Reproduction in Organisms Notes

REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
Reproduction:
It is defined as a biological process in which an organism gives rise to young ones (offsprings)
similar to itself.
Asexual reproduction:
• Offsprings produced by single parent.

• With or without involvement of gamete formation.
• Komodo dragon reproduces asexually through diploid female gametes
parthenogenetically.
• Offsprings are called clones genetically and morphologically identical to their
parents.
Methods of asexual reproduction:
• Cell division as a method of asexual reproduction as in Protista and Monera.

• Binary fission e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium.
Binary Fission in Paramoecium
Binary Fission in Amoeba
Under unfavourable conditions the Amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia and secretes a three-
layered hard covering or cyst around itself. This phenomenon is termed as encystation.
When favourable conditions return, the encysted Amoeba divides by multiple fission and
produces many minute amoeba or pseudopodiospores; the cyst wall bursts out, and the spores
are liberated in the surrounding medium to grow up into many amoebae. This phenomenon is
known as sporulation. Theses spores can be carried by air also.
In some organisms, if the body breaks into distinct pieces (fragments) each fragment grows
into an adult capable of producing offspring (e.g., Hydra). This is also a mode of asexual
reproduction called fragmentation.
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• Budding: e.g. Yeast.
Budding in Yeast
• Asexual reproductive structures:

o Zoospores: They are formed in zoosporangia. It is covered with a cyst to
overcome unfavourable conditions. On the onset of favourable conditions cyst
ruptures and release the zoospores. Aquatic fungi, Chlamydomonas.
Zoospores in Chlamydomonas
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• Conidia: Conidia are borne exogenously on conidiophore. Conidiophore → Rami
→ Metulae. Conidia are non-motile spores (aplanospores). Penicillium.
Conidia formation in Penicillium
• Bud: Tentacles develop around the hypostome. Fully developed bud gets detached
from the main body. Hydra
• Gemmules: Endogenous budding is present. The cells present inside the gemmule are
central archaeocytes and spongin spicules which are made up calcium carbonate and
silica. Sponges.
• Vegetative propagation units in plant: (Vegetative propagules)

o Runner, rhizome, stolon, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb etc.
Sexual reproduction:
• Involvement of single or two individuals.

• Production of male and female gametes ( haploid)
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• Gametes fused to form a diploid zygote.
• Zygotes developed into new organism.
• The offsprings are not genetically identical to their parents.
Features of sexual reproduction:
• Period between birth and sexual maturity is called juvenile phase. It is known
as vegetative phase in plant.
• Bamboo species flower only once in their life time generally after 50-100 yr.
The plants produce large number of fruits and die.
• Strobilanthus kunthiana (neelakuranji) flowers once in 12 years.
• Plants which flower once in a lifetime are called monocarpic.
• Oestrus cycle: Cyclical changes during reproduction in non-primate
mammal. There is no blood flow. Eg. cows, sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tiger etc.
• Menstrual cycle: Cyclical changes during reproduction in primate mammals
like monkeys, ape, and humans.
• Seasonal breeders: Reproductive cycle takes place in favourable seasons as in
wild animals. Animals like non primates exhibiting oestrous cycle are seasonal
breeders.
• Continuous breeders: Reproductively active throughout their reproductive
phase. Animals like primates exhibiting menstrual cycle are continuous
breeders.
Pre-fertilization events:
• Process of gamete formation is gametogenesis.

• Two gametes are similar in appearance are called homogametes (isogametes).
Common in algae. Eg. Cladophora, Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra
• Gametes produced are of two morphologically distinct types called
heterogametes. Female gamete stores enormous amount of reserve food.
• Male gamete is called antherozoid (in lower plants) or sperm and the female
gamete is called ovum or egg.
Sexuality in organisms:
• Plant having both male and female sex organs are called homothallic or
monoecious. Eg. Riccia
• Plants having only one sex organ is called heterothallic or dioecious. Eg.
Marchantia
• In flowering plants, the unisexual male flower is staminate, i.e. bearing
stamens, while the female is pistillate or bearing pistils. Eg. Date Palm and
Papaya.
• Plants bearing both reproductive organs are called monoecious. Eg. Cucurbits
and Coconuts.
• Animal having one type of reproductive system, called unisexual.
• Animal having both male and female reproductive system, called
hermaphrodite or bisexual. Eg. Sponges, tapeworm, earthworm, leech etc.
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Cell division during gamete formation:
• Gametes in all heterogametic species two types namely male and female.
• Gametes are always haploid irrespective of parent’s ploidy.
• A haploid parent produces gametes by mitotic division.
• Diploid parent produces gametes by meiotic division.
• In diploid organisms specialized cells called meiocytes (gamete mother cell)
undergo meiosis to produce haploid gametes.
Gamete transfer:
• Male and female gamete must be physically brought together to facilitate

fusion called fertilisation.
• In most cases male gametes are motile, female gametes are non-motile.
• In case of few fungi (Phycomycetes) and algae, both male and female
gametes are motile.
• In most cases water is the medium for gamete transfer.
• Male gametes are produced in several thousand times the number of female
gametes produced to compensate the loss during transfer.
Fertilisation:
• Successful transfer and coming together of gametes is the most important

event in the sexual reproduction.
• Fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilisation or syngamy.
• The female gamete undergoes development to form new organism without
fertilisation. This phenomenon is called parthenogenesis.
• Parthenogenesis is observed in rotifers-wheel shaped organisms, honeybees-
only males/drones, some lizards- Gecko, Komodo, Whiptails and birds
(turkey).
• Gametic fusion takes place outside the body i.e. water is called external
fertilisation.
• There must be synchrony of gamete release, large number of gametes released

to enhance the chance of fertilisation.
• It occurs if algae, fishes and amphibians.
• Enable the individual to produce large number of off-springs. Eg. Bony fishes
and Frogs.
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• A major disadvantage is that the off-springs are extremely vulnerable to
predators.
• Fertilisation takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilisation.
• It occurs if fungi, higher animals, bryophytes, pteridophytes gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
Zygote:
• Formation of zygote after fertilization is universal in all sexually reproducing

organisms.
• Zygote is the vital link that ensure continuity of species between organisms of
one generation and the next.
• Zygote is formed usually in water in case of external fertilisation.
• Zygote is formed inside the body of the organism in internal fertilisation.
• Zygote of fungi and algae develops a thick wall that is resistant to
dessication and damage.
• Organism with haplontic life cycle, zygote undergoes meiosis (Zygospore) to
produce haploid spores.
• Organisms exhibiting haplodiplontic life cycle zygote undergoes mitosis to
form sporophyte. Reductional division takes place within the capsule region
to form haploid spores.
Zygospore
Embryogenesis:
• Development of zygote into an embryo is called embryogenesis.

• Zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation.
• Oviparous animal which lays eggs and development takes place inside egg.
• Unfertilised eggs are laid by fishes and amphibians. These are naked eggs
without calcareous shells.
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• Fertilised eggs covered by hard calcareous shell is laid by reptiles and birds.
• Viviparous animal gives birth to the young. The development takes place
inside the body of the female. Because of proper embryonic care and
protection of young ones, their chances of survival are better.
• In plants post fertilization changes are:
o Zygote develops into embryo.
o Ovule develops into seed
o Integuments of the ovule develops into seed coat (outer testa and
inner tegmen).
o Ovary develops into fruit.
o Ovary wall develops into pericarp.
o Sepals, petals, stamens, style and stigma withers.
o Persistent sepals are found in Brinjal, Tomato and Strawberry etc.
• The nature of pericarp plays a crucial role in the dispersal of seeds. If the
pericarp is soft then seed will be hard. If the pericarp is hard then the seed
will be soft.
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REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

• Offsprings produced by single parent.

Methods of asexual reproduction:

• Cell division as a method of asexual reproduction as in Protista and Monera.

Binary Fission in Paramoecium

Binary Fission in Amoeba

• Asexual reproductive structures:

Conidia formation in Penicillium

• Vegetative propagation units in plant: (Vegetative propagules)

• Involvement of single or two individuals.

Features of sexual reproduction:

• Process of gamete formation is gametogenesis.

• Male and female gamete must be physically brought together to facilitate

• Successful transfer and coming together of gametes is the most important

• There must be synchrony of gamete release, large number of gametes released

• Formation of zygote after fertilization is universal in all sexually reproducing

• Development of zygote into an embryo is called embryogenesis.

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