Lab Manual

First Year Semester-I

Department of Engineering Sciences
Subject: Basic Electrical Engineering

Odd Semester

1
 List of Experiments
Sr. No. Experiments Name

1 To verify mesh and node analysis in DC circuit

To verify superposition theorem in DC circuit

2

To verify Thevenin’s theorem in DC circuit

3

Resonance in series R-L-C circuit

4

Resonance in parallel R-L-C circuit

5

To study relationship between line and phase voltages and currents in three phase star
6 & delta systems

To study load test on single phase transformer

7

To study construction details of DC machine

8

2
 Experiment No. 1
Aim: To verify mesh and node analysis in dc circuits.

Apparatus Required:

Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

No.
1. Resistors 200Ω, 460Ω(2), 100Ω(2)
2. Power Supply 0-15V(2)
3. Ammeter 50mA, 10mA
4. Voltmeter 30V

Theory:

In mesh analysis Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) is applied which is stated as

The algebraic sum of voltages around each loop is zero.
Beginning with one node, add voltages across each branch in the loop (if you
encounter a + sign first) and subtract voltages (if you encounter a – sign first).
Σ voltage drops - Σ voltage rises = 0
Or Σ voltage drops = Σ voltage rises

Following are the steps to apply mesh analysis.

a. Identify the number of meshes in the given circuit.
b. Each mesh is assigned a separate mesh current. Any current direction can be
assumed but it is convenient to consider all the mesh currents in one direction.
c. KVL is applied to write equation for each mesh in terms of unknown mesh
currents.
d. Solving the equations simultaneously the mesh currents can be obtained.
e. Once the mesh currents are known, the branch currents can be easily obtained.

In node analysis Kirchoff’s current law (KCL) is applied which is stated as below.

The algebraic sum of all the currents at a node is zero.

In other words it can be stated as incoming currents at a node is equal to outgoing
currents at that particular node.

Following are the steps to apply node analysis.

a. Identify the number of nodes in the given circuit.

3
 b. Each node is assigned a separate node voltage except the ground node. The
node voltages are measured with respect to ground node.
c. KCL is applied to write equation for each node in terms of unknown node
voltages.
d. Solving the equations simultaneously the node voltages can be obtained.
e. Once the node voltages are known, the branch currents can be easily
obtained.

Circuit Diagram:

For Mesh analysis

200Ω 460Ω 460Ω

I3
I1 I2 I5
I4
V1 V2
100Ω
100Ω

For Node analysis

200Ω 460Ω 460Ω

Va Vb

V1 V2
100Ω
100Ω

Procedure:
For Mesh and Node analysis

1. Make the connection as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set the supply voltages V1 and V2 to 10 volts.
3. Measure the currents through each branch using ammeter. These are the practical
values of branch currents.
4. Now apply mesh analysis technique to the given circuit and find the mesh currents.

4
 5. From the mesh currents find the branch currents. These are the theoretical values of
branch currents.
6. Compare and verify the theoretical and practical values of branch currents.
7. For node analysis measure the node voltages Va and Vb using voltmeter.
8. Apply node analysis technique and find the theoretical values of Va and Vb.
9. Compare and verify the theoretical and practical values of node voltages.

Observation Table:

For Mesh:

Sr. No. Branch currents

Practical value Theoretical value
1 I1=
2 I2=
3 I3=
4 I4=
5 I5=

For Node:

Sr. No. Node voltages

Practical value Theoretical value
1 Va =
2 Vb =

Result and Discussion:

By applying KVL the equations in the form of mesh currents are obtained. By solving
these equations simultaneously the mesh currents are obtained. From the mesh
currents the branch currents are calculated. It is observed that the calculated value of
branch currents is same as experimentally observed value. Hence mesh analysis is
verified.

By applying KCL the equations in the form of node voltages are obtained. By solving
these equations simultaneously the node voltages are obtained. It is observed that the
calculated values of node voltages are same as experimentally observed values. Hence
node analysis is verified.

Precautions:
1. Connections should be proper and tight.
2. Switch on the supply after completing the circuit.
3. Observe the readings very carefully.
4. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps.

5
 Experiment No. 2
Aim: To verify superposition theorem.

Apparatus Required:
Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification
No.
1. Ammeters 0-50mA, 0-10mA, 0-30mA
2. Voltmeter 0-30V
3. Superposition theorem trainer kit

Theory:
Superposition Theorem:
Superposition theorem states that, in a linear network containing more than
one sources, the resultant current in any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents
that would be produced by each source, acting alone, all other sources of emf being
replaced by their respective internal resistances.
This theorem is applicable to linear and bilateral network.

Removing a voltage source and a current source to permit the application of the
superposition theorem.

Circuit Diagram:

220Ω 330Ω

I1 I2
V2
100Ω I3
V1

470Ω 470Ω

6
Procedure:

1. Connect the trainer kit to mains supply and switch it ON.

2. Make V1 supply to 5V and V2 supply to 10V, by connecting on board voltmeter across
it.
3. Connect both the supply to the network and measure the currents through all three
branches as I1, I2, I3.
4. Now replace V2 by short circuit and connect V1 only and measure the current through
all three branches as I1’, I2’, I3’.
5. Now replace V1 by short circuit and connect V2 only and measure the current through
all three branches as I1”, I2”, I3”.
6. Verify the superposition theorem:
I1=I1’+I1”
I2=I2’+I2”
I3=I3’+I3”

Observation Table:

V1 = ------ V2 = -------

V1 Active V2 Active V1 & V2 Active

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated Measured Calculated
I1’ = I1” = I1 =
I2’ = I2” = I2 =
I3’ = I3” = I3 =

Result and Discussion:

The current through each branch while both the sources acting separately as
well as acting simultaneously is measured and also calculated. It is observed that
algebraic sum of currents through each branch is equal to the current through that
branch when both the sources were active. The result is verified practically as well as
by calculations and thus the superposition theorem is verified.

Precautions:
1. Connections should be proper and tight.
2. Switch on the supply after completing the circuit.
3. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps.
4. Observe the readings on ammeter very carefully.

7
 Experiment No. 3
Aim: To verify Thevenin’s theorem.

Apparatus Required:

Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

No.
1. Ammeter 0-50mA
2. Voltmeter 0-30V
3. Thevenin’s theorem trainer kit

Theory:

Thevenin’s Theorem:
Thevenin’s theorem as applied to dc circuits is stated as below.
Any network having terminals a and b can be replaced by a single source of
emf called Thevenin’s voltage, in series with a single resistance called Thevenin’s
resistance.

Thevenin’s voltage (VTh) is the open circuit voltage between the terminals a and b.
Thevenin’s resistance (RTh) is the equivalent resistance between a and b with load removed.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

The load current can then be obtained as:

VTH
IL =
R TH + R L
RL
VL = VTH
R TH + R L

8
Steps to apply Thevenin’s theorem:

▪ Remove the load resistance through which the current is to be found out.
▪ Name the open terminals as a and b.
▪ Find the open circuit voltage between terminals a and b. This is Vth.
▪ Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals a and b by removing
all the sources by their internal resistances. This is Rth.
▪ Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Circuit Diagram:

1KΩ IL

10V 5KΩ 5KΩ

DC

Procedure:

1. Connect the trainer kit to mains supply and switch it ON.

2. Set the input voltage at 10V by connecting voltmeter across it.
3. Make R1=1KΩ, R2=5KΩ and RL=5KΩ by adjusting potentiometers.
4. Connect the voltage source and load resistance to the circuit and measure load
current IL with the ammeter. This is observed value.
5. Now remove load resistance and measure the value of VTH between the open
terminals a and b.
6. Replace voltage source by short circuit and measure equivalent resistance between
a and b with load removed. This is RTH.
7. Find the value of load current using Thevenin’s theorem.
8. Repeat the procedure with another value of load resistance.

9
Observation Table:

Sr. Thevenin’s Thevenin’s Load Load current IL

No Voltage Resistance Resistance
VTH RTH RL IL=VTH/(RTH+RL) Observed IL

Result and Discussion:

The current through load resistance is calculated using Thevenin’s theorem.
It is found same as the observed value of load current in the given circuit. Thus
Thevenin’s theorem is proved.

Precautions:
1. Switch on the supply after completing the circuit.
2. Connections should be proper and tight.
3. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps.
4. Observe the readings on ammeter very carefully.

10
 Experiment No. 4
Aim: To study resonance in series R-L-C circuit.

Apparatus Required:

Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

No.
1. Trainer kit of series resonance circuit
2. Signal generator
3. Cathode ray oscilloscope
4. Patch cords
5. Voltmeter

Theory:
A circuit containing reactive elements (L and C) is resonant when the circuit
power factor is unity. If such condition occurs in a series circuit, it is termed as series
resonance. The study of resonance is very important, particularly in the area of
communication.

Effect of series resonance:

• The net reactance of the circuit is zero. Therefore the impedance of the circuit is
minimum and is equal to resistance of the circuit. (Zr=R Ω)
• The current in the circuit is maximum. (Ir=V/R)
• As the current is at its maximum value, the power absorbed by the circuit will also
be at its maximum value.
• Since at series resonance, the current flowing in the circuit is very large, the
voltage drop across L and C are also very large. However, voltage drop across
L-C combination as a whole will be zero because these drops are equal in
magnitude but 180o out of phase with each other.

Resonance occurs when,

1
wL =
wC

The resonance frequency is given as

1
wo =
LC

11
 Circuit Diagram:

1kΩ 28mH 0.1µF

AC

Variable
frequency A.C.
supply I/P, 1V to
50V

Procedure:
1. Select sine wave of 5V peak to peak from the signal generator and connect it to
input of series R-L-C circuit.
2. Connect a voltmeter across the component L-C.
3. Change the input frequency and note down the corresponding voltage.
4. Plot a graph of voltage Vs. frequency.
5. Calculate the resonant frequency using the formula,

6. Observe the frequency at which voltage across L-C is minimum.

This is resonance frequency.

12
 Observation table:

Sr. No. Frequency Voltage across L-C

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Calculated fr = ______

Observed fr = ______

Result and Discussion:

It is observed that, as the frequency is increased, the voltage across L-C is
decreased. The voltage is minimum at resonant frequency. After that, as the
frequency is increased further the voltage also start increasing. The impedance is
lowest at resonance.
The calculated value of resonance frequency is same as that of measured
value.

Precautions:
1. Connections should be proper and tight.
2. Switch on the supply after completing the circuit.
3. Frequency should be increased slowly in steps.
4. Observe the readings on CRO very carefully.

13
 Experiment No. 5
Aim: To study resonance in parallel R-L-C circuit.

Apparatus Required:

Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

No.
1. Trainer kit of parallel resonance circuit
2. Signal generator
3. Cathode ray oscilloscope
4. Patch cords
5. Voltmeter
Theory:
Like series resonance, a parallel circuit containing reactive elements (L and C) is
resonant when the circuit power factor is unity. It is called a parallel resonance because it
concerns a parallel circuit. The most common parallel resonant circuit is an inductor in
parallel with capacitor.
The supply frequency at which parallel resonance occurs is called as resonance
frequency. It is given as,

Effect of parallel resonance:

• The net impedance of the circuit is very high. It is called as dynamic impedance.
( Zr=L/CR Ω)
• The line current in the circuit is minimum.
• At parallel resonance, the current circulating between the two branches is many
times greater than the line current. The current amplification produced by the
resonance is termed as Q factor of parallel resonant circuit.

14
Circuit Diagram:

15mH

1kΩ

0.1µF

AC

Variable
frequency A.C.
input. 1v to 50v

Procedure:
1. Select sine wave of 6V peak to peak from the signal generator and connect it to
input of parallel resonant circuit.
2. Connect a voltmeter across the parallel L-C circuit.
3. Change the input frequency and note down the corresponding voltages from
voltmeter.
4. Plot a graph of voltage Vs. frequency.
5. Calculate the resonant frequency using the formula,

6. Observe the frequency at which voltage across L-C is maximum. This is

resonance frequency.

Observation table:

Sr. No. Frequency Voltage across L-C

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

15
 14
15

Calculated fr = ______

Observed fr = ______

Result and Discussion:

It is observed that, the voltage across parallel L-C circuit is maximum at
resonance frequency. The impedance is maximum at resonance.
The calculated value of resonance frequency is same as that of measured value.

Precautions:
1. Connections should be proper and tight.
2. Switch on the supply after completing the circuit.
3. Frequency should be increased slowly in steps.
4. Observe the readings on CRO very carefully.

16
 Experiment No. 6
Aim: To study relation between line and phase voltages and currents in three phase star
and delta circuit.

Theory:
In three phase generator there are three identical coils R, Y, B displaced by
120⁰ from each other and rotating in anticlockwise direction with a constant angular
velocity ω rad/sec in a uniform magnetic field. The equation of voltage generated in each
coil is given as below.

The sum of the three voltages at every instant is zero.

The waveforms of three phase voltage circuit are given below.

Phase Sequence: The order in which the voltages in the three phases reach their
maximum value is called as phase sequence.
Phase voltage: The voltage induced in each winding is called phase voltage.
Phase current: The current flowing through each winding is called phase current.
Line voltage: The voltage available between any pair of terminals or lines is called line
voltage.
Line current: The current through each line is called line current.

17
 The three windings are connected in the following two ways.
1. Star or wye connection
2. Delta or mesh connection

1. Star Connection: The circuit diagram for three phase star connected circuit and its
phasor diagram is shown in figure (a).
Here
Line voltages are VL= VRY = VYB = VBR
Phase voltages, Vph= VR = VY = VB
Line current= Phase current, IL= Iph = IR = IY =IB

In balanced three phase star connection following points is noted.

a) Line voltage is equal to root three times phase voltage.
b) Line current is same as phase current.
c) Line voltage leads respective phase voltage by 30⁰.

2. Delta Connection: The circuit diagram for three phase delta connected circuit and its
phasor diagram is shown in figure (b).
Here
Line voltage = Phase voltage, VL= Vph= VRY = VYB = VBR
Line current, IL= IR-IB = IY-IR = IB-IY
Phase currents, Iph= IR = IY =IB,

In balanced three phase delta connection following points is noted.

a) Line current is equal to root three times phase current.
b) Line voltage is same as phase voltage.
c) Line current lags respective phase current by 30⁰.

Circuit Diagram:

Three phase star circuit:

18
Three phase delta circuit:

Result and Discussion:

The three phase star and delta circuits are studied. The relationships
between line and phase voltages and currents are understood,

19
 Experiment No. 7
Aim: To study load test on single phase transformer.

Apparatus Required:

Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

No.
1. Single phase transformer 1kVA
2. A.C. ammeter 0-10A (2)
3. A.C. voltmeter 0-250V (2)
4. Patch cords
5. Variac
6. Load banks with load

Theory:
A transformer is a static device by means of which electric power from one
circuit can be transferred to another circuit without change in frequency. It works on the
principle of Faraday’s law of induction by converting electrical energy from one value to
another. The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits using a
common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer itself.
A transformer operates on the principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in
the form of Mutual induction. Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire
magnetically induces a voltage into another coil located in close proximity to it. A
transformers work in the “magnetic domain”, and transformers get their name from the fact
that they “transform” one voltage or current level into another.
Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and
current levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of Electrical
Power, being transferred from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit. A single phase
voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils of wire, one called the “Primary
Winding” and another called the “Secondary Winding”. The “primary” side of the
transformer as the side that usually takes power and the “secondary” as the side that usually
delivers power. In a single-phase voltage transformer the primary is usually the side with the
higher voltage. These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead
wrapped together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the “core”. This soft
iron core is not solid but made up of individual laminations connected together to help reduce
the core’s losses.
The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are
magnetically linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be transferred
from one coil to the other. The primary winding of a transformer is connected to the input
voltage supply and converts or transforms the electrical power into a magnetic field. While
the job of the secondary winding is to convert this alternating magnetic field into electrical
power producing the required output voltage as shown in diagram.

20
Where:
VP - is the Primary Voltage (V1)
VS - is the Secondary Voltage (V2)
NP - is the Number of Primary Windings (N1)
NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings (N2)
Φ (phi) - is the Flux Linkage

The transformation ratio is given as,

Circuit Diagram:

21
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the figure.
2. Set the autotransformer at its minimum value.
3. Turn ON the A.C. supply. Gradually increase the input voltage and set it to say
200V.
4. Note down the voltage and current readings of both primary and secondary
winding with no load.
5. Now one by one increase the load and note down readings of voltage and
current of both the windings.
6. Calculate transformation ratio and voltage regulation.

Observation table:

Primary side Secondary side Voltage Current Transformation

Sr. No. ratio ratio ratio
V1 volts I1 amps V2 volts I2 amps V1/V2 I2/I1 V2/V1 I1/I2

Result and Discussion:

The working of transformer is understood. The effect of different load
conditions is observed. The transformation ratio and voltage regulation is calculated.

Precautions:
1. Connections should be proper and tight.
2. Switch on the supply after completing the circuit.
3. Voltage should be increased slowly in steps.
4. Observe the readings on voltmeter and ammeter very carefully.

22
 Experiment No.8
Aim: To Study the construction details of DC Machines

Theory:
a. Construction of DC Machine (Generator & Motor)
The dc generators and dc motors have the same general construction. In fact, when the
machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a dc
generator or motor. Any dc generator can be run as a dc motor and vice-versa.

All dc machines have five principal components

• (i) field system

• (ii) armature core
• (iii) armature winding
• (iv) commutator
• (v) brushes

Fig.1 Constructional Details of DC Machine

Field system

The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the
armature rotates.

23
 • It consists of a number of salient poles (of course, even number) bolted to the inside of
circular frame (generally called yoke). The yoke is usually made of solid cast steel
whereas the pole pieces are composed of stacked laminations.
• Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the dc exciting current. The field coils are
connected in such a way that adjacent poles have opposite polarity.

• The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes through the
pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame. Practical d.c. machines have air
gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.
• Since armature and field systems are composed of materials that have high permeability,
most of the m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up flux in the air gap. By reducing the
length of air gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (i.e. number of turns).

Armature core

Fig.2 Armature core

The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles.
• It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked

to form a cylindrical core as shown in Fig.2 The laminations (See Fig.2) are individually
coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each
other.
• The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations
are slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding
and to give shorter air gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature
“teeth”.

24
Armature winding
The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable
manner. This is known as armature winding.

• This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature conductors are
connected in series-parallel; the conductors being connected in series so as to increase
the voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the current.
• The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the conductors
being connected in a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed
loops.
Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated in
the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes.

• The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets
and mounted on the shaft of the machine . The armature conductors are soldered to the
commutator segments in a suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding.
• Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors are connected to the
commutator segments, there are two types of armature winding in a d.c. machine viz.,
• (a) lap winding (b) wave winding.
Brushes
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating commutator
and stationary external load circuit.

Fig.3 Commutator and Brushes

• The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is
adjusted by means of adjustable springs (See Fig).
• If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and
the brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the
commutator may produce sparking.

Result and Discussion:

Different parts of DC Machine and its working is studied.

25