feminism, which began in the 1960s, expanded the focus beyond legal rights to
address broader issues of equality and discrimination in the workplace, education, and
reproductive rights. This wave was characterized by its slogan “The Personal is Political,”
emphasizing how personal experiences are linked to larger social and political structures. Key
figures such as Betty Friedan, whose book “The Feminine Mystique” sparked widespread
awareness of women’s dissatisfaction with their limited roles, and Gloria Steinem, a prominent
journalist and activist, played significant roles in this movement. The second wave led to
landmark legislative changes, including the Equal Pay Act (1963), Title IX (1972), and Roe v.
Wade (1973), which legalized abortion in the United States. By advocating for workplace
equality, reproductive rights, and challenging gender norms, second-wave feminists made
significant strides in deconstructing the patriarchy.

Third Wave Feminism (1990s-present)

Third wave feminism, emerging in the 1990s, emphasized diversity and intersectionality,
addressing how race, class, sexual orientation, and other factors intersect with gender oppression.
This wave responded to perceived limitations and oversights of the second wave, particularly its
focus on the experiences of middle-class white women. Key figures like Kimberlé Crenshaw,
who coined the term “intersectionality,” and bell hooks, an influential cultural critic, highlighted
the need to consider multiple forms of oppression. Third-wave feminists advocated for a more
inclusive and global approach to feminism, addressing issues such as sexual harassment, body
image, and LGBTQ+ rights. This wave’s focus on personal empowerment and diverse
experiences continued the deconstruction of patriarchal structures by broadening the
understanding of what constitutes gender oppression and how to combat it.

Fourth Wave Feminism (2010s-present)

The fourth wave of feminism is characterized by its use of digital technology and social media to
address issues such as sexual harassment, body shaming, and gender-based violence. Movements
like #MeToo, founded by Tarana Burke and popularized by activist Alyssa Milano, have brought
global attention to the prevalence of sexual harassment and assault, particularly in the workplace.
This wave also emphasizes the importance of intersectionality and inclusivity, advocating for the
rights and visibility of marginalized groups within the feminist movement. By leveraging digital
platforms, fourth-wave feminists have created new spaces for activism, dialogue, and support,
further deconstructing patriarchal norms and challenging systemic abuses of power.

Each wave of feminism has contributed to the deconstruction of patriarchy by addressing

different aspects of gender inequality and advocating for systemic change. From securing legal
rights and challenging workplace discrimination to promoting intersectionality and using digital
activism, feminist movements have continuously evolved to dismantle patriarchal structures and
advocate for a more just and equitable society.

Mary Wollstonecraft: Her seminal work, “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman” (1792), is
considered one of the earliest feminist treatises. Wollstonecraft argued that women should have
access to education and be treated as rational beings capable of contributing to society on equal
footing with men. Her critique challenged the prevailing view of women as intellectually and
morally inferior.

John Stuart Mill: In “The Subjection of Women” (1869), Mill argued for equal rights and
opportunities for women within the framework of utilitarianism. He asserted that patriarchal
social structures deprived women of their potential and limited their individual freedom .
Simone de Beauvoir: A central figure in existentialism, de Beauvoir’s “The Second Sex” (1949)
is a foundational text in feminist philosophy. She analyzed the ways in which women have been
historically oppressed and argued that gender roles are socially constructed rather than innate. De
Beauvoir famously stated, “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman,” highlighting the idea
that gender identity is shaped by social expectations and norms.

Judith Butler: Butler’s work in gender theory, particularly in “Gender Trouble” (1990),
challenged traditional notions of gender as a binary construct. She introduced the concept of
gender performativity, arguing that gender identity is constructed through repeated social actions
rather than being inherent or natural. Butler’s critique of patriarchal norms extends to
questioning the very foundations of identity and the power dynamics that enforce gender roles.

Kimberlé Crenshaw: Crenshaw coined the term “intersectionality” to describe how overlapping
systems of oppression, such as race, class, gender, and sexuality, intersect to shape individual
experiences of discrimination and privilege. Her work emphasizes the importance of considering
multiple identities and forms of inequality in feminist analysis, thereby broadening the scope of
feminist theory beyond traditional concerns.

DECONSTRUCTING PATRIARCHY IN CINEMAS

REPRESENTATION OF STRONG FEMALE CHARACTERS

Films featuring strong female characters significantly impact societal perceptions of women.
These characters demonstrate resilience, leadership, and independence, challenging the
traditional notion that women are inherently weak or dependent on men. By showcasing women
in roles of power and influence, cinema inspires audiences, especially young girls, to see
themselves as capable of achieving greatness. This representation shifts societal norms and helps
redefine what it means to be a woman in today’s world.

HIGHLIGHTING SOCIAL ISSUES

Cinema plays a crucial role in bringing attention to important social issues that affect women. By
portraying issues such as domestic violence, sexual harassment, and gender discrimination, films
educate audiences and foster empathy. These stories highlight the emotional and psychological
impact of these issues, encouraging viewers to engage in meaningful discussions and advocate
for change. This increased awareness can lead to greater support for policies and initiatives
aimed at addressing these injustices.

EMPOWERING NARRATIVES

Empowering narratives in cinema showcase women overcoming adversity and achieving their
goals, which can inspire viewers and promote self-belief. These stories redefine what success
looks like for women, emphasizing that they can excel in any field they choose. By presenting
women who triumph over challenges, films encourage viewers to believe in their own potential
and pursue their aspirations with confidence. This positive reinforcement can have a lasting
impact on individual and collective mindsets regarding women’s capabilities.

CHALLENGING TRADITIONAL GENDER ROLES

Films that depict women in non-traditional roles challenge the conventional expectations placed
on women by society. By portraying women as leaders, professionals, or warriors, cinema
encourages audiences to rethink and question the limitations imposed on women. These
portrayals broaden the scope of what women can aspire to be and do, promoting a more inclusive
understanding of gender roles. This shift in representation helps dismantle the rigid structures of
patriarchy, allowing for greater gender flexibility and equality.

PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY

Cinema advocating for gender equality can influence public opinion and inspire societal change.
By highlighting the benefits of an equal society, films encourage viewers to support and strive
for these changes in their own lives. When audiences see the positive outcomes of gender
equality—such as improved relationships, more equitable workplaces, and healthier communities
—they are more likely to champion these values in their everyday interactions and decisions.
This widespread advocacy can drive significant cultural and policy shifts toward greater equality.

CREATING AWARENESS AND SPARKING CONVERSATIONS

Movies have the power to reach a wide audience and can create awareness about the struggles
and triumphs of women. By bringing these stories to the forefront, cinema can spark important
conversations about gender equality and women’s rights. These discussions can lead to a deeper
understanding of the issues and mobilize collective action to address them. By fostering
dialogue, films help build a more informed and engaged society that is committed to advancing
gender equality and dismantling patriarchal structures.

LIPSTICK UNDER MY BURKHA by Alankrita Shrivastava

Lipstick Under My Burkha” (2016), directed by Alankrita Shrivastava, stands as a powerful

narrative that challenges patriarchal norms through its portrayal of female desire and agency. The
film bravely confronts the taboos surrounding female sexuality, presenting the stories of four
women who defy societal expectations to pursue their dreams authentically. Through its
characters—whether it’s Usha, the middle-aged widow exploring her sexual desires through
erotic fiction, or Leela, the beautician aspiring for financial independence despite societal
pressures—the film portrays women who navigate a world where their desires are often
suppressed or condemned.

Shrivastava’s direction skillfully unravels the layers of hypocrisy and oppression faced by these
women, highlighting how patriarchal structures dictate their lives and limit their choices. The
narrative doesn’t shy away from depicting the challenges these women encounter, from
clandestine relationships to societal judgment and familial expectations. By portraying these
struggles, the film sheds light on the everyday resistance and resilience of women against
patriarchal control.

Ultimately, while “Lipstick Under My Burkha” may not single-handedly dismantle patriarchy, its
portrayal of women’s defiance and pursuit of personal freedom contributes significantly to the
ongoing discourse on gender equality in cinema. It serves as a poignant reminder of the
importance of telling diverse stories that challenge and subvert dominant narratives, inspiring
dialogue and reflection on the complexities of women’s lives in patriarchal societies.

PINK by Aniruddha Roy Chowdhury

“Pink” (2016) disrupts patriarchal norms through its nuanced exploration of consent, gender
dynamics, and societal perceptions. Aniruddha Roy Chowdhury’s courtroom drama unfolds as a
powerful critique of the prevailing attitudes that marginalize women’s agency and perpetuate
victim-blaming.

The film’s narrative intricately weaves together the stories of three women accused of a crime,
exposing the complex layers of social injustice and gender inequality they navigate. By placing
the issue of consent at its core, “Pink” challenges viewers to confront their own biases and
assumptions about women’s rights and autonomy.

Through the characters’ experiences, the film critiques the entrenched patriarchal mindset that
dictates women’s behavior and limits their freedoms. It underscores the systemic challenges
women face in asserting their rights and voices in a society where they are often judged by
different standards than men.

“Pink” serves as a profound cinematic intervention, urging audiences to reexamine societal

norms and advocate for a more equitable and just society. It sparks essential conversations about
gender equality, highlighting the urgency of dismantling patriarchal structures that undermine
women’s autonomy and dignity. Ultimately, the film’s narrative complexity and thematic depth
make it a compelling case study for understanding and challenging patriarchal ideologies in
contemporary cinema and society at large.

ARDHANGINI by Kaushik Ganguly

“Ardhangini” (2023), directed by Kaushik Ganguly, delves into the intricacies of familial
relationships and societal norms, providing a poignant exploration of how patriarchal structures
can be challenged and deconstructed. The film centers on the convergence of two women—
Meghna, the current wife, and Subhra, the ex-wife—brought together by the comatose state of
Suman Chatterjee, their mutual connection. Through their interactions and evolving relationship,
the film dissects the deep-seated conventions and dynamics that often underpin patriarchal
societies.

In its portrayal of Meghna and Subhra, “Ardhangini” subverts traditional gender roles and
expectations. Typically, such relationships are fraught with jealousy and rivalry, but Ganguly
presents a narrative where both women, despite their complicated histories, collaborate and
support each other. This mature portrayal of female solidarity challenges the patriarchal notion
that women are inherently competitors, particularly in relation to their roles within a family. By
showing them working together, the film advocates for a more nuanced and equitable
understanding of women’s relationships and roles.
Moreover, the film addresses the concept of womanhood and identity beyond the shadow of male
presence. Suman’s comatose state symbolizes the diminished patriarchal control, creating space
for Meghna and Subhra to explore their identities and affections independently of male
dominance. Their journey together allows them to redefine their self-worth and assert their
agency, not just as extensions of Suman but as individuals with their own strengths and
narratives. This dynamic subtly critiques the often restrictive roles women are assigned in
patriarchal societies, where their value is frequently measured in relation to men.

“Ardhangini” also critically examines societal conventions and the pressures exerted on women
to conform to certain roles. The film unfolds layers of social expectations that both Meghna and
Subhra navigate, offering a commentary on how societal norms often perpetuate patriarchal
values. By highlighting their personal growth and mutual support, the film challenges these
conventions and advocates for a reimagining of familial and social structures that allow for
greater equality and respect for women’s choices and identities.

In essence, “Ardhangini” breaks and deconstructs patriarchy by presenting a narrative that

foregrounds female agency, solidarity, and the redefinition of identity independent of male
influence. It urges viewers to reconsider the deeply ingrained societal norms that perpetuate
gender inequality and to embrace a more inclusive and equitable understanding of familial and
social relationships. Through its mature and nuanced storytelling, the film contributes
significantly to the discourse on gender equality and the dismantling of patriarchal structures in
contemporary cinema.

MIRCH MASALA by Ketan Mehta

“Mirch Masala” (1987), directed by Ketan Mehta, stands as a seminal work in Indian cinema,
adeptly deconstructing patriarchy through its compelling narrative and strong feminist message.
The film centers on the story of Sonbai, a courageous woman who, alongside other village
women, defies the oppressive authority of a government official, symbolizing a broader
resistance against gender-based oppression. The film’s portrayal of this collective defiance serves
as a powerful critique of patriarchal structures and continues to resonate with audiences today.

In “Mirch Masala,” patriarchy is deconstructed through the depiction of the women’s unity and
resistance. The government official, representative of male authority and tyranny, expects
compliance from the women in the village. However, Sonbai's refusal to submit to his demands
sparks a chain of events that lead to the women banding together in solidarity. This act of
collective resistance not only challenges the immediate threat posed by the official but also
symbolizes a broader struggle against the systemic oppression women face in a patriarchal
society.

The film also subverts traditional gender roles by highlighting the strength and agency of its
female characters. Sonbai, portrayed by Smita Patil, is not a passive victim but a proactive and
resilient figure who stands up against injustice. Her defiance and the subsequent support she
receives from other women in the village serve as a powerful commentary on the potential for
female empowerment and solidarity to disrupt patriarchal norms. By depicting women as active
agents of change, “Mirch Masala” challenges the conventional narrative that often relegates
women to submissive roles within a patriarchal framework.

Moreover, “Mirch Masala” uses its setting and visual symbolism to further critique patriarchal
structures. The spice factory, where much of the film’s action takes place, becomes a fortress of
female resistance. The imagery of red chillies, a symbol of both spice and fire, underscores the
intensity and fervor of the women’s rebellion. This setting serves as a stark contrast to the arid
and oppressive environment outside, symbolizing the women’s fight against the stifling
constraints of patriarchy.

The film also addresses the complicity of other male characters in maintaining patriarchal
control. While some men in the village initially support the oppressive official, others, like the
village watchman Abu Mian, played by Om Puri, eventually side with the women, recognizing
the righteousness of their cause. This shift highlights the potential for change within patriarchal
societies when individuals choose to stand against oppression.

Ultimately, “Mirch Masala” deconstructs patriarchy by illustrating the power of female solidarity
and resistance in the face of systemic oppression. It challenges the audience to reconsider the
deeply ingrained gender norms and power dynamics that perpetuate inequality. The film’s
enduring relevance underscores its effectiveness in sparking dialogue about gender equality and
the importance of collective action in dismantling patriarchal structures.

FILM STUDY AND IT’S HISTORY

Film study, as an academic discipline, delves into the critical analysis, history, and theory of
cinema, encompassing various methodologies to understand the cultural, social, artistic, and
technological dimensions of film.

The origins of film study can be traced back to the late 19 th and early 20th centuries, coinciding
with the invention of motion pictures by pioneers like the Lumière brothers and Thomas Edison.
During this period, early film criticism and analysis began to emerge in newspapers and
magazines, focusing on the artistic and technical aspects of cinema. However, it was not yet
recognized as a formal academic discipline.

In the 1930s and 1940s, film study started to gain formal recognition within academia.
Universities and colleges began offering courses on film history and criticism, treating cinema as
a serious art form worthy of scholarly attention. This period saw the development of foundational
film theories and the establishment of film archives and societies, which played a crucial role in
preserving and studying films.

The post-World War II era witnessed significant growth in film studies as an academic field. The
French New Wave in the 1950s and 1960s, spearheaded by critics-turned-filmmakers like
François Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard, emphasized the auteur theory, which viewed directors as
the primary authors of films. This movement influenced the way films were analyzed and
interpreted, leading to a deeper appreciation of the director’s creative vision.

In the 1960s and 1970s, film studies experienced further expansion with the rise of structuralist
and post-structuralist theories. Scholars like Roland Barthes and Laura Mulvey introduced new
ways of analyzing films through semiotics, psychoanalysis, and feminist theory. Mulvey’s
influential essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (1975) brought attention to the male
gaze and the representation of women in cinema, sparking debates on gender and sexuality in
film.

The late 20th century saw the diversification of film studies, with the emergence of new
approaches such as cultural studies, reception theory, and postcolonial theory. Scholars began to
examine the socio-political contexts in which films were produced and consumed, exploring
issues of race, class, and identity. The advent of digital technology and the internet further
transformed film studies, enabling new forms of film production, distribution, and analysis.

Today, film study encompasses a wide range of topics, from classical Hollywood cinema to
global film traditions, from auteur studies to genre analysis. It draws on interdisciplinary
methods, incorporating insights from literature, sociology, anthropology, and other fields. Film
scholars continue to explore the evolving landscape of cinema, examining its impact on culture
and society while contributing to the ongoing dialogue about the role of film in the modern
world.

FEMINIST FILM STUDIES-HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

Feminist film theory came into being in the early 1970s with the aim of understanding cinema as
a cultural practice that represents and reproduces myths about women and femininity. Theoretical
approaches were developed to critically discuss the sign and image of woman in film as well as
open up issues of female spectatorship. Femi- nist film theory criticized on the one hand classical
cinema for its stereotyped repre- sentation of women, and discussed on the other hand
possibilities for a women’s cinema that allowed for representations of female subjectivity and
female desire. The feminist wave in film studies was prompted by the emergence of women’s
film festivals. Fem- inist film studies in general had a wider, often more sociological approach in
study- ing female audiences and the position of women in the film industry, ranging from
actresses, producers, and technicians to directors.

Not unlike the emergence of feminist theory and criticism in the domains of art and literature, the
women’s movement of the late 1960s and 1970s sparked a focused interrogation of images of
women in film and of women’s participation in film production. The 1970s witnessed the
authorship of massively influential texts by writers such as Claire Johnston, Molly Haskell, and
Laura Mulvey in the United Kingdom and the United States, and psychoanalysis was a reigning
method of inquiry, though Marxism and semiotics also informed the field.Feminist film theory
has provoked debates about the representations of female bodies, sexuality, and femininity on
screen while posing questions concerning identity, desire, and the politics of spectatorship,
among other topics. Crucially, an increasing amount of attention has been paid by theorists to
intersectionality, as scholars investigate the presence and absence of marginalized and oppressed
film subjects and producers.

Early feminist criticism in the 1960s was directed at sexist images of women in classical
Hollywood films. Women were portrayed as passive sex objects or fixed in stereotypes
oscillating between the mother (“Maria”) and the whore (“Eve”). Such endlessly repeated images
of women were considered to be objectionable distortions of reality, which would have a
negative impact on the female spectator. Feminists called for positive images of women in
cinema and a reversal of sexist schemes. With the advent of (post)structuralism, the insight
dawned that positive images of women were not enough to change underlying structures in
cinema. Hollywood cinema with its history of sexualized stereotypes of women and violence
against women demanded a deeper understanding of its pernicious structures. Theoretical
frameworks drawing on critiques of ideology, semiotics, psychoanalysis, and deconstruction
proved more productive in
analyzing the ways in which sexual difference is encoded in the visual and narrative structure of
the film
Feminist film theory drew the insight that Hollywood cinema veils its ideological construction
by hiding its means of production. Cinema film passes off the sign “woman” as natural or
realistic, while it is in fact a structure, code, or convention carrying an ideological meaning. In
patriarchal ideology the image of woman can only signify anything in relation to men. The sign
“woman” is thus negatively represented as “not-man,” which means that the “woman-as-woman”
is absent from the film.
The account of “the male gaze” as a structuring logic in Western visual culture became
controversial in the early 1980s, as it made no room for the female spectator or for a female gaze.
Within the dichotomous categories of psychoanalytic theory it was virtually impossible to
address female spectatorship; the female viewer could only identify with the male gaze.
Hollywood’s women’s movies of the 1970s and 1980s allowed the female char- acter to make the
male character the object of her gaze, but her desire carried no power. Such films involved a
mere reversal of roles in which the underlying structures of dominance and submission are still
intact.