CHAPTER-II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A thorough examination of existing research is crucial for any study. Before

conducting a research project, it is important to understand what has already been
accomplished and how much progress has been made in that particular field. The literature
review plays a significant role in explaining the connection between the current study and the
previous research conducted in that area, while also highlighting its relevance within a
specific timeframe. By conducting a literature review, valuable insights can be gained,
allowing researchers to bridge the gap between what has already been done and what can be
done to address the chosen research problem. For this study, the literature review was divided
into the following categories:

2.1 Socio economic factors effecting Agrochemical usage by farmers.

2.2 Extent of agrochemicals on selected crop.

2.3 Knowledge level of farmers and their attitude towards uses of agrochemicals.

2.1 Socio economic factors effecting Agrochemical usage by farmers.

Jamala et al., (2013) in his study found that the 12.63 per cent respondents were less
than 20 years of age, 13.68 per cent were within the age group of 21 to 30 years, 14.738 perc
cent were 31 to 40 years of age, 16.84 per cent were of 41 to 50 years of age, 21.05 per cent
were ranging between the age of 51-60 years while 21.0 per cent of the respondents were of 60
years and above. It shows that most of the respondents falls within the age of 51 to 60 years.
The gender distribution of the respondents showed that 68.42 per cent of the respondents were
male while 31.78 per cent were female. About 48 per cent of the respondents have 6-10
members of family in a household. Based on the educational qualifications of the respondents,
majority of the respondents (36.84%) had Tertiary level of education while 31.58% had
secondary level of education. Most of the respondents (35.8%) were having farming experience
of over 30 years. According to the farm size, majority of the respondent (52.6%) had less than
2.5 acres (<1ha), 27.4% had between 2.5 acres and 12.5 acres and 20.0% between 15 and 25
acres. Based on sources of purchase of agro-chemicals, the result revealed that the majority of
the respondents (65.3%) got their agro-chemicals from the retail market while 18.9% through
the extension workers and 15.8% through the non-governmental organizations.
 Review of Literature

Bhandari (2014) found that the level of awareness among farmers regarding pesticide
residues is influenced by the qualification and training provided by agricultural extension
personnel. This research was conducted in Rupandehi village, located near the border between
India and Nepal. In this region, respondents have easy access to a substantial quantity of
agrochemicals compared to other areas. Additionally, numerous retail shops near Bhairahawa
facilitate farmers' convenient access to agrochemicals. This accessibility factor has significantly
contributed to farmers' reliance on chemicals instead of organic fertilizers. The study also
revealed that gender has an impact on the awareness of the hazards associated with pesticide
residues in agricultural products. In Nepal, women possess limited knowledge regarding the
risks associated with excessive use of agrochemicals due to their lower educational
qualifications compared to male farmers. In the Rupandehi district, approximately 17 per cent
of male respondents between 25 and 54 years of age demonstrated awareness of food quality
and safety standards.

Hasan et al., (2015) studied that the majority of the respondents were categorized into
the medium age group and had educational qualifications up to the primary level. These
respondents also had small land holdings and maintained moderate levels of extension contacts.
On average, their annual income was approximately 1350 USD. It was found that around 87%
of the farmers possessed low to medium knowledge regarding the use of agrochemicals in rice
crop cultivation. Moreover, nearly 74% of the farmers exhibited a moderately favorable attitude
towards the usage of agrochemicals. The annual income of the family, extension media
contacts, and knowledge on agrochemical usage were identified as the most significant factors
influencing farmers' attitudes towards the use of agrochemicals in crop production.

Babu et al., (2017) emphasized that out of the independent variables such as,
respondent’s qualification, Farming experience, Economic motivation, Innovativeness, Mass
media exposure, Risk orientation and scientific orientation were found to be positively and
significant correlated at 1 per cent level of significance to their awareness level. Age of
respondent’s was found to be negatively and significantly related to their awareness level. Land
holding had a non-significant relationship with farmer’s awareness level. It is recommended
that there is a great need to initiate awareness generating programs by the government. Rise in
social participation, extension contacts-and mass media exposure could be given due
significance by extension agencies to increase the eco-friendly agriculture in future, which is
the need of the new era.

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 Review of Literature

Singh et al., (2019) indicated that that the younger generation of farmers, who often
possess better education, are making informed decisions regarding the use of plant protection
chemicals. They rely on factors such as the brand reputation of the chemicals and learning
through practical experience. This approach enables them to minimize agricultural expenses
while achieving higher gross income and profits from their agricultural activities.

2.2 Extent of use of agrochemicals on selected crops.

Varma (1990) in his study stated that approximately 21% of farmers in Ghaziabad, on
average, utilized insecticides. Around 14% of the participants reported using fungicides, while
none of them had prior experience with weedicides. Factors such as the convenient accessibility
and affordability of control measures, the availability of skilled labor, timely provision of
equipment and financial resources, all influence the adoption of plant protection practices.

Kumar and Dandapani (2000) explored about the frequency, extent and determinants
of pesticide use in rain fed cotton by using farm level cross sectional data from the Nanded
district of Maharashtra. Mean pesticide use in cotton area was around three kg active ingredient/
hectare. Farmers used various cultural and physical methods to reduce the crop losses caused
by the pests and diseases. The farmer’s attitude regarding insect pest, varied and accordingly
the use of pesticides. Risk reluctant farmers used pesticides in excess and indiscriminately.
Findings revealed that by improving existing knowledge of pests and management practices
use of pesticides can be reduced.

Parveen and Nakagoshi (2001) revealed that the Green Revolution was introduced to
Bangladesh in the mid-1960s. This initiative aimed to increase cereal crop yields, particularly
in rice, through the adoption of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of seeds, chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, and irrigation. The introduction of HYVs of rice significantly contributed to the
improvement of food self-sufficiency in Bangladesh. However, it also resulted in increased
environmental degradation due to the excessive use of agrochemicals. Pesticide usage escalated
by 400% per acre, with a corresponding 600% rise in costs over the past few decades. The sales
of pesticides experienced a significant surge between 1985 and 1990. By 2001, a total of 84
pesticides under 242 trade names were registered in Bangladesh, and more than 80% of the total
pesticide usage was concentrated in rice fields. The substantial increase in pesticide usage had
detrimental effects on the environment and human health. Pesticide contamination of ground
and surface water led to the depletion of inland fishing resources and ecosystem. Therefore, the

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study aimed to evaluate farmers' pesticide usage practices and their knowledge and perception
of the environmental impact caused by pesticides in rice cultivation.

Prabuddha (2007) studied the trend of pest infestation on vegetables and the intensity
of the pesticides use by vegetable growers in 18 villages in Katwa-1 block, Bardhaman district,
West Bengal, India. He found that the extent of insect pest infestation on aubergine, pointed
gourd, cabbage highest during the Rabi season, followed by the kharif and pre-kharif seasons
from the last five years. Most of the farmers applied pesticides on aubergine and cabbage, but
the application rates, number of chemical groups of pesticides and application frequency
adopted by the farmers was very high than the recommended. This practice was most followed
for aubergine, followed by cauliflower, cabbage and pointed gourd.

Udaykumar (2008) in his research work has documented the negative consequences of
excessive pesticide use in agriculture, including increased production costs and the harmful
effects associated with pesticide application. The study revealed that nearly half of the farmers
applied pesticides at a rate five times higher than the recommended dosage during the
production cycle of paddy. In some cases, the frequency of pesticide application even reached
seven times. The average quantity of pesticide used was estimated to be 0.97 liters per hectare,
while the farmers were found to be using almost double that amount (1.95 liters/ha), exceeding
the recommended quantity. The study also found a positive and significant correlation between
the frequency of pesticide applications, the area under paddy cultivation, and the expenditure
on plant protection chemicals. It is important to educate farmers about identifying the economic
threshold level for pest infestation and encourage them to adopt safety measures only when
necessary, rather than blindly following the practices of neighboring farmers in spraying plant
protection chemicals.

Sharma and Bala (2011) found that the majority of vegetable growers relied on
agrochemicals to control pests, manage epidemics, and enhance soil fertility and productivity.
However, the researchers observed that farmers felt compelled to use these agrochemicals and
were dissatisfied with the excessive use of pesticides. Respondents expressed concerns that
these agrochemicals had contaminated and poisoned the soil. They also noted a degradation in
the quality and taste of vegetable products. Moreover, the use of pesticides was linked to the
onset of diseases and disorders in plants, animals, and human beings, while also having
detrimental effects on the environment, ecological food chain, soil fertility, and soil micro-

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organisms. Furthermore, these pesticides were found to pollute the air, ground water, and
irrigation water sources.

Kumari and Reddy (2013) in their study uncovered that age did not influence the
knowledge regarding the safe use of pesticides. Farm workers across all age groups
demonstrated approximately 80% knowledge, indicating that they were implementing only half
of the safety measures during pesticide application. The experience of farm workers was
considered as it reflected their level of maturity, efficiency, and proficiency, which contributed
to the quality and precision of their work. The researchers emphasized the significance of farm
workers' experience in using pesticides to assess its impact on their knowledge and practices
concerning the safe use of pesticides.

Asif et al., (2014) discovered that the majority of pesticides used by farmers fell into
class-II, which is classified as hazardous by the World Health Organization. Additionally, one
pesticide classified as highly hazardous (class-Ib) was also found to be used by farmers. The
researchers noted that vegetables crops, such as Okra and tomato, had a significant presence of
insects and pests. Most farmers relied on pesticides from the nicotinoid and organophosphate
groups.

Patil et al., (2014) observed a progressive increase in the application dosage of

insecticides, fungicides, and weedicides in rice production. The dose of insecticides increased
from 5413 ml/g active ingredient per hectare (a.i/ha) to 7338 ml/g a.i/ha, while fungicides
application increased from 805 ml/g a.i/ha to 1283 ml/g a.i/ha. Similarly, the application of
weedicides rose from 4853 ml/g a.i/ha to 7625 ml/g a.i/ha as the nitrogen dosage increased from
level 1 (up to 50% recommended dose of nitrogen) to level 3 (>100% recommended dose of
nitrogen). Additionally, the excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers per acre ranged from 24.61
kg to 79.08 kg, and the application of plant protection chemicals ranged from 1321.37 ml/g a.i
to 2687.65 ml/g a.i from level 1 to 3, respectively, in rice production.

Roy (2016) studied and revealed that respondents used a wide range of pesticides, each
with various trade names and associated with different chemical groups. Many of these
pesticides were classified as highly hazardous according to the World Health Organization.
Additionally, some of the respondents were found to be using carcinogenic chemicals.

Numerous studies examining the usage of agrochemicals by farmers consistently

indicate that many farmers apply pesticides in higher doses than recommended, and a
significant portion of them use pesticides classified as highly hazardous by the World Health

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Organization. These findings further revealed that developing countries account for the largest
volume of pesticide usage.

2.3 Knowledge level of farmers and attitude of farmers towards the uses of agrochemicals.

Ngowi (2003) indicated that a significant number of farmers demonstrated the

importance of reading pesticide labels. Initially, only a small percentage (approximately 2.5
percent) of farmers recognized labels as a valuable source of information. However, farmers
became more aware of the potential harm caused by excessive pesticide application through
firsthand experiences of crop damage or poisoning incidents. On the other hand, the adverse
effects of under-dosing were not as easily noticeable. A high percentage of respondents
acknowledged that insect pests must come into contact with pesticides in order to be effectively
eliminated. This understanding reflects the farmers' recognition of the mechanism by which
pesticides work against pests.

Kumari and Reddy (2013) in their study revealed that age has no effect on having
knowledge about safe use of pesticides. Farm workers belonging to all age groups have nearly
80 per cent knowledge as they were practicing only half of the safety measures while applying
pesticides. The experience of the farmworkers shows their maturity level, functioning and
perfection level which definitely add quality and perfectness in their work. The experience of
the farmworkers in using pesticides had been given due importance to know its endowment to
knowledge and practices of safe use of pesticides.

Gesesew et al (2016) revealed that knowledge of the farmers regarding safe and
appropriate use of pesticides, a significant number of respondents knew pesticides by name.
Ingestion (89%) and Inhalation (90%) were the major observed passages of pesticide
vulnerability. Around 391 farmers, knew about at not less than one of the following pest control
methods: manual removal method, use of bed-net and application of smoke. Most of the
respondents (87%) knew at least not less one health problem on humans due to exposure to
pesticides. Only 6 per cent of the respondents knew potential health problems during pregnancy
due to the pesticide exposure.

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