Compiler Design

Unit 1
Compilers:
Translators:
structure of compiler: its different phases
compiler construction tools
Lexical analysis: Role of lexical analyzer
Input Buffering
A simple approach to the design of Lexical Analyzers
Specification and recognition of tokens
Finite automata
From regular expressions to automata, and vice versa
minimizing number of states of DFA
A language for specifying Lexical Analyzers
Design and implementation of lexical analyzer
Unit 2
The role of the parser
Context free grammars
Writing a grammar: Lexical versus Syntactic analysis
Eliminating ambiguity
Elimination of left recursion, Left factoring
Top Down Parsing: Recursive‐ Decent parsing
Non‐recursive Predictive parsing
LL(1) grammars
Bottom Up Parsing: Shift Reduce Parsing
Operator precedence parsing
LR Parsing: SLR, LALR and Canonical LR parser
LR Parsing:
SLR (Simple LR) Parsing:
LALR (Look-Ahead LR) Parsing:
Canonical LR Parsing:
Parser Generators
Unit - 3
Syntax Directed Translation (SDT):

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 Components of Syntax Directed Translation:
Syntax Directed Definitions (SDD):
Features of Syntax Directed Definitions:
Evaluation Orders for Syntax Directed Definitions (SDDs)
Types of Evaluation Orders:
Construction of Syntax Trees
Steps in Constructing Syntax Trees:
Syntax Directed Translation Schemes
Components of Syntax Directed Translation Schemes:
implementation of Syntax Directed Translation (SDT)
Steps in Implementing Syntax Directed Translation:
Intermediate Code Generation
Types of Intermediate Code:
Process of Intermediate Code Generation:
Kinds of intermediate code
Postfix Notation:
Parse Trees and Syntax Trees:
Parse Trees:
Syntax Trees:
Three-Address Code (TAC):
Quadruples:
Definition:
Triples:
Semantic Analysis in Compiler Design
Key Aspects of Semantic Analysis:
Tasks Involved in Semantic Analysis:
Types of Semantic Analysis in Types and Declarations:
1. Type Checking:
2. Declaration Analysis:
3. Type Systems:
4. Type Compatibility and Conversion:
5. Structural and Nominal Typing:
Tasks Involved in Types and Declarations Semantic Analysis:
Translation of Expressions:
1. Parsing and AST Generation:
2. Expression Evaluation:
3. Code Generation:

Compiler Design 2
 Type Checking:
1. Type Inference:
2. Type Compatibility:
3. Error Detection:
Unit-4
Symbol Table:
Contents of a Symbol Table:
Data Structure for Symbol Table: lists, trees, linked lists, hash tables
1. Lists:
2. Trees (Binary Search Trees, Balanced Trees):
3. Linked Lists:
4. Hash Tables:
Selection Criteria for Symbol Table Data Structure:
Error Detection and Recovery
Types of Errors in Compilation:
1. Lexical Errors:
2. Syntactic Errors:
3. Semantic Errors:
Errors Encountered by Each Phase:
1. Lexical Phase:
2. Syntactic Phase:
3. Semantic Phase:
Error Recovery Strategies:
Code Optimization
Principal Sources of Optimizations:
Sources of Optimization Techniques:
Loop Optimization
Common Loop Optimization Techniques:
Importance of Loop Optimization:
Limitations and Considerations:
Basic Blocks:
Flow Graphs:
DAG Representation of Basic Blocks:
Code Generation
Key Issues in Code Generation:
A simple target machine mode, A Simple Code Generator
Simple Target Machine Model:

Compiler Design 3
 Simple Code Generator:
Peep‐hole optimization
Register allocation and assignment
Register Allocation:
Register Assignment:

Unit 1
Compilers:
A compiler is a type of translator that translates high-level programming code written
in languages like C, C++, Java, or Python into low-level machine code. The primary
purpose of a compiler is to convert source code into an executable program. Here's
how it works:

1. Scanning or Lexical Analysis: The first phase of the compiler, known as

lexical analysis, involves breaking the source code into individual tokens (e.g.,
keywords, identifiers, operators, and constants).

2. Parsing or Syntax Analysis: In this phase, the compiler checks the syntax of
the code, ensuring it adheres to the language's grammar rules. It builds a parse
tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST) to represent the program's structure.

3. Semantic Analysis: The compiler performs a deeper analysis to check for

semantic errors, like type mismatches or undeclared variables. It also resolves
variables and expressions.

4. Intermediate Code Generation: Some compilers generate an intermediate

representation of the code, which can be a lower-level language or an
intermediate language like Three-Address Code. This step simplifies
subsequent optimization and code generation.

5. Optimization: Compilers often apply various optimizations to the intermediate

code to improve the efficiency of the generated machine code. Common
optimizations include constant folding, loop unrolling, and dead code
elimination.

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 6. Code Generation: The final phase is code generation, where the compiler
generates machine code (assembly or binary) that can be executed on a
specific architecture.

Translators:
A translator is a broader category that includes various tools for converting one
language into another. Compilers are a subset of translators. The main types of
translators include:

1. Compiler: As described above, compilers translate high-level programming

languages into machine code.

2. Assembler: An assembler translates assembly language code into machine

code. Assembly language is a low-level human-readable representation of
machine code.

3. Interpreter: An interpreter translates and executes high-level code line by line

without generating an intermediate machine code. Python and JavaScript are
examples of languages often interpreted.

4. Preprocessor: A preprocessor translates or manipulates source code before

it's processed by a compiler. In C and C++, the preprocessor handles tasks like
including header files or defining macros.

5. Linker: A linker combines multiple object files or libraries into a single

executable program. It resolves external references and sets up the program's
memory layout.

6. Loader: A loader loads executable programs into memory for execution.

Each type of translator has its own role in the software development process, with
compilers being particularly crucial for turning high-level code into machine code.

If you have any specific questions or need further clarification on any aspect of
compilers and translators, please feel free to ask.

Compiler Design 5
 Translators are essential components in the field of computer science and software
development for various reasons. Here are some of the key needs for translators:

1. Language Translation: Translators are used to convert code written in one

programming language (source language) into another language, often
machine code or an intermediate representation. This allows programmers to
write code in a language they are comfortable with and have the compiler or
interpreter translate it into a form that can be executed by the computer.

2. Platform Independence: Translators enable platform independence.

Programmers can write code in a high-level language once and use different
compilers or interpreters to run it on various hardware and operating systems.
This makes software development more versatile and cost-effective.

3. Abstraction: High-level programming languages provide a level of abstraction

that simplifies code development. Translators abstract the complexities of the
underlying hardware and system-specific details, allowing programmers to
focus on solving problems and writing efficient code without needing to
understand the intricacies of different hardware architectures.

4. Optimization: Compilers, in particular, perform code optimization to enhance

the efficiency of the resulting machine code. This includes optimizing loops,
reducing memory usage, and minimizing execution time, which can significantly
improve program performance.

5. Error Checking: Translators perform various types of error checking, including

syntax and semantic analysis. This helps catch and report errors in the code
before execution, which can save a lot of time and effort in debugging.

6. Interoperability: Translators enable the integration of code written in different

programming languages. For example, you can call functions or methods
written in one language from another language (e.g., calling C code from
Python) through language bindings or interface definitions.

7. Security: By translating high-level code into machine code, translators can add
a layer of security to the program. Machine code is less human-readable and
harder to tamper with, making it more difficult for malicious actors to exploit
vulnerabilities.

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 8. Portability: Translators help achieve code portability, meaning that programs
can be moved from one platform to another with minimal effort. This is
particularly important for software developers who want to make their programs
accessible to a wide range of users and environments.

9. Code Reusability: Translators allow for the reuse of libraries and code
components written by others. For example, you can use libraries in different
programming languages within your codebase.

10. Rapid Development: Interpreters, in particular, provide a quick way to develop

and test code incrementally. Programmers can make changes and immediately
see the results without the need for recompilation.

In summary, translators play a vital role in software development by making it more

accessible, efficient, and secure. They enable developers to write code in high-level
languages, abstracting away low-level details, and ensuring that the resulting
programs are portable, reliable, and optimized.

structure of compiler: its different phases

A compiler typically consists of several phases or stages, each responsible for a
specific aspect of translating high-level source code into low-level machine code.
The structure of a compiler can be divided into the following phases:

1. Lexical Analysis (Scanning):

The first phase is lexical analysis, where the source code is analyzed to
break it down into individual tokens (such as keywords, identifiers,
operators, and literals).

The output of this phase is a stream of tokens that represent the basic
building blocks of the program.

2. Syntax Analysis (Parsing):

In this phase, the compiler checks the syntax of the source code to ensure
it follows the language's grammar rules.

It constructs a parse tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST) that represents

the hierarchical structure of the code.

Compiler Design 7
 The parse tree or AST provides a structural representation of the program.

3. Semantic Analysis:

Semantic analysis focuses on checking the meaning and semantics of the

code.

It involves verifying type compatibility, scoping rules, and resolving

references to variables and functions.

Semantic analysis ensures that the code is not only syntactically correct but
also semantically meaningful.

4. Intermediate Code Generation:

Some compilers generate an intermediate representation of the code before

proceeding to the target code generation. This intermediate code simplifies
optimization and code generation.

Intermediate code could be in the form of Three-Address Code (TAC) or

another intermediate language that abstracts the source code.

5. Optimization:

Optimization is an optional phase where the compiler improves the

efficiency of the code. It can include various optimizations like constant
folding, loop unrolling, and dead code elimination.

The goal is to make the generated code faster and more space-efficient.

6. Code Generation:

In this phase, the compiler translates the intermediate code or AST into low-
level code that can be executed on a specific target architecture (e.g.,
assembly language or machine code).

The output of this phase is the actual executable program.

7. Symbol Table Management:

Throughout the compilation process, the compiler maintains a symbol table

to keep track of all identifiers (variables, functions, etc.).

Compiler Design 8
 The symbol table helps in scope resolution, type checking, and generating
the correct machine code.

8. Error Handling:

Error handling is an ongoing process throughout the compiler. The compiler

identifies and reports errors during parsing, semantic analysis, and other
phases.

Proper error messages and diagnostics are essential for debugging and
improving code quality.

9. Linking (For Multi-File Programs):

In cases where the program is composed of multiple source files, the

compiler may also include a linking phase. Linking combines different object
files, libraries, or modules into a single executable program.

The structure of a compiler can vary slightly depending on the specific compiler
design and language it targets. Additionally, some modern compilers may combine
or rearrange certain phases for optimization and performance reasons.
Nonetheless, these fundamental phases provide a clear overview of the compilation
process from source code to executable program.

compiler construction tools

Compiler construction is a complex task, and to make it more manageable, there
are several tools and frameworks available to aid in the development of compilers.
These tools simplify the process of creating lexical analyzers, parsers, and code
generators, among other components. Here are some of the commonly used
compiler construction tools:

1. Lexical Analyzer Generator (Lex):

Lex is a tool for generating lexical analyzers (scanners) for compilers. It

takes a specification file containing regular expressions and corresponding
actions and generates code that can recognize and process tokens in the
source code.

2. Yacc (Yet Another Compiler Compiler):

Compiler Design 9
 Yacc is a tool for generating parsers. It takes a grammar specification file
and generates code for syntax analysis, typically in the form of a parser that
constructs a parse tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST).

3. Flex and Bison:

Flex is a lexical analyzer generator that is often used in combination with

Bison, a Yacc-compatible parser generator. Together, they can be used to
create both a lexer and parser for a compiler.

4. ANTLR (ANother Tool for Language Recognition):

ANTLR is a powerful and widely used tool for generating parsers and
lexers. It supports various target languages, including Java, C#, Python,
and others. ANTLR works with context-free grammars and generates
parsers that can build parse trees.

5. JavaCC (Java Compiler Compiler):

JavaCC is a parser generator specifically designed for Java. It allows you to

define your language grammar and generates Java code for parsing and
processing that language.

6. LALR (Look-Ahead Left-to-Right Rightmost Derivation) Parser

Generators:

LALR parser generators like Bison and byacc (Bison for Unix) are popular
for their efficiency in generating parsers for many programming languages.
They work well for context-free grammars.

7. LL (Left-to-Right, Leftmost Derivation) Parser Generators:

Tools like ANTLR and JavaCC are examples of LL parser generators. They
are suitable for creating parsers for languages with LL grammars.

8. Code Generation Tools:

For generating machine code or assembly code, compiler developers often

use tools specific to the target architecture. These tools might include
assemblers, linkers, and loaders.

9. Integrated Development Environments (IDEs):

Compiler Design 10
 Some IDEs provide built-in support for compiler construction. For example,
Eclipse and NetBeans have plugins and features that make it easier to
develop custom languages and compilers.

10. Compiler Construction Frameworks:

There are compiler construction frameworks that offer a more

comprehensive approach to building compilers. Examples include LLVM
and GCC. These frameworks provide a range of tools and libraries for
various compiler components, including code generation and optimization.

11. Lexer and Parser Generators in Programming Languages:

Some programming languages come with built-in tools for generating lexers
and parsers. For instance, Python has the ply library (Python Lex-Yacc),
which is often used for creating compilers.

These tools can significantly expedite the process of building a compiler, making it
more efficient and less error-prone. The choice of tool depends on various factors,
including the target language, the complexity of the grammar, and the desired
output format (e.g., AST or machine code). Compiler developers often select the
tool that best aligns with their project's requirements and their familiarity with the
tool itself.

Lexical analysis: Role of lexical analyzer

Lexical analysis, also known as scanning, is the first phase of a compiler. Its primary
role is to read the source code and break it down into a sequence of tokens. The
lexical analyzer plays a crucial role in the compilation process, and here's what it
does:

1. Tokenization: The primary task of the lexical analyzer is to identify and group
characters from the source code into meaningful tokens. Tokens are the basic
building blocks of a program and include keywords, identifiers, constants,
operators, and symbols. For example, in the statement int x = 5; , the lexical
analyzer would recognize the tokens int , x , = , and 5 .

Compiler Design 11
 2. Skipping Whitespace and Comments: The lexical analyzer removes
extraneous elements such as spaces, tabs, and comments from the source
code. These are not typically relevant to the structure of the program and are
discarded to simplify further analysis.

3. Error Detection: The lexical analyzer can identify and report lexical errors,
such as misspelled or undefined tokens. This initial error checking can save
time in later phases of the compilation process.

4. Building a Symbol Table: In some compilers, the lexical analyzer may start
building a symbol table, a data structure used to keep track of all the identifiers
(variables, functions, etc.) in the program. It records the names, types, and
positions of these identifiers for later reference.

5. Line Number Tracking: The lexical analyzer often keeps track of line numbers
and column positions within the source code. This information can be helpful for
producing meaningful error messages and for debugging.

6. Generating Output: After identifying and categorizing tokens, the lexical

analyzer generates output in the form of a stream of tokens or a sequence of
(token, attribute) pairs. This output is usually passed on to the next phase of the
compiler, which is the syntax analyzer (parser).

The output of the lexical analysis is used as input for the subsequent phases of the
compiler, particularly the parser. The parser then constructs a hierarchical
representation of the program's structure, often in the form of a parse tree or an
abstract syntax tree (AST).
In summary, the lexical analyzer is responsible for scanning the source code,
breaking it into tokens, and performing basic error checking. Its role is critical in
making the source code more manageable for subsequent phases of the compiler,
which involve parsing, semantic analysis, and ultimately code generation.

Input Buffering
Input buffering is a crucial concept in the context of lexical analysis and parsing
within a compiler. It refers to the practice of reading and processing the source code

Compiler Design 12
 text in chunks or buffers rather than character by character. Input buffering is used
to improve the efficiency of the lexical analysis phase and other phases of
compilation. Here's why input buffering is important:

1. Efficiency: Reading and processing a file character by character can be slow

and inefficient. Input buffering involves reading a portion of the source code into
a buffer (a temporary storage area) and then processing that buffer. This
reduces the number of file read operations, making the compilation process
faster.

2. Reduced I/O Overhead: File input and output (I/O) operations are relatively
slow compared to in-memory processing. By buffering the input, the compiler
minimizes the number of disk or file system reads, which can be a bottleneck in
the compilation process.

3. Character Set Encoding: Modern programming languages often support a

variety of character encodings (e.g., ASCII, UTF-8, UTF-16). Input buffering
allows the compiler to read and decode a block of characters, making it easier
to handle different character sets and encoding schemes.

4. Lookahead: In some cases, the lexical analyzer or parser needs to look ahead
at the upcoming characters in the source code to determine the correct token.
Input buffering allows the compiler to read a few characters ahead and make
tokenization decisions based on the buffered data.

5. Parsing Simplicity: During parsing, syntax analysis often involves examining

several characters at a time to recognize keywords or operators. Input buffering
simplifies this process, as the parser can work with a buffer of characters rather
than individual characters.

6. Error Reporting: When a lexical or syntax error is encountered, the context

provided by input buffering can help generate more informative error messages.
The compiler can show the portion of the source code containing the error and
highlight the specific characters involved.

7. Efficient Memory Usage: Buffering allows for efficient use of memory. Instead
of loading the entire source code into memory, which may not be feasible for

Compiler Design 13
 very large files, the compiler can load smaller portions as needed, keeping
memory usage manageable.

In practice, input buffering can involve reading a fixed-size chunk of the source code
at a time or dynamically adjusting the buffer size based on the needs of the
compiler. The size of the buffer is chosen to strike a balance between minimizing
I/O operations and efficiently utilizing memory.
Input buffering is an essential technique in compiler construction, contributing to the
overall performance and robustness of the compilation process. It is used not only
in lexical analysis but also in parsing and other phases of a compiler where efficient
processing of the source code is critical.

A simple approach to the design of Lexical

Analyzers
Designing a simple lexical analyzer involves breaking down the task of recognizing
and tokenizing the source code into a set of discrete steps. Here is a step-by-step
approach to design a straightforward lexical analyzer:

1. Define Token Types:

Start by defining the token types that your lexical analyzer will recognize.
These include keywords, identifiers, constants (integers, floats, strings),
operators, delimiters, and comments. Create a list of these token types.

2. Create Regular Expressions:

Write regular expressions for each token type to describe their patterns.
Regular expressions are used to match and extract substrings that
correspond to tokens. For example:

Identifier: [a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]*

Integer Constant: [0-9]+

Keyword: if|else|while|...

3. Tokenize the Input:

Compiler Design 14
 Read the source code character by character, and use the regular
expressions to match the patterns of token types. As you find matches,
extract the substrings and create tokens with a token type and attribute (the
matched substring).

4. Handle Whitespace and Comments:

Ignore whitespace characters (e.g., spaces, tabs, line breaks) and

comments during tokenization. You can skip these characters to simplify
token extraction.

5. Error Handling:

Implement error handling to deal with unexpected characters or invalid

token patterns. You might want to report a syntax error or an unrecognized
token when such issues occur.

6. Build a Symbol Table (Optional):

If your language supports variables, functions, or other named entities, you

can build a symbol table to keep track of these identifiers. Include each
identifier's name, type, and other relevant information.

7. Output Tokens:

As you tokenize the input, produce tokens by recording the token type and
attribute (if applicable). These tokens can be stored in memory or written to
a file for further processing by the parser.

8. Provide a User Interface (Optional):

If you want to interactively test your lexical analyzer, create a simple user
interface that accepts input code, runs the lexical analysis, and displays the
resulting tokens.

9. Testing and Debugging:

Test your lexical analyzer with various code snippets, including valid and
invalid constructs. Pay special attention to corner cases and edge cases to
ensure accurate tokenization.

10. Integration with Parser:

Compiler Design 15
 The output of the lexical analyzer (the stream of tokens) will be used as
input for the parser in the subsequent phases of the compiler. Ensure that
the format of tokens produced by the lexical analyzer is compatible with
what the parser expects.

11. Documentation:

Document your lexical analyzer, including the token types, regular

expressions, and any special handling you have implemented. Provide
clear instructions for usage and testing.

Remember that this is a simple approach to designing a lexical analyzer. In practice,

for complex programming languages, you may encounter additional challenges,
such as handling nested comments or managing reserved words. More advanced
lexical analyzers often use tools like Lex or Flex to generate code from regular
expressions and automate much of the tokenization process. However, this step-by-
step approach provides a solid foundation for understanding the basic principles of
lexical analysis.

Specification and recognition of tokens

Specification and recognition of tokens are fundamental aspects of lexical analysis
in a compiler. In this process, you define the rules (specifications) for recognizing
various tokens in the source code, and then the lexical analyzer (also known as a
scanner) identifies and extracts these tokens according to those rules. Here's how
you can specify and recognize tokens:
1. Specification of Tokens:
Token specification involves defining the patterns for different token types using
regular expressions or similar notations. Each token type corresponds to a
particular lexical construct in the programming language. Here are some common
token types and their specifications:

Identifiers: Typically defined by regular expressions that specify valid

characters, e.g., [a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]* . This pattern states that an identifier
starts with a letter or underscore, followed by zero or more letters, digits, or
underscores.

Compiler Design 16
 Keywords: Keywords are specific words reserved by the language. For
example, in C, keywords include "if," "while," and "return."

Constants:

Integers: Described using patterns like [0-9]+ for positive integers or ?[0-

9]+ for integers with an optional negative sign.

Floating-Point Numbers: Patterns for floating-point numbers might include

[-+]?[0-9]*\\.[0-9]+ for numbers with a decimal point.

Strings: Patterns for strings in many languages involve recognizing text

enclosed in double quotes, e.g., "([^"\\\\]|\\\\.)*" to handle escape
characters.

Operators: Operators are usually single characters or symbol sequences, such

as "+," "++," "&&," and ">>."

Delimiters: Delimiters include characters like parentheses, braces, brackets,

and commas.

Comments: Comments can be specified using regular expressions that match

the comment style used in the language (e.g., // for single-line comments, /*

... */ for block comments).

2. Recognition of Tokens:
Recognition of tokens involves the actual process of identifying and extracting
tokens from the source code based on the specifications. Here's how it works:

The lexical analyzer reads the source code character by character, often using
a buffer to improve efficiency.

It maintains the current state or position within the input.

For each character read, it applies the defined regular expressions for each
token type to check if the character(s) match the token's pattern.

When a match is found, the lexical analyzer records the matched substring as a
token and assigns it the appropriate token type. It may also capture additional
attributes, such as the value of a constant or the name of an identifier.

Compiler Design 17
 If the current input does not match any defined token patterns, the lexical
analyzer reports an error or handles the situation according to its error-handling
rules.

The extracted tokens, along with their types and attributes, are passed on to the
subsequent phases of the compiler for further processing (e.g., parsing).

In practice, lexical analyzers are often implemented using lexical analyzer

generators like Lex, Flex, or manually written code based on the specifications of
the language's tokens. These tools generate efficient and optimized code for token
recognition, making the process more reliable and maintainable.
By specifying and recognizing tokens accurately, the lexical analyzer simplifies the
task of parsing and understanding the structure of the source code, which is crucial
for the subsequent phases of the compilation process.

Finite automata
A finite automaton, often referred to as a finite automata (plural) or finite state
machine (FSM), is a mathematical model used in computer science and formal
language theory to describe processes with a finite number of states and transitions
between those states. Finite automata are fundamental tools for various
applications, including lexical analysis in compiler design, modeling state-based
systems, and pattern recognition. There are two main types of finite automata:
deterministic and non-deterministic.
Here are the key components and concepts related to finite automata:

1. States: A finite automaton has a finite set of states. Each state represents a
particular condition or configuration of the system.

2. Transitions: Transitions describe the way the automaton moves from one state
to another based on input. For each state and input symbol, there is a defined
transition that specifies the next state.

3. Alphabet: The alphabet is the set of input symbols that the automaton
recognizes. It defines the language over which the automaton operates.

Compiler Design 18
 4. Start State: The start state is the initial state where the automaton begins its
operation when given input.

5. Accepting (or Final) States: Some states are designated as accepting or final
states. When the automaton reaches an accepting state after processing the
input, it recognizes the input as part of the language and can accept it.

6. Transitions Function (or Transition Table): The transitions function defines

the behavior of the automaton. It is a mapping that takes a current state and an
input symbol and returns the next state. For deterministic finite automata (DFA),
the transitions function is often represented as a transition table.

7. Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA): In a DFA, for each state and input
symbol, there is exactly one possible transition. DFAs are deterministic in that
they can uniquely determine the next state given a specific input.

8. Non-deterministic Finite Automaton (NFA): In an NFA, there can be multiple

possible transitions from a state with the same input symbol, and the automaton
can have multiple states as possible next states. NFAs are non-deterministic
because they allow choices in state transitions.

9. Recognition of Strings: Finite automata are often used to recognize strings as

part of a language. An automaton processes an input string by transitioning
between states according to the input symbols. If it reaches an accepting state
at the end of the input, it recognizes the string as part of the language.

10. Regular Languages: Finite automata are closely associated with regular
languages, which are a class of languages described by regular expressions.
Regular languages can be recognized by finite automata, both DFAs and NFAs.

11. Applications: Finite automata have various applications, including lexical

analysis in compilers, parsing, text pattern recognition, and modeling finite-state
systems in hardware design and natural language processing.

Finite automata serve as the foundation for understanding the concept of

computation and play a significant role in the theoretical and practical aspects of
computer science. They provide a structured way to analyze and process
sequences of symbols, which is critical in various fields of computing and
engineering.

Compiler Design 19
 From regular expressions to automata, and vice
versa
The relationship between regular expressions and automata is fundamental in
formal language theory and computational theory. Regular expressions are used to
describe patterns of strings, while automata are used to recognize and generate
these patterns. There is a close connection between the two, and you can convert
between them. Here's how:
From Regular Expressions to Automata:

1. Thompson's Construction (Regular Expression to NFA):

You can convert a regular expression to a Non-Deterministic Finite

Automaton (NFA) using Thompson's Construction algorithm. This process
involves building an NFA by recursively creating smaller NFAs for each
subexpression in the regular expression. The final NFA represents the
language described by the regular expression.

2. Subset Construction (NFA to DFA):

If you have an NFA, you can convert it into a Deterministic Finite Automaton
(DFA) using the subset construction algorithm. This is done to simplify the
automaton and make it more efficient for language recognition. The
resulting DFA recognizes the same language as the original NFA.

From Automata to Regular Expressions:

1. State Elimination (DFA to Regular Expression):

Given a DFA, you can eliminate states to obtain a regular expression that
describes the same language. This process involves removing states one
by one, updating the transitions accordingly, and eventually deriving a
regular expression that represents the language.

2. Arden's Lemma (NFA to Regular Expression):

Compiler Design 20
 For an NFA, you can use Arden's lemma to derive a regular expression that
describes the same language. Arden's lemma is a mathematical approach
that allows you to express the language accepted by the NFA as a regular
expression.

Here's a simplified example to illustrate these conversions:

Example: Conversion from Regular Expression to NFA
Regular Expression: (a|b)*abb

1. Thompson's Construction:

Create NFAs for subexpressions: (a|b)*, a, b, b.

Concatenate and merge these NFAs, ensuring the right transitions between
them.

The result is an NFA that recognizes the language described by the regular
expression.

Example: Conversion from NFA to DFA

Given an NFA, you can use the subset construction algorithm to convert it into a
DFA.
Example: Conversion from DFA to Regular Expression
Starting with a DFA, you can eliminate states to obtain a regular expression that
describes the same language.
Example: Conversion from NFA to Regular Expression using Arden's Lemma
Given an NFA, you can use Arden's lemma to derive a regular expression that
represents the same language.
These conversions are critical in the theory of computation, as they demonstrate the
equivalence between regular expressions and automata. They are used in various
areas, such as lexical analysis in compilers, pattern matching in text processing,
and the design of regular expression engines in programming languages and tools.

Compiler Design 21
 minimizing number of states of DFA
Minimizing the number of states of a Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA) is an
important optimization step in the design of finite automata. Minimized DFAs are
simpler, more efficient, and easier to work with. The process of minimizing a DFA
involves merging equivalent states to reduce the overall state count while
preserving the language it recognizes. Here's how you can minimize a DFA:
State Equivalence:
States in a DFA are considered equivalent if they recognize the same set of strings.
If two states are equivalent, they can be merged into a single state without changing
the language recognized by the automaton.
Steps to Minimize a DFA:

1. Identify Equivalent States:

To begin the minimization process, you need to identify equivalent states.

This is typically done through a process known as partition refinement.
Initially, all states are placed in distinct equivalence classes. Then, you
repeatedly refine the partition by comparing states in different equivalence
classes based on their transitions for each input symbol. States that lead to
the same equivalence class are considered equivalent.

2. Partition Refinement:

Start with an initial partition of states into two equivalence classes:

accepting states and non-accepting states. Then, refine this partition by
comparing transitions for each input symbol. Continue this process until no
further refinement is possible. The resulting partition represents the
equivalence classes of states.

3. Merge Equivalent States:

After you have identified the equivalence classes, you can merge states
within the same class. Each equivalence class becomes a single state in
the minimized DFA.

4. Update Transitions:

Compiler Design 22
 Update the transitions of the minimized DFA based on the merged states.
When two or more states are merged into one, the transitions leading to
those states are updated to point to the newly created state.

5. Reassign State Labels:

The state labels of the merged states may need to be reassigned to the
newly created states.

6. Remove Unreachable States:

After minimizing the DFA, you might have unreachable states due to the
merging process. Remove any such states, as they are not needed.

7. Final DFA:

The resulting DFA is minimized and represents the same language as the
original DFA.

Minimizing a DFA can significantly reduce the number of states, which leads to
more efficient state transitions, smaller memory requirements, and faster
processing. Minimization is an essential step in the construction of DFAs,
particularly when they are used for lexical analysis in compilers or for pattern
matching in various applications.
Keep in mind that there are well-defined algorithms and mathematical approaches
for DFA minimization, and many computer science textbooks and tools provide
algorithms and software implementations to automate this process.

A language for specifying Lexical Analyzers

A language for specifying lexical analyzers, also known as a lexical specification
language, is a tool used to define the patterns and rules for recognizing tokens in a
programming language or any text-based input. Lexical specification languages are
used in compiler construction to create the lexical analyzer component, which is
responsible for tokenization of source code. Lexical specification languages often
provide a convenient way to define regular expressions and associated actions for
each token type.

Compiler Design 23
 One of the most well-known and widely used lexical specification languages is Lex.
Lex, along with its more recent counterparts like Flex, provides a high-level,
declarative way to specify the rules for recognizing tokens in a source code file.
Here's an overview of how a Lexical Specification language like Lex works:

1. Token Definitions: Lexical specification languages allow you to define token

types and their corresponding patterns. For example, you can define keywords,
identifiers, integers, and symbols.

2. Regular Expressions: Lexical specification languages use regular expressions

to describe the patterns of tokens. Regular expressions define the sequence of
characters that match a token type. For example, a regular expression for an
integer token might be [0-9]+ , indicating one or more digits.

3. Action Code: In addition to specifying patterns, you can also define action
code associated with each token type. This code is executed when a matching
pattern is found. It typically involves some processing, like updating the symbol
table, handling constants, or performing other token-specific actions.

4. Pattern Matching: The lexical analyzer generated from the lexical specification
language processes the source code character by character. It matches the
input against the defined regular expressions and, when a match is found,
executes the associated action code.

5. Error Handling: Lexical specification languages often provide mechanisms for

handling and reporting lexical errors, such as when an input sequence does not
match any defined token pattern.

6. Generated Code: The lexical specification language generates code for the
lexical analyzer. For example, Lex generates C code. The generated code
reads the input and applies the regular expressions and associated actions to
tokenize the source code.

7. Integration: The generated lexical analyzer is typically integrated into the larger
compiler or program that needs to perform lexical analysis.

In addition to Lex and Flex, there are other lexical specification languages and tools
that serve similar purposes, such as JFlex for Java, ANTLR for specifying parsers
and lexers, and more.

Compiler Design 24
 By using a lexical specification language, compiler developers can conveniently and
concisely define the lexical rules for a programming language. This makes it easier
to create and maintain lexical analyzers and ensures that the recognition of tokens
is consistent and accurate.

Design and implementation of lexical analyzer

Designing and implementing a lexical analyzer is a crucial step in the construction
of a compiler or interpreter. The lexical analyzer is responsible for breaking down
the source code into meaningful tokens. Here's a step-by-step guide to designing
and implementing a simple lexical analyzer in Python. This example will use Python
as both the implementation language and the target language.
Design:

1. Token Specification: Define the token types and their corresponding regular
expressions. For this example, we'll consider identifiers, keywords, integer
literals, and some basic symbols.

2. Regular Expressions: Write regular expressions for each token type, following
the specification. For example:

Identifier: [a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]*

Integer Literal: [0-9]+

Keywords: if|else|while|for

3. Token Definitions: Create a list of token types and their corresponding regular
expressions. Each token definition should include the token type, the regular
expression, and an optional action to perform when a token is recognized.

Implementation:

import re

# Define token types

TOKENS = [

Compiler Design 25
 ("ID", r"[a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]*"),
("INTEGER", r"\\d+"),
("KEYWORD", r"if|else|while|for"),
("SYMBOL", r"[\\(\\){};]")
]

# Tokenize input code

def tokenize(input_code):
tokens = []
while input_code:
for token_type, pattern in TOKENS:
match = re.match(pattern, input_code)
if match:
value = match.group(0)
if token_type != "WHITESPACE":
tokens.append((token_type, value))
input_code = input_code[len(value):]
break
else:
raise Exception("Invalid input: " + input_code)
return tokens

# Example usage
if __name__ == "__main__":
input_code = "if x < 10 { return 2; } else { return 1; }"
tokens = tokenize(input_code)
for token in tokens:
print(token)

In this implementation:

TOKENS defines a list of token types with their regular expressions.

The tokenize function reads the input code character by character, attempts to
match each token type's regular expression, and adds recognized tokens to the

Compiler Design 26
 tokens list.

The example usage section shows how to tokenize a simple input string and
print the resulting tokens.

This is a basic example of a lexical analyzer. For more advanced implementations

used in production compilers, tools like Lex or Flex are often employed, which
generate lexical analyzers automatically from a formal specification. Additionally,
error handling and the handling of more complex language features like string
literals, floating-point numbers, and comments would be added in a real-world
implementation.

You can use the lex and yacc tools on Linux to create a simple lexical analyzer
and parser. Here's how you can create a simple lexical analyzer for a basic
programming language using Lex on the Linux command line:

1. Create a Lexical Specification File:

Create a file, let's call it lexer.l , and add your token definitions and regular
expressions in it. For example:

%{
#include <stdio.h>
%}

%% // Rules section
[a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]* { printf("ID(%s)\\n", yytext); }
[0-9]+ { printf("INTEGER(%s)\\n", yytex
if|else|while|for { printf("KEYWORD(%s)\\n", yytex
[\\(\\)\\{\\};] { printf("SYMBOL(%s)\\n", yy
[ \\t\\n] ; // Skip whitespace
. { printf("INVALID(%s)\\n", yytex

%%
int main(int argc, char* argv[]) {
yyin = stdin; // Set input to standard input

Compiler Design 27
 yylex(); // Start the lexer
return 0;
}

2. Compile the Lex File:

Use the lex command to compile your Lex specification into a C program:

lex lexer.l

This will generate a file called lex.yy.c .

3. Compile the C Program:

Compile the generated C program using your C compiler (e.g., gcc ):

gcc -o lexer lex.yy.c -ll

4. Run the Lexer:

Now you can use your lexer to analyze source code. To use it interactively, you
can pipe source code into it:

echo "if x < 10 { return 2; } else { return 1; }" | ./lexe

The lexer will output the recognized tokens.

This is a basic example of how you can create a lexical analyzer using Lex on the
Linux command line. In practice, for more complex languages, you would also use a
parser (e.g., using Yacc or Bison) to build a complete compiler front end.

Unit 2
The role of the parser
The parser is a crucial component in a compiler or interpreter, and its primary role is
to analyze the syntactic structure of the source code according to the grammar of

Compiler Design 28
 the programming language. Here are the key roles and responsibilities of a parser:

1. Syntactic Analysis: The primary role of the parser is to perform syntactic

analysis or parsing. It reads the tokens produced by the lexical analyzer and
checks whether they form valid sentences in the programming language's
grammar. It ensures that the source code adheres to the specified syntax rules.

2. Grammar Compliance: The parser enforces the rules and constraints defined
by the language's grammar. It checks for the correct order of statements, the
use of correct operators, proper nesting of constructs, and adherence to
language-specific syntactic rules.

3. Parsing Trees or Abstract Syntax Trees (AST): In the process of parsing, the
parser often constructs a data structure called a parse tree or an abstract
syntax tree (AST). These trees represent the hierarchical structure of the
program, making it easier for subsequent phases of the compiler or interpreter
to analyze and transform the code.

4. Error Detection and Reporting: The parser detects and reports syntax errors
in the source code. It generates error messages that provide information about
the location and nature of the errors. These error messages are essential for
developers to identify and correct issues in their code.

5. Reduction to Intermediate Representation: In many compilers, the parser

translates the source code into an intermediate representation (IR). The IR is a
more abstract and structured representation of the code, which simplifies further
analysis and optimization.

6. Scope Analysis: The parser may perform initial scope analysis by tracking
variable declarations, function definitions, and other scope-related information.
This helps in resolving identifiers and detecting scope-related errors.

7. Type Checking: The parser may perform basic type checking by ensuring that
operations involving variables, literals, and expressions conform to the
expected data types and compatibility rules defined by the language.

8. Code Optimization: Some parsers, especially in advanced compilers, may

include initial optimization steps. For instance, they can recognize patterns that
allow for constant folding or algebraic simplifications in the code.

Compiler Design 29
 9. Code Generation: In some compiler architectures, the parser is responsible for
producing an intermediate representation or generating low-level code that can
be further optimized and translated into machine code. In other compiler
architectures, code generation is a separate phase following parsing.

10. Integration with Semantic Analysis: The parser serves as the interface
between the lexical analysis and the subsequent semantic analysis phases of
the compiler. It provides the structured syntactic representation of the code for
semantic analysis.

The parser is a bridge between the lexical analysis (which identifies tokens and their
lexical structure) and the semantic analysis and code generation phases. It plays a
critical role in ensuring that source code adheres to the language's syntax, and it
provides a foundation for further analysis and transformation of the program.

Context free grammars

Context-Free Grammars (CFGs) are a formalism used in formal language theory
and computer science to describe the syntax or structure of programming
languages, natural languages, and other formal languages. They play a
fundamental role in the design and implementation of parsers for compilers and
interpreters. Here are the key concepts and components of context-free grammars:

1. Symbols: In a CFG, you have two types of symbols:

Terminal Symbols: These are the basic symbols of the language, such as
keywords, operators, and constants. Terminal symbols are the actual
tokens recognized by the lexer.

Non-terminal Symbols: These are symbols used in the production rules to

define the structure of the language. Non-terminal symbols represent
higher-level language constructs, such as expressions, statements, or
program blocks.

2. Production Rules: CFGs consist of a set of production rules that define how
non-terminal symbols can be replaced by a sequence of terminal and non-
terminal symbols. A production rule has the form:

Compiler Design 30
 A -> α

Where A is a non-terminal symbol, and α is a sequence of symbols (terminal

and/or non-terminal) that can replace A .

3. Start Symbol: CFGs have a designated start symbol, typically denoted as S .

The start symbol represents the entire language or program. All derivations in
the grammar start from this symbol.

4. Derivation: A derivation in a CFG is a sequence of production rule applications

that transforms the start symbol into a string of terminal symbols. This sequence
represents the syntactic structure of a program or language construct.

5. Language Generated: The language generated by a CFG consists of all valid

strings of terminal symbols that can be derived from the start symbol following
the production rules. This language represents the set of all valid programs or
sentences in the language described by the grammar.

6. Parse Tree: A parse tree is a graphical representation of a derivation in a CFG.

It shows how non-terminal symbols are replaced by terminal and non-terminal
symbols during the derivation. Parse trees provide a clear visual representation
of the syntactic structure of a program.

7. Ambiguity: A CFG is considered ambiguous if there are multiple valid parse

trees for the same input string. Ambiguity can complicate the parsing process
and lead to ambiguous language constructs.

8. Backus-Naur Form (BNF): BNF is a widely used notation for specifying CFGs.
It uses angle brackets ("<" and ">") to represent non-terminal symbols and
defines production rules using "::=".

Context-free grammars are used to formally describe the syntax of programming

languages and other formal languages. Parsers, such as LL parsers, LR parsers,
and recursive descent parsers, are built based on CFGs to analyze and process the
syntax of programs during compilation or interpretation. CFGs are an essential part
of the theory and practice of compiler design and programming language
processing.

Compiler Design 31
 Writing a grammar: Lexical versus Syntactic analysis
In the context of writing a grammar for a programming language, it's essential to
distinguish between lexical analysis and syntactic analysis. These two aspects
serve different purposes and require different types of grammars:
1. Lexical Analysis (Scanning): Lexical analysis deals with recognizing and
tokenizing the basic building blocks of a programming language. It involves
identifying keywords, identifiers, literals (e.g., numbers and strings), operators, and
other language-specific tokens. Lexical analysis is the first phase of compilation,
and its primary goal is to break the source code into a stream of tokens that are
meaningful for the syntactic analysis phase.

For lexical analysis, you would typically use regular expressions to define the
patterns for each token type. Regular expressions are concise and powerful for this
purpose. For example, here's a simplified grammar for some token types:

ID (Identifier): [a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]*
NUM (Number): [0-9]+
STR (String): "[^"]*"
PLUS: \\+
MINUS: \\-

2. Syntactic Analysis (Parsing): Syntactic analysis, also known as parsing, is

concerned with the structure and grammar of the programming language. It deals
with the arrangement of tokens and how they form valid language constructs such
as expressions, statements, and functions. Syntactic analysis ensures that the code
adheres to the language's syntax rules and produces a hierarchical representation
of the program's structure.

For syntactic analysis, you would use a context-free grammar (CFG). CFGs are
suitable for defining the hierarchical structure of programming languages, as they
allow you to specify the relationships between language constructs. Here's a
simplified example of a CFG for a simple arithmetic expression language:

Compiler Design 32
 expression -> expression PLUS term
| expression MINUS term
| term

term -> term TIMES factor

| term DIVIDE factor
| factor

factor -> NUM

| ID

The above CFG defines the syntax for arithmetic expressions composed of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, numbers, and identifiers. It specifies the order of
operations and how expressions are structured hierarchically.

To summarize, when writing a grammar for a programming language:

Use regular expressions for defining tokens during the lexical analysis phase.

Use context-free grammars (CFGs) to specify the hierarchical structure and

relationships between language constructs during the syntactic analysis
(parsing) phase.

Both lexical and syntactic analysis are vital components of a compiler or interpreter,
with each serving distinct roles in processing the source code.

Eliminating ambiguity
Eliminating ambiguity in a context-free grammar (CFG) is an important step in
ensuring that the grammar can be used to uniquely define the syntax of a
programming language or any formal language. Ambiguity arises when there are
multiple valid interpretations or parse trees for a given input, which can lead to
parsing conflicts and difficulties in language processing. Here are some strategies
to eliminate ambiguity from a CFG:

1. Left Recursion Removal:

Compiler Design 33
 Left recursion occurs when a non-terminal can directly or indirectly produce
a string that starts with itself. Left-recursive rules can lead to ambiguity in
the grammar. To remove left recursion, you can rewrite the rules to be right-
recursive or use left-factoring to eliminate the left recursion. For example:
Original:

A -> A alpha
A -> beta

Eliminated left recursion:

A -> beta A'

A' -> epsilon | alpha A'

2. Operator Precedence and Associativity:

Ambiguity can also arise from the lack of clear operator precedence and
associativity rules. Define explicit rules for the precedence and associativity
of operators in the grammar to ensure that expressions are parsed
unambiguously.

3. Ambiguous Constructs Resolution:

Some language constructs are inherently ambiguous, and you may need to
modify the language specification to remove the ambiguity. For example, if
the language allows "dangling else" ambiguities, you can introduce explicit
rules to resolve them.

4. Use of Parentheses:

Encouraging the use of parentheses in expressions can help eliminate

ambiguity. By making it explicit, you can ensure that the desired order of
operations is followed.

5. Specific Parsing Techniques:

Choose a parsing technique that can handle ambiguity effectively. For

instance, if you're using a parser generator like Bison or Yacc, you can

Compiler Design 34
 specify operator precedence and associativity in the grammar.

6. Revisit Language Design:

Sometimes, eliminating ambiguity may require revisiting the design of the

language itself. Language features or syntax that lead to inherent ambiguity
may need to be modified or rethought.

7. Add More Context in the Grammar:

Providing additional context information in the grammar can help

disambiguate constructs. For example, distinguishing between declarations
and expressions can resolve certain ambiguities.

8. Static Semantics:

Some ambiguity may be related to the static semantics of the language. By

introducing type-checking rules and constraints in your grammar, you can
resolve ambiguities associated with variable scoping, type compatibility, and
other language-specific checks.

It's important to note that not all ambiguity can be or should be eliminated. In some
cases, ambiguity might be inherent to the language and can be resolved through
context-sensitive checks during semantic analysis. Additionally, the choice of
parsing algorithm and tool can influence how ambiguity is handled. Careful
consideration of the specific language and its requirements is essential when
addressing ambiguity in a CFG.

Elimination of left recursion, Left factoring

Eliminating left recursion and left factoring are common techniques used to
transform a context-free grammar (CFG) into an unambiguous and suitable form for
parsing. Here's how you can perform these transformations:
1. Elimination of Left Recursion:

Compiler Design 35
 Left recursion occurs when a non-terminal in a CFG has a production that starts
with itself, directly or indirectly. Left recursion can lead to ambiguity and difficulties in
parsing. To eliminate left recursion, you can follow these steps:

Suppose you have a non-terminal A with left-recursive productions:

A -> A alpha1
A -> A alpha2
...
A -> A alphan
A -> beta1
A -> beta2
...
A -> betam

1. Create a new non-terminal B:

B -> alpha1 B | alpha2 B | ... | alphan B | epsilon

2. Replace the original left-recursive productions of A with B:

A -> beta1 B | beta2 B | ... | betam B

Compiler Design 36
 3. Optionally, you can factor out common prefixes among the beta productions to
further simplify the grammar.

The result is a CFG without left recursion. The B non-terminal represents the
sequences of alpha productions, and epsilon indicates an empty sequence. This
transformation ensures that the parser can handle the grammar without ambiguity.
2. Left Factoring:

Left factoring is a technique used to eliminate common prefixes in a set of

productions for a non-terminal. Common prefixes can lead to parsing ambiguity. To
left factor a CFG, follow these steps:

Suppose you have a non-terminal A with productions that share a common prefix:

A -> alpha1 beta1

A -> alpha2 beta2
...
A -> alphan betan

1. Identify the longest common prefix among the alpha productions. Let's call it
alpha_common .

2. Create a new non-terminal B and factor out the common prefix alpha_common :

B -> beta1 | beta2 | ... | betan

3. Replace the original productions of A with the common prefix and the new non-
terminal B:

Compiler Design 37
 A -> alpha_common B

4. Update the productions for B to include only the remaining parts:

B -> epsilon | (beta1 - alpha_common) | (beta2 - alpha_com

The result is a CFG with left factoring applied, which helps eliminate ambiguity and
makes parsing more straightforward. This technique ensures that the parser can
determine the correct production to apply without ambiguity.
Eliminating left recursion and left factoring are crucial steps in ensuring that the
CFG for a programming language is unambiguous and suitable for parsing with
various parsing algorithms, such as LL, LR, and LALR parsers.

Top Down Parsing: Recursive‐ Decent parsing

Top-down parsing, particularly recursive descent parsing, is a commonly used
parsing technique for processing context-free grammars (CFGs) and recognizing
the syntax of programming languages. In top-down parsing, you start with the root
of the parse tree and work your way down to the leaves, making choices at each
level based on the input. Recursive descent parsing is a specific type of top-down
parsing that uses recursive procedures to handle different grammar rules. Here's an
overview of recursive descent parsing:
Recursive Descent Parsing:

Recursive descent parsing is a top-down parsing technique in which each non-

terminal in the grammar is associated with a parsing function or procedure. These
parsing functions are recursive and are called in a top-down fashion to parse the
input. Each parsing function corresponds to a specific non-terminal symbol in the
CFG.

The key steps in recursive descent parsing are as follows:

1. Initialization: Start with the root non-terminal symbol of the CFG.

Compiler Design 38
 2. Predictive Parsing: For each non-terminal symbol, there is a corresponding
parsing function that predicts the production to apply based on the current input.
These functions are often implemented using mutually recursive procedures.

3. Terminal Match: In each parsing function, you first check the current input
token (usually provided by the lexical analyzer) to see if it matches the expected
terminal symbol. If there is a match, you consume the token and move to the
next one.

4. Production Selection: Based on the current non-terminal and the input token,
you choose the appropriate production from the CFG to expand the current
non-terminal.

5. Recursion: The parsing function for the expanded non-terminal is called

recursively, and the process continues.

6. Error Handling: If there is no valid production to apply or a terminal mismatch

occurs, the parser reports an error.

Recursive descent parsing is a highly intuitive and simple parsing method, making it
easy to implement for small to medium-sized grammars. However, it may face
challenges with left-recursive grammars and certain kinds of ambiguity. Left-
factoring and elimination of left-recursion are often needed for CFGs used in
recursive descent parsing.
Advantages of Recursive Descent Parsing:

1. Easy to understand and implement.

2. Allows direct correspondence between the grammar and parsing functions.

3. Provides good error reporting because parsing functions can identify errors
early.

Disadvantages of Recursive Descent Parsing:

1. May not handle left-recursive grammars without modifications.

2. Can be inefficient for large and complex grammars.

3. Requires LL(1) grammars (grammars with leftmost derivations and one-token

lookahead) or additional lookahead tokens for more complex grammars.

Compiler Design 39
 In practice, recursive descent parsing is often used for educational purposes, for
creating simple domain-specific languages, or for small, well-defined grammars. For
industrial-strength compilers, parser generators like Bison, Yacc, and ANTLR are
more commonly employed, as they can handle a wider range of grammars and are
more efficient for large-scale parsing tasks.

Non‐recursive Predictive parsing

Non-recursive predictive parsing is an alternative to recursive descent parsing that
aims to eliminate the need for recursion when implementing a predictive parser.
While recursive descent parsing uses recursive procedures to represent the non-
terminals of the grammar, non-recursive predictive parsing employs a non-
recursive, stack-based approach. This technique is often used in parser generators
and tools that target LL(1) grammars, where the prediction of the next production to
apply is deterministic based on the current input token. Here's an overview of non-
recursive predictive parsing:

Non-Recursive Predictive Parsing:

1. Stack: Non-recursive predictive parsing uses a stack data structure to maintain

information about the parsing state. The stack contains symbols and/or states
that represent the current parsing configuration.

2. Table-Driven Parsing: Instead of using recursive procedures, non-recursive

predictive parsing relies on a parsing table that provides a deterministic
mapping from the current non-terminal (or state) and the next input token to the
production to apply.

3. Parsing Table: The parsing table is often referred to as a "LL(1) parsing table"
because it operates based on one-token lookahead. It contains information
about which production to use when a specific non-terminal and input token are
encountered.

4. Push and Pop: The parsing process involves pushing symbols and states onto
the stack as productions are applied and popping them as symbols are
matched. The stack keeps track of the parsing history.

Compiler Design 40
 5. Error Handling: If the parser encounters an error, it can respond by popping
elements from the stack or pushing an error symbol to indicate a syntax error.

Advantages of Non-Recursive Predictive Parsing:

1. Eliminates the need for recursive procedures, making it suitable for larger
grammars and avoiding issues related to recursion depth.

2. More memory-efficient than recursive descent parsing for deep parsing.

3. Guarantees LL(1) parsing for grammars, which can be determined statically.

Disadvantages of Non-Recursive Predictive Parsing:

1. Requires the construction of an LL(1) parsing table, which may not be feasible
for grammars that are not LL(1). Construction of parsing tables for more
complex grammars can be challenging.

2. Limited to LL(1) grammars, which means that the parser can only make a
decision based on one token of lookahead.

3. Parsing tables can be large for some grammars, potentially consuming

significant memory.

Non-recursive predictive parsing is often used in parser generators and compiler

tools because it allows for the automatic generation of efficient parsers from
grammatical descriptions. Parser generators like ANTLR, Bison, and Yacc typically
employ non-recursive predictive parsing techniques with LL(1) parsing tables.
These tools generate code for parsers that follow the non-recursive predictive
parsing strategy.

LL(1) grammars
LL(1) grammars are a subset of context-free grammars (CFGs) that are particularly
well-suited for predictive parsing. The notation "LL(1)" stands for "Left-to-right,
Leftmost derivation with 1-token lookahead." LL(1) grammars are characterized by
their predictability and simplicity, making them suitable for top-down parsing

Compiler Design 41
 techniques, including recursive descent and table-driven parsers. Here are the key
characteristics and properties of LL(1) grammars:

Properties of LL(1) Grammars:

1. Deterministic Parsing: An LL(1) grammar is unambiguous and allows for

deterministic parsing. Given the current input symbol (one-token lookahead),
the parser can predict the correct production to apply without needing to
backtrack or make choices.

2. Left-to-Right Parsing: LL(1) parsers process the input from left to right,
simulating a leftmost derivation of the input string.

3. One-Token Lookahead: The parser makes its parsing decision based on the
next input token (one-token lookahead). This means that the parser examines
the current input token and uses it to determine the next production to apply.

4. No Left Recursion: LL(1) grammars should not have left-recursive

productions. Left recursion can complicate LL(1) parsing.

5. No Common Prefixes: In LL(1) grammars, there should be no common

prefixes in the right-hand sides of distinct productions for the same non-
terminal. This eliminates ambiguities during parsing.

6. Table-Driven Parsing: LL(1) parsers can be implemented using table-driven

parsing techniques. These parsers use a parsing table that maps the current
non-terminal and lookahead token to the production to apply.

LL(1) Parsing Table:

The LL(1) parsing table is a crucial component of LL(1) parsing. It is a two-
dimensional table that associates non-terminals with terminal symbols (lookahead)
to indicate which production to use. The table is populated based on the grammar's
properties, and each cell of the table contains either a production or an error
symbol. The parsing table is used by LL(1) parsers to make parsing decisions.
Advantages of LL(1) Grammars:

1. LL(1) grammars are easy to understand, implement, and analyze, making them
suitable for educational purposes and simple language specifications.

Compiler Design 42
 2. LL(1) parsers are often efficient and require minimal memory.

3. LL(1) parsers provide good error handling because they can detect and report
syntax errors early in the parsing process.

Limitations of LL(1) Grammars:

1. Many real-world programming languages and grammars are not LL(1). They
may exhibit left recursion, common prefixes, and other features that make them
more complex to parse.

2. Constructing the LL(1) parsing table can be challenging for grammars that do
not naturally fit the LL(1) property. Techniques like left factoring and left
recursion removal may be necessary to transform a grammar into an LL(1)
form.

3. LL(1) grammars are limited in expressiveness compared to more powerful

parsing techniques such as LR or LALR parsing.

In practice, LL(1) grammars are widely used for educational purposes, small
domain-specific languages, and for building simple parsers, including parser
generators that target LL(1) parsing. However, for more complex programming
languages, LR(1) or LALR(1) parsers are typically used due to their greater
expressive power.

Bottom Up Parsing: Shift Reduce Parsing

Bottom-up parsing, particularly shift-reduce parsing, is another popular parsing
technique used to process context-free grammars (CFGs) and recognize the syntax
of programming languages. Unlike top-down parsing, which starts with the root of
the parse tree and works down to the leaves, bottom-up parsing begins with the
input tokens and builds the parse tree from the leaves up. Shift-reduce parsing is a
specific type of bottom-up parsing that operates by shifting tokens onto a stack and
reducing them to higher-level language constructs. Here's an overview of shift-
reduce parsing:

Shift-Reduce Parsing:

Compiler Design 43
 1. Stack: In shift-reduce parsing, you maintain a stack data structure that stores a
combination of terminal symbols, non-terminal symbols, and parsing states. The
stack represents the current state of parsing.

2. Input Buffer: You have an input buffer that holds the remaining input tokens.
The goal is to process the input tokens and build the parse tree.

3. Shift Operation: During the shift operation, you take the next token from the
input buffer and push it onto the stack. This step effectively advances the
parsing process by including the next token in the parsing state.

4. Reduce Operation: During the reduce operation, you look for a sequence of
symbols on the top of the stack that matches the right-hand side of a production
in the grammar. When a match is found, you pop the matched symbols from the
stack and push the corresponding non-terminal symbol onto the stack,
signifying the reduction to a higher-level language construct.

5. Accept Operation: The parsing process is complete when the entire input has
been processed, and the stack contains only the start symbol. At this point, the
parser accepts the input as syntactically correct.

6. Conflict Handling: Shift-reduce parsers may encounter shift-reduce conflicts

and reduce-reduce conflicts when more than one choice is available. Conflict
resolution rules, such as associativity and precedence rules, help determine
whether to shift or reduce in the presence of conflicts.

Advantages of Shift-Reduce Parsing:

1. Shift-reduce parsers are more flexible and can handle a wider range of
grammars, including non-LL(1) grammars.

2. They are efficient and can be used for parsing a variety of programming
languages and grammars.

3. Bottom-up parsing can be used for code generation in the context of compiler
construction.

Disadvantages of Shift-Reduce Parsing:

Compiler Design 44
 1. Shift-reduce parsers are often less intuitive and harder to understand compared
to top-down parsers like recursive descent.

2. They may not provide as detailed error messages as top-down parsers because
errors are detected later in the parsing process.

3. Shift-reduce parsing is generally more complex to implement than top-down

parsing.

Popular shift-reduce parsing algorithms include the LR(0), SLR(1), LALR(1), and
LR(1) parsing techniques. These algorithms use parsing tables, state machines,
and other data structures to guide the parsing process. Parser generators like Yacc
and Bison use shift-reduce parsing techniques to generate parsers based on formal
grammatical descriptions of programming languages.
Shift-reduce parsing is a powerful parsing method used for a wide range of
grammars and programming languages, and it is often the method of choice for
industrial-strength compiler construction.

Operator precedence parsing

Operator precedence parsing is a bottom-up parsing technique used to parse
expressions and handle operator precedence and associativity in programming
languages. It is commonly used to convert infix expressions (where operators
appear between operands) into an abstract syntax tree (AST) or other intermediate
representation that reflects the correct order of operations. Operator precedence
parsing is particularly useful for handling arithmetic and logical expressions. Here's
how operator precedence parsing works:

Operator Precedence Parsing Process:

1. Grammar and Precedence Rules: To perform operator precedence parsing,

you need to define a grammar that captures the precedence and associativity
rules for different operators in the language. Each operator is associated with a
precedence level, and possibly an associativity (left or right).

2. Tokenization: The input expression is first tokenized, breaking it into a

sequence of tokens (operands, operators, and parentheses) that are suitable
for parsing.

Compiler Design 45
 3. Operator Precedence Table: An operator precedence table is created. This
table specifies the precedence and associativity of each operator in the
language. It guides the parsing process, allowing the parser to determine how
to group and evaluate operators.

4. Stack: You use a stack to keep track of both operators and operands as you
process the input expression.

5. Parsing Algorithm: The parsing algorithm involves iterating through the tokens
in the input expression from left to right. The algorithm makes use of the
operator precedence and associativity rules to build an abstract syntax tree
(AST).

For each token, you perform the following steps:

If the token is an operand, push it onto the stack.

If the token is an operator, compare its precedence with the operator at

the top of the stack.

If the token's precedence is higher or the same and the

associativity is left, you can reduce the top elements on the stack,
creating a new node in the AST.

If the token's precedence is higher or the same and the

associativity is right, you do not reduce yet.

Continue this process until you can no longer reduce, or until you reach
the end of the expression.

Finally, the stack contains the AST for the input expression.

Example:

Let's consider an example with the following operator precedence and associativity
rules:

"+" and "-" have the same precedence and are left-associative.

"*" and "/" have higher precedence than "+" and "-" and are left-associative.

Input Expression: 3 + 5 * 2 - 6 / 2

Compiler Design 46
 1. Tokenization: 3 , + , 5 , , 2 , , 6 , / , 2

2. Stack: <empty>

3. Parsing Algorithm:

Push 3 onto the stack.

Process + . Since the stack is empty, push + .

Push 5 onto the stack.

Process . Since has higher precedence, push .

Push 2 onto the stack.

Process . Pop 5 and , and push a node representing 5 * 2 .

Process 6 and / . Push 6 and / .

Push 2 onto the stack.

Complete parsing.

Stack contains the AST representing the input expression: 3 + (5 * 2) - (6

/ 2) .

Operator precedence parsing is a flexible and efficient way to handle expressions in

programming languages and is widely used in compilers and interpreters to create
correct expression trees or intermediate representations.

LR Parsing: SLR, LALR and Canonical LR parser

LR parsing, including SLR (Simple LR), LALR (Look-Ahead LR), and Canonical LR
parsers, is a family of bottom-up parsing techniques used to analyze the syntax of
programming languages. These parsers are capable of handling a wide range of
grammars and are often used in the construction of compiler front-ends. Each
variant (SLR, LALR, Canonical LR) represents a different level of power and
complexity in terms of the grammars they can handle. Here's an overview of these
LR parsing techniques:

Compiler Design 47
 LR Parsing:
LR parsing is a type of shift-reduce parsing. The "L" in LR stands for "Left-to-right"
(processing the input from left to right), and the "R" stands for "Rightmost
derivation" (using the rightmost non-terminal in a production). LR parsers use a
stack-based approach, similar to shift-reduce parsers, but they have more powerful
parsing tables that can handle a wider range of grammars.

SLR (Simple LR) Parsing:

SLR parsing is the simplest and least powerful variant of LR parsing. SLR parsing
tables are relatively small and straightforward. SLR parsers use simple follow sets
to determine reduce actions. They are suitable for a limited class of grammars
where there is little ambiguity in the language.

LALR (Look-Ahead LR) Parsing:

LALR parsing is more powerful than SLR parsing and can handle a broader class of
grammars. LALR parsers use more sophisticated follow sets that take into account
the lookahead symbols to make more informed parsing decisions. LALR parsers are
widely used in practice for parsing programming languages and are the most
common type of LR parser.

Canonical LR Parsing:
Canonical LR parsing, also known as LR(1) parsing, is the most powerful and
versatile variant of LR parsing. It can handle a wide range of context-free
grammars, including those with left-recursive and common-prefix ambiguities.
Canonical LR parsers use LR(1) items, which provide detailed information about the
parsing state and lookahead tokens to make parsing decisions. While more
powerful, constructing the parsing tables for canonical LR parsers can be more
complex and memory-intensive compared to SLR and LALR parsing.
Key Differences:

SLR parsing has the least powerful parsing tables and can handle a limited
class of grammars.

Compiler Design 48
 LALR parsing has more powerful parsing tables than SLR and can handle a
broader range of grammars.

Canonical LR parsing (LR(1)) has the most powerful parsing tables and can
handle a wide range of grammars, including those with more complex
ambiguities.

In practice, LALR parsers are the most commonly used LR parsers due to their
good balance between power and efficiency. Tools like Bison and Yacc use LALR
parsing by default, and they can generate parsers for many programming
languages. When faced with more complex grammars, you might need to use a
canonical LR parser, although they require more computational resources to
generate parsing tables.

Parser Generators
Parser generators are software tools used in the field of compiler construction to
automatically generate parsers for programming languages based on formal
grammatical descriptions. These tools simplify the process of developing parsers by
generating efficient parsing code from high-level grammar specifications. Parser
generators are commonly used to implement the syntax analysis phase of a
compiler or interpreter. Here are some key aspects of parser generators:

How Parser Generators Work:

1. Grammar Specification: You begin by specifying the formal grammar of the

programming language in a high-level notation. This notation is typically based
on context-free grammars (CFGs) or extended context-free grammars
(ECFGs).

2. Parser Generator Input: You feed the grammar specification into the parser
generator tool, which processes the grammar to generate parsing code.

3. Parsing Table Generation: The parser generator analyzes the grammar and
constructs parsing tables (such as LL(1), LR(1), LALR(1), or SLR(1) tables) that
guide the parsing process.

4. Parsing Code Generation: Based on the parsing tables and the grammar, the
parser generator generates source code for the parser, typically in a

Compiler Design 49
 programming language like C, C++, Java, or Python.

5. Integration: You integrate the generated parser code into your compiler or
interpreter project.

Popular Parser Generators:

1. Bison/Yacc: Bison (in the Unix world) and Yacc (Yet Another Compiler
Compiler) are classic parser generator tools. They generate LALR(1) parsers
and are widely used for compiler construction.

2. ANTLR (ANother Tool for Language Recognition): ANTLR is a versatile

parser generator that supports LL(*) parsing. It can generate parsers for a wide
range of languages and is often used for building interpreters.

3. JavaCC: Java Compiler Compiler (JavaCC) is a parser generator for Java-

based projects. It generates parsers for Java and other languages based on
ECFGs.

4. PLY (Python Lex-Yacc): PLY is a Python library that combines lexical analysis
and parsing, making it suitable for generating parsers for Python-based
applications.

5. Lemon: Lemon is a parser generator developed as part of the SQLite project. It

generates LALR(1) parsers and is known for its simplicity and efficiency.

6. GoldParser: GoldParser is a general-purpose parser generator that allows you

to define grammars using a custom language. It can generate parsers in
various programming languages.

Advantages of Using Parser Generators:

1. Productivity: Parser generators reduce the need for manual parser code
development, saving time and effort.

2. Correctness: Generated parsers adhere to the specified grammar rules,

reducing the chances of implementation errors.

3. Portability: Parser generators can generate parsers in various programming

languages, making it easier to target different platforms.

Compiler Design 50
 4. Maintenance: Changes to the grammar can be accommodated by updating the
grammar specification, and the parser generator regenerates the parser code.

Challenges:

1. Learning Curve: Learning to use parser generators and their specific grammar
notation can be challenging for newcomers.

2. Performance: The efficiency and performance of the generated parsers may

not always match handcrafted parsers, particularly for very large or complex
grammars.

3. Debugging: Debugging generated parsers can be more challenging due to the

separation between the generated code and the grammar specification.

Overall, parser generators are valuable tools in compiler construction and language
processing, especially for projects where correctness and rapid development are
essential. They help automate the creation of parsers, which is a critical component
of a compiler or interpreter.

Unit - 3
Syntax Directed Translation (SDT):
Syntax-Directed Translation (SDT) is a technique used in compiler design that
associates semantic actions with the productions of a grammar. It combines syntax
analysis (generally performed by parsing techniques) with semantic analysis by
attaching semantic rules or actions to the grammar rules.

Components of Syntax Directed Translation:

1. Syntax Directed Definitions (SDD): These are grammar productions
augmented with semantic rules or actions.

2. Attribute Grammars: Used to define the attributes and their values associated
with syntax elements.

Compiler Design 51
 3. Inherited and Synthesized Attributes: Inherited attributes pass information
from parent nodes to child nodes in the parse tree, while synthesized attributes
compute information bottom-up, from child nodes to parent nodes.

4. Parsing and Tree Traversal: SDT involves parsing the input and then
traversing the parse tree to execute semantic actions associated with each
production rule.

Syntax Directed Definitions (SDD):

Syntax-Directed Definitions (SDDs) are a formalism used to describe the
relationship between syntax and semantics by associating semantic rules or actions
with the productions of a grammar.

Features of Syntax Directed Definitions:

1. Attributes: Attributes are associated with grammar symbols and carry
information. They can be synthesized or inherited.

2. Actions: Actions are computations or operations associated with grammar

productions.

3. Rules and Constraints: Rules define how attributes are computed, and
constraints impose limitations or conditions on attribute values.

Example of Syntax Directed Definition:

Consider a simple grammar:

E → E + T | T
T → T * F | F
F → (E) | id

Let's augment this grammar with semantic actions:

E → E1 + T {E.val = E1.val + T.val}

| T {E.val = T.val}
T → T1 * F {T.val = T1.val * F.val}

Compiler Design 52
 | F {T.val = F.val}
F → (E) {F.val = E.val}
| id {F.val = lookup(id.lexeme)}

Here, E.val , T.val , and F.val represent attributes associated with non-terminals
E, T, and F, respectively. The actions within braces {} represent the semantic rules
or computations to be performed when these productions are used.
Summary:
Syntax Directed Translation (SDT) and Syntax Directed Definitions (SDD) facilitate
the association of semantic actions with the productions of a grammar, enabling the
incorporation of semantic rules during parsing to generate meaningful translations
or intermediate code.
These concepts are fundamental in building compilers as they connect the
grammar's syntax to the semantic interpretation of the language, enabling the
generation of executable code or intermediate representations.

Evaluation Orders for Syntax Directed Definitions

(SDDs)
In Syntax Directed Definitions (SDDs), the evaluation order refers to the sequence
in which the attributes associated with grammar symbols are computed during
parsing. These evaluation orders are crucial as they determine how semantic
actions are executed and attribute values are calculated.

Types of Evaluation Orders:

1. Top-Down Evaluation:

Depth-First Order (Pre-order traversal): In this approach, attributes of a

node are evaluated before its children. It is typical in recursive descent
parsing.

Left-to-Right Order: Attributes are evaluated from left to right in a

production.

2. Bottom-Up Evaluation:

Compiler Design 53
 Post-order traversal: Children's attributes are evaluated first, then parent
attributes are computed based on these values.

Right-to-Left Order: Attributes are evaluated from right to left in a

production.

3. Mixed or Hybrid Evaluation:

Combination of top-down and bottom-up approaches based on the specific

requirements of the grammar or language constructs.

Example:
Consider an SDD for arithmetic expressions:

E → E + T {E.val = E.val + T.val}

| T {E.val = T.val}
T → T * F {T.val = T.val * F.val}
| F {T.val = F.val}
F → (E) {F.val = E.val}
| num {F.val = num.value}

Using this SDD, let's assume the input is (2 + 3) * 4 .

For top-down evaluation:

The parsing starts from the top ( E ) and propagates down the tree following
the production rules.

The order of computation might follow the pre-order traversal or left-to-right

evaluation, depending on the parsing strategy.

For bottom-up evaluation:

The parsing begins at the leaf nodes ( num or ( ) and works upwards to the
root ( E ).

The order might follow post-order traversal or right-to-left evaluation.

Summary:

Compiler Design 54
 Evaluation orders in SDDs determine how attributes are computed during
parsing.

Top-down, bottom-up, or hybrid orders impact the sequence of attribute

evaluation.

The choice of evaluation order affects the efficiency and correctness of attribute
calculations in semantic analysis.

Understanding the evaluation order is essential for designing and implementing

attribute computations in compilers to ensure correct semantic analysis during
parsing.

Construction of Syntax Trees

Syntax trees, also known as parse trees, are hierarchical structures that represent
the syntactic structure of a program following the rules of a formal grammar. They
are instrumental in understanding the relationships between different elements of
the source code.

Steps in Constructing Syntax Trees:

1. Lexical Analysis (Tokenization): Convert the input stream of characters into
tokens based on the lexical structure of the language. This step involves the
lexer or scanner.

2. Parsing (Syntax Analysis): Parse the token stream according to the grammar
rules to build the syntax tree. This step involves the parser.

3. Tree Construction: Generate nodes for each grammar rule and link them
hierarchically to represent the derivation of the input program.

Example:

Consider the following grammar:

E → E + T | T
T → T * F | F
F → (E) | id

Compiler Design 55
 Let's construct a syntax tree for the expression id * (id + id) using this grammar:

1. Tokenization: Identify tokens (assuming id represents identifiers).

Tokens: id , , ( , id , + , id , )

2. Parsing:
Apply grammar rules to build the syntax tree:

E
___|___
| T
| ___|___
| | F
| | |
id * ___|___
| E
| ___|___
| | T
| | ___|___
| | | F
| | | |
id + id id

1. Tree Construction: Each node represents a grammar rule, and the hierarchy
displays the relationship between different parts of the expression.

Summary:

Syntax trees visually represent the hierarchical structure of a program based on

its grammar rules.

Construction involves tokenization, parsing, and hierarchical node creation

according to the rules of the grammar.

Syntax trees are instrumental in understanding and analyzing the syntactic

structure of a program, aiding subsequent stages in the compilation process.

Compiler Design 56
 Syntax trees provide a clear and structured representation of the code's syntactic
structure, facilitating various compiler phases such as semantic analysis,
optimization, and code generation.

Syntax Directed Translation Schemes

Syntax Directed Translation (SDT) involves associating semantic actions with the
productions of a grammar. Syntax Directed Translation Schemes are formal
representations that define these actions or computations within the context of a
grammar. These schemes assist in transforming the input source code into target
code or intermediate representations.

Components of Syntax Directed Translation Schemes:

1. Grammar Rules: The context-free grammar rules serve as the basis for
defining semantic actions.

2. Attributes and Actions: Attributes associated with grammar symbols carry

information, and actions define computations or operations associated with
these attributes.

3. Attribute Evaluation: Specifies how attributes are computed and propagated

throughout the parse tree.

Example:

Consider the following grammar for arithmetic expressions:

E → E + T | T
T → T * F | F
F → (E) | num

Augmenting this grammar with semantic actions:

E → E1 + T { E.val = E1.val + T.val; }

| T { E.val = T.val; }
T → T1 * F { T.val = T1.val * F.val; }

Compiler Design 57
 | F { T.val = F.val; }
F → (E) { F.val = E.val; }
| num { F.val = num.value; }

Here, E.val , T.val , and F.val are attributes representing the values of
expressions. The actions within braces {} define the computations or operations to
be performed when these productions are applied during parsing.
Characteristics:

1. Explicit Semantic Actions: Each production rule is associated with explicit

computations or actions.

2. Attribute Propagation: Attributes are calculated and propagated through the

parse tree, enabling computation of values for various language constructs.

3. Parsing and Attribute Evaluation: Syntax-directed translation schemes guide

the parsing process and attribute evaluation to generate meaningful translations
or intermediate representations.

Summary:
Syntax Directed Translation Schemes are instrumental in associating semantic
actions with grammar rules. They facilitate the definition of attribute computations
and actions, ensuring the generation of correct and meaningful translations during
parsing.
Understanding Syntax Directed Translation Schemes is crucial in compiler design
as they form the foundation for incorporating semantic analysis into the compilation
process, aiding in generating intermediate code or target code from the input
source.

implementation of Syntax Directed Translation (SDT)

The implementation of Syntax Directed Translation (SDT) involves incorporating
semantic actions defined by Syntax Directed Translation Schemes into the parsing
process to generate intermediate code or perform specific operations during
compilation. The implementation often requires associating attributes with grammar

Compiler Design 58
 symbols, executing actions during parsing, and constructing the desired output
based on these actions.

Steps in Implementing Syntax Directed Translation:

1. Define Grammar and Semantic Actions: Begin by defining a context-free
grammar and associating semantic actions with grammar rules. These actions
specify computations or operations to be performed during parsing.

2. Attribute Management: Associate attributes with grammar symbols and

establish rules for attribute evaluation. Attributes may be synthesized or
inherited, and their values are computed based on the semantic rules defined.

3. Parser Integration: Incorporate the execution of semantic actions into the

parsing process. When a specific grammar rule is recognized during parsing,
execute the associated semantic action.

4. Code Generation or Output Construction: Utilize the information derived

from semantic actions to generate intermediate code or construct the desired
output. This can involve building syntax trees, generating intermediate
representations, or performing transformations on the code.

5. Error Handling and Reporting: Implement mechanisms to handle semantic

errors or inconsistencies detected during attribute evaluation or parsing.

Example (Pseudo-code):
Consider an SDT for a simple arithmetic expression language:

E → E1 + T { E.val = E1.val + T.val; }

| T { E.val = T.val; }
T → T1 * F { T.val = T1.val * F.val; }
| F { T.val = F.val; }
F → (E) { F.val = E.val; }
| num { F.val = num.value; }

Here's a simplified pseudocode demonstrating the implementation steps:

Compiler Design 59
 # Attribute management
class Node:
def __init__(self):
self.val = None

# Parser integration
def parse_E():
if token == '+':
parse_T()
E.val = E1.val + T.val
else:
parse_T()
E.val = T.val

def parse_T():
if token == '*':
parse_F()
T.val = T1.val * F.val
else:
parse_F()
T.val = F.val

def parse_F():
if token == '(':
parse_E()
F.val = E.val
match(')')
else:
F.val = token.value
match('num')

# Code generation or output construction

def generate_code():

Compiler Design 60
 parse_E()
print("Intermediate Code:", E.val)

# Example input: parse and generate intermediate code

token_stream = ['num', '*', '(', 'num', '+', 'num', ')']
generate_code()

Summary:
The implementation of Syntax Directed Translation involves integrating semantic
actions defined by SDT schemes into the parsing process to generate intermediate
code or perform operations during compilation. It requires associating attributes with
grammar symbols, executing actions during parsing, and constructing the desired
output based on these actions.

Intermediate Code Generation

Intermediate code serves as an intermediate representation between the source
code and the target code (machine code or assembly language) during the
compilation process. It simplifies the process of code generation and optimization.
Various types of intermediate representations exist, each with its own
characteristics.

Types of Intermediate Code:

1. Three-Address Code (TAC):

Consists of instructions that typically have at most three operands.

Operands are usually variables or constants.

Example:

t1 = a + b
t2 = t1 * c
d = t2 - e

Compiler Design 61
 2. Quadruples:

Represents operations as quadruples, consisting of four fields: operator,

operand1, operand2, and result.

Example:

1. +, a, b, t1
2. *, t1, c, t2
3. -, t2, e, d

3. Intermediate Representation (IR) Trees:

Represents the code as a tree structure, often resembling the abstract

syntax tree.

Each node in the tree represents an operation or expression.

Example:

-
/ \\
* e
/ \\
+ c
/ \\
a b

4. Bytecode:

Low-level representation of code instructions for a virtual machine.

Typically used in interpreted languages or virtual environments.

Examples: Java bytecode, Python bytecode.

Process of Intermediate Code Generation:

Compiler Design 62
 1. Parsing and Syntax Tree Construction: Parse the source code and construct
an abstract syntax tree (AST) or use parsing techniques to recognize the
structure.

2. Semantic Analysis: Perform semantic checks and attribute evaluation to

ensure correctness and generate additional information for code generation.

3. Intermediate Code Generation: Translate the AST or the output of semantic

analysis into intermediate code representation.

4. Optimization (Optional): Apply optimization techniques to improve the

intermediate code's efficiency without altering its functionality.

5. Output Generation: Finally, the intermediate code is typically stored in a format

suitable for further processing or passed to subsequent stages in the compiler.

Importance of Intermediate Code:

Simplifies the process of code generation by providing a more structured and

uniform representation.

Facilitates optimization without impacting the original source code.

Acts as an interface between different phases of the compiler, aiding in

modularity and maintenance.

Intermediate code generation is a critical phase in the compilation process, enabling

efficient translation from high-level source code to lower-level representations while
allowing for various optimization techniques to be applied.

Kinds of intermediate code

Postfix Notation:
Postfix notation, also known as Reverse Polish Notation (RPN), is a method of
writing expressions where operators are placed after their operands. This notation
eliminates the need for parentheses and priority rules.

Operator Placement: Operators come after their operands.

Compiler Design 63
 No Parentheses: Eliminates the need for parentheses by explicitly defining the
order of operations.

Evaluation: Easily evaluated using a stack-based algorithm.

Example:

Consider the infix expression: a + b * c

In postfix notation: a b c * +

The evaluation process involves scanning the expression from left to right:

Push operands onto a stack.

When an operator is encountered, pop the necessary operands from the stack,
perform the operation, and push the result back onto the stack.

Parse Trees and Syntax Trees:

Parse Trees:
Definition: Parse trees are rooted, ordered trees that represent the syntactic
structure of a string according to a formal grammar.

Nodes: Nodes represent terminals or non-terminals in the grammar.

Structure: The structure of the tree demonstrates how the input string can be
derived from the start symbol of the grammar.

Syntax Trees:
Definition: Syntax trees are similar to parse trees but emphasize the syntactic
structure of a program rather than just the derivation process.

Nodes: Nodes represent language constructs or syntactic elements of the

program.

More Abstract: Syntax trees might be more abstract than parse trees and
could omit some details of the derivation.

Differences:

Compiler Design 64
 Purpose: Parse trees focus on the derivation process, while syntax trees focus
more on the structure and meaning of the program.

Abstraction Level: Syntax trees might abstract away certain details to

emphasize the program's structure.

Summary:

Postfix Notation: Represents expressions with operators following operands,

simplifying evaluation.

Parse Trees: Represent the derivation process of a string according to a

grammar, emphasizing how the string is parsed.

Syntax Trees: Represent the syntactic structure of a program, emphasizing its

structure and language elements.

These intermediate representations aid in understanding and manipulating code

during the compilation process. Postfix notation simplifies expression evaluation,
while parse trees and syntax trees provide structured representations of the
program's syntax and structure.

Three-Address Code (TAC):

Three-Address Code (TAC) is an intermediate code representation where each
instruction typically has at most three operands. It simplifies the representation of
complex expressions and provides a basis for further code generation.

Limited Operands: Each instruction has at most three operands.

Operations: Common operations include assignments, arithmetic, control flow,

etc.

Temporaries: Often uses temporary variables to hold intermediate values.

Example:

Consider an expression a = b + c * d . The corresponding TAC might look like:

t1 = c * d
t2 = b + t1

Compiler Design 65
 a = t2

Each line represents an instruction where the left side stores the result of the
operation on the right side.

Quadruples:
Definition:
Quadruples are a form of intermediate code representation consisting of groups of
four elements representing an operation, two operands, and a result.

Components: Quadruples consist of fields for operator, operand1, operand2,

and result.

Versatility: Can represent various operations and control flow.

Example:
For the expression a = b + c * d , the quadruples might look like:

1. *, c, d, t1
2. +, b, t1, t2
3. =, t2, -, a

Each line represents a quadruple where the first field denotes the operation, and
the subsequent fields represent operands and results.

Triples:
Triples are another intermediate representation consisting of three fields: operator,
operand1, and operand2. Unlike quadruples, they don’t explicitly contain the result.
Characteristics:

Simplicity: Simpler than quadruples as they lack the explicit result field.

Operational Structure: Focuses on the operation and its operands.

Example:

Compiler Design 66
 For the expression a = b + c * d , the triples might look like:

1. *, c, d
2. +, b, (1)
3. =, (2), a

Here, the first field represents the operation, and the subsequent fields represent
operands or references to other triples.
Summary:

Three-Address Code (TAC): Contains instructions with at most three

operands.

Quadruples: Consist of four elements representing an operation, two

operands, and a result.

Triples: Consist of three elements representing an operation and two operands,

lacking the explicit result field.

These intermediate representations facilitate the translation of high-level code into

lower-level forms, simplifying further optimization and code generation processes in
compiler design.

Semantic Analysis in Compiler Design

Semantic analysis is a crucial phase in the compilation process that focuses on
ensuring the correctness of the meaning or semantics of the source code beyond its
syntax. It involves analyzing the code to detect and report semantic errors and to
collect information that will be used in later stages of the compilation.

Key Aspects of Semantic Analysis:

1. Type Checking:

Ensures that operations and expressions are used with compatible types.

Detects type-related errors such as assigning incompatible types or using

operators on incompatible operands.

Compiler Design 67
 2. Scope and Symbol Table Management:

Manages the visibility and accessibility of identifiers (variables, functions,

etc.) within their respective scopes.

Tracks the declaration, usage, and resolution of symbols throughout the

program.

3. Semantic Constraints:

Enforces constraints beyond syntactic correctness, such as ensuring the

correct use of constants, parameters, or function return types.

Verifies compliance with language-specific rules and constructs.

4. Error Detection:

Identifies and reports semantic errors that cannot be detected during lexical
and syntactic analysis.

Examples include type mismatches, undefined variables, or incorrect

function calls.

5. Intermediate Representation Generation:

Builds an intermediate representation (e.g., abstract syntax tree) enriched

with semantic information.

Provides a structured form of the code that is used for subsequent phases
like optimization and code generation.

Tasks Involved in Semantic Analysis:

1. Parsing and Syntax Tree Construction:

Converts the source code into a parse tree or abstract syntax tree (AST).

2. Type Checking and Validation:

Verifies the compatibility and correctness of types used in expressions,

assignments, and operations.

3. Symbol Table Management:

Compiler Design 68
 Creates and maintains a symbol table that holds information about
identifiers such as their names, types, scopes, and positions in the code.

4. Scope Resolution:

Resolves identifiers based on their scope and visibility rules defined by the
programming language.

5. Error Reporting:

Identifies and reports semantic errors encountered during analysis.

Importance of Semantic Analysis:

Error Detection: Identifies subtle errors that can lead to runtime issues or
unexpected behavior.

Program Understanding: Helps in understanding the structure and semantics

of the code.

Optimization and Code Generation: Provides necessary information for

subsequent stages like optimization and code generation.

Conclusion:
Semantic analysis verifies the correctness and meaning of the source code beyond
its syntax. It's a crucial stage in the compilation process that ensures code
adherence to language-specific rules, proper usage of symbols, and identification of
semantic errors.

Semantic analysis concerning types and declarations in a programming language

focuses on verifying the correct usage of types, declarations, and their interactions
within the source code. It ensures that the declared entities follow the language's
rules regarding scoping, type compatibility, and other constraints.

Types of Semantic Analysis in Types and

Declarations:
1. Type Checking:

Compiler Design 69
 Type Compatibility: Validates that operations and expressions involve
compatible types.

Type Inference: Determines the types of expressions or variables when the

type isn't explicitly stated.

2. Declaration Analysis:
Scope Management: Verifies the scope of variables, functions, or other
identifiers.

Duplicate Declarations: Detects multiple declarations of the same identifier

within the same scope.

3. Type Systems:
Static vs. Dynamic Typing: Ensures consistency and correctness in statically
typed languages during compile-time versus dynamic typing, which may occur
at runtime.

Strong vs. Weak Typing: Validates strictness in type compatibility and

coercion rules within the language.

4. Type Compatibility and Conversion:

Implicit and Explicit Type Conversion: Checks for implicit or explicit type
conversions and ensures compatibility.

5. Structural and Nominal Typing:

Structural Typing: Verifies types based on their structure or shape rather than
their explicit declaration.

Nominal Typing: Checks type compatibility based on explicit declarations and

type names.

Tasks Involved in Types and Declarations Semantic Analysis:

1. Parsing and Syntax Tree Construction:

Constructs a parse tree or abstract syntax tree (AST) from the source code.

Compiler Design 70
 2. Type Checking:

Ensures that each operation, assignment, or expression has compatible

types according to the language rules.

3. Declaration Analysis:

Manages the visibility, accessibility, and correctness of declared entities

(variables, functions, etc.).

4. Type Inference:

Deduces the type of variables or expressions when the type is not explicitly
specified.

5. Scope Resolution:

Determines the scope of variables and ensures proper scoping rules are
followed.

Importance of Types and Declarations Semantic Analysis:

Error Detection: Identifies type-related errors like mismatched types,

undeclared variables, or duplicate declarations.

Correctness and Consistency: Ensures that the program adheres to the

language's type system and declaration rules.

Optimization: Provides information for optimization strategies based on type-

related information.

Conclusion:
Semantic analysis regarding types and declarations ensures correctness,
consistency, and adherence to language-specific rules in a program's type usage,
declarations, and scoping. It's a vital stage in the compilation process that helps in
detecting potential errors and ensuring a well-structured and meaningful codebase.

The translation of expressions and type checking are critical aspects of semantic
analysis in a compiler. Let's explore each of these in detail:

Compiler Design 71
 Translation of Expressions:
1. Parsing and AST Generation:
The parsing phase generates an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) representing the
syntactic structure of the expression.

2. Expression Evaluation:
Translating expressions involves evaluating them to produce intermediate code
or target code.

Operators, operands, and precedence rules are considered during translation.

3. Code Generation:
The translation phase generates intermediate code or target code
corresponding to the expressions.

Translating arithmetic, logical, and other expressions into machine-

understandable code.

Example:

For the expression a = b + c * d , the translation might involve generating code to

perform multiplication ( * ), addition ( + ), and assignment ( = ) operations.

Type Checking:
1. Type Inference:
Infers the types of expressions or variables based on the operations and
operands used in the expression.

2. Type Compatibility:
Verifies that the types of operands in an expression are compatible according to
the language's rules.

Checks for compatibility in arithmetic, relational, and logical operations.

Compiler Design 72
 3. Error Detection:
Detects type-related errors such as mismatched types, incompatible operations,
or undefined behavior.

Example:

For the expression a = b + c * d , type checking verifies that b , c , and d are of

compatible types (e.g., numeric types), and multiplication ( * ) and addition ( + )
operations are applied to compatible types.
Importance:

Correctness: Ensures that expressions are translated accurately and adhere to

type rules.

Error Prevention: Identifies type-related errors during compilation rather than

runtime.

Optimization: Provides information for potential optimizations based on type-

related knowledge.

Summary:

Translation of Expressions: Involves parsing, evaluating expressions, and

generating code corresponding to the expression.

Type Checking: Ensures compatibility and correctness of types in expressions

and detects type-related errors.

Both translation of expressions and type checking are integral parts of the semantic
analysis phase, ensuring that expressions are correctly evaluated and follow the
language's type system, thus contributing to the generation of correct and efficient
code.

Unit-4
Symbol Table:

Compiler Design 73
 A symbol table is a data structure used by compilers to store information about
identifiers (variables, constants, functions, etc.) appearing in the source code. It
facilitates efficient lookup, retrieval, and management of information related to these
symbols during compilation.

Contents of a Symbol Table:

1. Symbol Entry:

Each entry in the symbol table represents a unique symbol in the source
code.

Contains information about the symbol, such as its name, type, scope,
location, and other attributes.

2. Attributes Associated with Symbols:

Name: Identifier's name.

Type Information: Data type of the identifier (int, float, etc.).

Scope Information: Indicates the scope where the identifier is defined

(global, local, function scope, etc.).

Memory Location: Address or location in memory associated with the

identifier.

Additional Information: Parameters, visibility, usage, etc.

3. Scope Information:

Maintains information about the scope hierarchy in the program (e.g., global
scope, function scopes, nested scopes).

Helps in resolving identifiers and ensuring correct scoping rules are

followed.

4. Operations on Symbol Table:

Insertion: Adding new symbols to the table during parsing or when

encountering declarations.

Lookup: Searching for symbols when used or referenced in the code.

Compiler Design 74
 Update: Modifying attributes or information associated with existing
symbols.

Deletion: Removing symbols when they go out of scope or are no longer

needed.

Importance of Symbol Table:

1. Identifier Management:

Tracks all identifiers used in the program, aiding in resolving references and
ensuring uniqueness.

2. Scope Resolution:

Helps in resolving identifiers within their respective scopes, preventing

name conflicts.

3. Type Checking:

Stores and manages type information associated with identifiers, facilitating

type checking and compatibility verification.

4. Optimization and Code Generation:

Provides information required for code optimization and generation, such as

memory allocation and addressing.

Example Entry in a Symbol Table:

For an identifier variableX :

Name: variableX

Type: int

Scope: Global

Memory Location: 0x1234 (example memory address)

Other Attributes: Usage status, declaration line number, etc.

Summary:

Compiler Design 75
 The symbol table is a fundamental component in compiler design that manages
information about symbols present in the source code. It stores attributes
associated with symbols, aids in scope resolution, and facilitates various
compilation tasks like type checking, code generation, and optimization.

Data Structure for Symbol Table: lists, trees, linked

lists, hash tables
In compiler design, various data structures can be utilized to implement symbol
tables, each with its advantages and trade-offs based on factors like lookup
efficiency, insertion speed, memory usage, and the overall performance of symbol
table operations. Common data structures for symbol tables include:

1. Lists:
Sequential Storage: Stores entries sequentially.

Simple Implementation: Easy to implement and manage.

Linear Search: Requires linear search for symbol lookup, leading to slower
search times with larger symbol tables.

2. Trees (Binary Search Trees, Balanced Trees):

Ordered Structure: Maintains symbols in a sorted order.

Efficient Lookup: Enables logarithmic time complexity for lookup operations

(e.g., binary search tree).

Balanced Trees: Structures like AVL trees or Red-Black trees ensure balanced
heights, optimizing search times.

3. Linked Lists:
Dynamic Structure: Easily accommodates variable-sized symbol tables.

Sequential Access: Provides sequential access to symbol entries.

Slower Lookup: Linear search required for lookup, leading to slower search
times with larger symbol tables.

Compiler Design 76
 4. Hash Tables:
Hashing Function: Uses a hash function to map symbols to unique indices
(buckets).

Constant Time Lookup (Average Case): Provides fast lookup with constant
time complexity on average.

Collision Handling: Requires a mechanism to handle collisions (e.g., chaining

or open addressing).

Selection Criteria for Symbol Table Data Structure:

Search and Insertion Time: Efficiency in lookup and insertion operations.

Memory Overhead: Space efficiency and memory utilization.

Scalability: Performance with increasing symbol table size.

Collision Handling (for Hash Tables): Effectiveness in handling hash

collisions.

Summary:

Lists, Trees, Linked Lists: Provide ordered or sequential storage but might
have slower lookup times.

Hash Tables: Offer fast average-case lookup but require efficient collision
resolution strategies.

The selection of a specific data structure for a symbol table depends on the specific
requirements of the compiler, the size of the symbol table, and the trade-offs
between search efficiency, memory usage, and ease of implementation.
Each data structure has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice often
involves considering the characteristics of the symbols, the expected number of
entries, and the desired performance for symbol table operations within the
compiler.

Error Detection and Recovery

Compiler Design 77
 Error detection and recovery are crucial aspects of the compilation process. Errors
can occur at different phases of compilation, including the lexical phase, syntactic
phase, and semantic phase, and each phase handles errors differently.

Types of Errors in Compilation:

1. Lexical Errors:
Occur during lexical analysis (scanning).

Examples: Invalid characters, illegal tokens, misspelled keywords.

Handling: Lexical analyzer reports these errors and may try to recover by
skipping or correcting the invalid tokens.

2. Syntactic Errors:
Occur during parsing or syntax analysis.

Examples: Missing semicolons, incorrect use of operators, syntax violations.

Handling: Parser reports syntax errors, provides error messages, and may
attempt to recover to continue parsing (e.g., using error productions or
synchronization tokens).

3. Semantic Errors:
Occur during semantic analysis.

Examples: Type mismatches, undeclared variables, scope-related issues.

Handling: Semantic analyzer detects these errors and reports them; recovery is
challenging as it often requires correct context information.

Errors Encountered by Each Phase:

1. Lexical Phase:
Errors detected: Invalid characters, unrecognized tokens.

Recovery: Skip invalid tokens, report errors, and attempt to continue.

Compiler Design 78
 2. Syntactic Phase:
Errors detected: Incorrect grammar usage, syntax violations.

Recovery: Report errors, attempt error recovery (e.g., using error productions,
inserting or deleting tokens to synchronize parsing).

3. Semantic Phase:
Errors detected: Type mismatches, undeclared variables, scope-related issues.

Recovery: Report errors, but recovery is more challenging as it requires

context-aware analysis. Sometimes, compilation may halt at severe semantic
errors.

Error Recovery Strategies:

1. Panic Mode Recovery:

Discards input tokens until reaching a synchronization point.

Resumes parsing from a known state or synchronization point.

2. Phrase-Level Recovery:

Modifies the parse tree to correct syntax errors (e.g., by inserting missing
tokens).

Tries to continue parsing by adjusting the syntax tree.

3. Global Correction:

Uses global context or semantic information to attempt error recovery.

More challenging but may offer better recovery for certain errors.

Importance of Error Detection and Recovery:

Robustness: Enhances the robustness of the compiler, allowing it to handle

erroneous code gracefully.

User-Friendliness: Provides informative error messages to aid programmers in

debugging.

Compiler Design 79
 Continued Compilation: Allows the compiler to continue parsing and analyzing
the code despite errors to identify multiple issues in one run.

Conclusion:
Error detection and recovery are critical in compiler design to handle errors
occurring at different phases of the compilation process. Each phase is responsible
for detecting specific types of errors and employing various strategies to report
errors and attempt recovery, aiming to continue compilation or provide meaningful
feedback to the programmer.

Code Optimization
Code optimization is a crucial phase in the compilation process aimed at improving
the efficiency, speed, and/or size of the generated code without altering its
functionality. It involves transforming the code to produce optimized versions that
execute faster, consume less memory, or have better performance characteristics.

Principal Sources of Optimizations:

1. Machine-Independent Optimizations:
a. Constant Folding:
- Evaluate constant expressions during compile-time to reduce runtime
computations.
b. Dead Code Elimination:
- Remove unreachable or redundant code that doesn't affect the program's
output.
c. Common Subexpression Elimination (CSE):
- Identify and eliminate redundant computations by reusing previously
computed values.

2. Control Flow Optimizations:

a. Loop Optimization:
- Transform loops to improve efficiency by reducing loop overhead and
enhancing loop structures.

Compiler Design 80
 b. Loop Unrolling:
- Duplicate loop bodies to reduce loop control overhead and potentially enhance
instruction-level parallelism.
c. Loop-Invariant Code Motion:
- Move loop-invariant computations outside the loop to decrease redundant
calculations.

3. Data Flow Optimizations:

a. Register Allocation:
- Optimize register usage to reduce memory accesses and improve
performance.
b. Data Flow Analysis:
- Analyze the flow of data to optimize assignments, variable usage, and memory
accesses.
c. Strength Reduction:
- Replace expensive operations with cheaper ones (e.g., replace multiplication
with shifts).

4. High-Level Language-Specific Optimizations:

a. Function Inlining:
- Replace function calls with the function's body to eliminate overhead.
b. Procedure Optimizations:
- Optimize procedures or methods for better performance.

5. Memory Optimization:
a. Memory Hierarchy Optimization:
- Optimize memory usage to minimize cache misses and improve data locality.

Sources of Optimization Techniques:

1. Heuristics and Algorithms:

Development of optimization algorithms based on heuristics, mathematical

models, and empirical observations.

Compiler Design 81
 2. Compiler Optimization Phases:

Different optimization phases within the compiler that perform specific

optimizations tailored to improve code quality and performance.

3. Machine Architecture and Hardware:

Optimization techniques considering specific hardware architectures to

exploit hardware features and improve performance.

4. Profiling and Analysis Tools:

Tools that analyze code execution, identify bottlenecks, and provide insights
for optimization opportunities.

Importance of Optimization:

Performance Improvement: Enhances code execution speed and reduces

resource utilization.

Resource Utilization: Efficiently uses hardware resources like memory and

processor capabilities.

Energy Efficiency: Optimized code tends to consume less energy and battery
life in mobile devices.

Conclusion:
Code optimization sources stem from various techniques, algorithms, compiler
phases, hardware considerations, and analysis tools. Optimizations aim to improve
code efficiency, execution speed, and resource utilization without altering the
program's functionality, making it a crucial aspect of the compilation process.

Loop Optimization
Loop optimization is a significant facet of code optimization aimed at improving the
performance of loops within programs. Since loops often consume a substantial
portion of execution time, optimizing them can lead to considerable improvements in
overall program efficiency. Here are some common techniques used in loop
optimization:

Compiler Design 82
 Common Loop Optimization Techniques:
1. Loop Unrolling:

Description: Replicating loop bodies to reduce loop control overhead.

Benefits: Reduces the number of loop control instructions, potentially

increasing instruction-level parallelism and eliminating loop control
overhead.

2. Loop Fusion:

Description: Merging adjacent or related loops into a single loop.

Benefits: Reduces overhead and improves data locality by performing

multiple operations within a single loop iteration.

3. Loop-Invariant Code Motion (LICM):

Description: Moving loop-invariant computations outside the loop.

Benefits: Avoids redundant computations, reducing the number of times

computations are executed within the loop.

4. Loop Jamming:

Description: Combining multiple loops to execute them concurrently.

Benefits: Increases instruction-level parallelism by executing multiple loops

simultaneously.

5. Loop Peeling:

Description: Special handling for the first or last iteration of a loop that
differs from the rest.

Benefits: Optimizes loop execution by handling atypical iterations

separately, often improving performance.

6. Software Pipelining:

Description: Overlapping loop iterations to increase instruction throughput.

Benefits: Improves resource utilization by executing multiple iterations in

parallel.

Compiler Design 83
 7. Loop Tiling or Blocking:

Description: Dividing large loops into smaller blocks to fit into cache
memory.

Benefits: Enhances data locality and reduces cache misses, improving

memory access efficiency.

Importance of Loop Optimization:

Performance Improvement: Reduces loop execution time, which often leads
to significant overall performance gains.

Resource Utilization: Efficient loop execution minimizes resource wastage

(CPU cycles, memory, etc.).

Parallelism Exploitation: Optimized loops can facilitate better utilization of

parallel execution capabilities in modern processors.

Limitations and Considerations:

Over-Optimization: Excessive optimization might hinder code readability or
maintainability.

Compiler Dependence: Effectiveness of optimizations can vary across

different compilers and architectures.

Trade-offs: Some optimizations might benefit one aspect of performance at the

cost of another (e.g., code size vs. execution speed).

Conclusion:
Loop optimization is a critical area of code optimization that aims to enhance the
performance of loops within programs. By employing various techniques tailored to
exploit hardware capabilities and reduce overhead, loop optimization significantly
contributes to improving overall program efficiency.

In compiler design and optimization, basic blocks and flow graphs are fundamental
concepts used to analyze and optimize code.

Compiler Design 84
 Basic Blocks:
Definition:

Basic Block (BB): A straight-line code sequence with no branches except at

the entry and the exit.

Characteristics:

Entry and Exit: Starts with a single entry point and ends with a single exit
point.

No Branching: Contains a sequence of instructions executed in sequence

without any jumps or branches other than at the entry and exit points.

Control Structures: Represent segments of code unaffected by jumps,

conditional statements, or labels.

Example:

Consider the following code snippet:

a = b + c;
d = a - e;

In this case, each line of code forms a basic block.

Flow Graphs:
Definition:

Flow Graph: A graphical representation of a program's control flow that

visualizes how the basic blocks are connected through control flow transfers.

Characteristics:

Nodes: Each basic block is represented as a node in the graph.

Edges: Directed edges between nodes represent the flow of control between
basic blocks.

Compiler Design 85
 Control Flow Transfers: Represented by directed edges (arrows) between
basic blocks.

Example:

For the code snippet mentioned above, the flow graph representation could be:

[Start]
|
[BB1] -> [BB2]
| |
[End] <- |

Here, [BB1] and [BB2] are the basic blocks, [Start] is the entry point, and [End] is
the exit point.

Usage in Optimization:

Analysis: Basic blocks help in analyzing and understanding program

structures, aiding in optimization.

Optimization: Flow graphs assist in identifying optimization opportunities by

visualizing control flow transfers and code structures.

Code Generation: Basic blocks facilitate efficient code generation by

segmenting code into manageable units.

Importance:

Control Flow Analysis: Helps in understanding program control flow, aiding in

code optimization and transformation.

Modularity: Divides code into manageable and analyzable segments,

simplifying optimization efforts.

Visualization: Offers a visual representation of code structure, aiding in

debugging and analysis.

Conclusion:

Compiler Design 86
 Basic blocks and flow graphs are crucial concepts used in compiler optimization.
Basic blocks segment code sequences, while flow graphs visualize how these
blocks are connected through control flow transfers. These representations are
essential for analyzing, optimizing, and visualizing program structures and control
flow.

DAG Representation of Basic Blocks:

A Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) representation of basic blocks involves utilizing a
graph structure to represent and optimize code. This approach is commonly used in
compiler optimization techniques like common subexpression elimination and
register allocation.

1. Node Representation:

Nodes: Represent unique computations or expressions within basic blocks.

Attributes: Store information about the computation, including the

operation performed and operands used.

2. Edges:

Directed Edges: Represent dependencies between computations.

Connectivity: Directed edges from nodes representing computations to

their respective operands.

3. Common Subexpression Elimination (CSE):

Optimization Technique: Identifies identical subexpressions within basic

blocks.

DAG Usage: DAGs help identify common subexpressions by representing

them as shared nodes, allowing for their elimination and replacement.

4. Register Allocation:

Optimization Technique: Assigns hardware registers to variables in the

code.

Compiler Design 87
 DAG Usage: DAGs assist in identifying the liveness of variables and their
reuse, aiding in register allocation decisions.

Example:

Consider the following basic block:

t1 = a + b
t2 = c * d
t3 = t1 + t2

The DAG representation could look like:

+ * +
/ \\ / \\ / \\
a b c d t1 t2

In this DAG representation:

Nodes represent unique computations (additions or multiplications).

Edges show dependencies between computations.

Nodes t1 and t2 are shared among computations where they occur.

Advantages of DAG Representation:

Redundancy Elimination: Helps identify and eliminate redundant

computations.

Improved Efficiency: Reduces the number of redundant operations and

enhances code efficiency.

Visualization: Provides a visual representation of code optimizations, aiding in

analysis.

Conclusion:
DAG representation of basic blocks offers a concise and efficient way to represent
computations and their dependencies within a block of code. It's a valuable tool for
compiler optimizations, facilitating techniques like common subexpression

Compiler Design 88
 elimination and register allocation by identifying and optimizing redundant
computations and variable usage.

Code Generation
Code generation in compiler design involves translating the intermediate
representation (IR) of a program into executable code for a target platform. Several
key issues arise during the design of code generation, impacting the efficiency,
correctness, and optimization of the generated code.

Key Issues in Code Generation:

1. Target Architecture:

Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): Designing code generation to utilize

the target machine's instruction set efficiently.

Memory Model: Addressing the memory hierarchy and addressing modes

of the target architecture.

2. Code Quality and Efficiency:

Optimization: Deciding when and how to apply optimization techniques

during code generation to improve the generated code's performance.

Instruction Selection: Choosing the most efficient sequence of

instructions for each high-level operation to achieve optimal performance.

3. Register Allocation:

Register Usage: Allocating and managing registers effectively to minimize

memory access and improve execution speed.

Spilling: Handling situations when there are insufficient registers for

variables, necessitating spilling to memory.

4. Addressing Modes and Memory Access:

Address Calculation: Choosing appropriate addressing modes to access

memory efficiently.

Compiler Design 89
 Load/Store Optimization: Optimizing load and store instructions to reduce
memory access overhead.

5. Control Flow and Branching:

Branch Optimization: Minimizing branches and optimizing conditional

jumps for better performance.

Loop Optimization: Identifying and optimizing loops for improved

efficiency.

6. Handling High-Level Constructs:

Function Calls: Efficiently handling function calls and returns, parameter

passing, and managing function prologues and epilogues.

Exception Handling: Addressing exceptions, error handling, and other

high-level constructs in the target code.

7. Target Code Representation:

Intermediate Representations: Deciding on an appropriate IR and

ensuring its efficient translation into target code.

Code Size vs. Performance: Balancing trade-offs between code size and
execution speed.

Challenges and Trade-offs:

Performance vs. Compilation Time: Optimizing code generation while

maintaining reasonable compilation time.

Complexity vs. Simplicity: Striking a balance between complex optimization

techniques and simple, efficient code generation algorithms.

Portability vs. Target Optimization: Designing code generation for multiple

target architectures while optimizing specifically for certain platforms.

Conclusion:
Code generation in compilers involves navigating several challenges, including
optimizing for the target architecture, managing resources efficiently, handling high-
level constructs, and balancing code quality with compilation time. Successful code

Compiler Design 90
 generation requires addressing these issues while considering trade-offs to produce
efficient, correct, and optimized executable code.

A simple target machine mode, A Simple Code

Generator
A simple target machine model and code generator can be designed to illustrate the
basic concepts involved in code generation. Let's outline a basic target machine
model and a simple code generator.

Simple Target Machine Model:

Characteristics:

Registers: Assume a limited number of registers (e.g., 4 general-purpose

registers: R0, R1, R2, R3).

Memory: Access to a simple memory model with a linear address space.

Instruction Set: Minimal instruction set architecture (ISA) consisting of basic

operations (e.g., load, store, add, subtract, jump).

Simple Code Generator:

Input:

Intermediate Representation (IR): Assume a simple IR similar to three-

address code.

Code Generation Process:

1. Traversal:

Traverse the intermediate representation (IR), usually in a top-down or

bottom-up manner.

2. Mapping to Instructions:

Map each operation in the IR to the corresponding target machine

instructions.

Compiler Design 91
 For example, map addition to "ADD," subtraction to "SUB," load and store
operations to respective instructions.

3. Register Allocation:

Allocate variables to registers based on availability and usage patterns.

Perform basic register allocation, assuming a fixed set of registers.

4. Code Generation:

Generate target machine code by emitting instructions for each operation in

the IR.

Translate each operation into its equivalent instruction in the target machine
language.

Example:

Consider a simple IR statement:

t1 = a + b

Code Generation Steps:

1. Map the addition operation to the target machine instruction:

ADD R0, R1, R2 // Add contents of R1 (a) and R2 (b) and s

2. Allocate registers R0, R1, R2 to variables a, b, and t1, respectively.

Conclusion:
A simple target machine model and code generator involve mapping operations
from an intermediate representation to instructions in the target machine language.
This basic illustration helps in understanding the translation process and the
mapping of high-level operations to low-level machine instructions.

Peep‐hole optimization

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 Peephole optimization is a local and straightforward optimization technique used in
compilers to enhance the generated code's quality by examining and modifying a
small window of code, typically a few adjacent instructions, referred to as a
"peephole." This technique aims to identify and replace certain inefficient code
sequences with more optimized ones within this limited scope.

Key Features of Peephole Optimization:

1. Local Scope:

Focuses on a small, fixed-size window of instructions or code sequences.

Examines a few adjacent instructions, usually 3 to 15 instructions long,

depending on the compiler implementation.

2. Pattern Matching:

Identifies specific patterns or sequences of instructions known to be

inefficient or redundant.

Looks for matches within the peephole window for these patterns.

3. Code Transformation:

Replaces identified inefficient code patterns with optimized alternatives.

Examples include replacing redundant sequences with shorter or more

efficient instructions.

4. Iterative Process:

Continuously applies optimizations in multiple passes, scanning through the

code and applying transformations until no further improvements can be
made.

Examples of Peephole Optimizations:

1. Redundant Load/Store Elimination:

Removing unnecessary consecutive load/store operations to and from the

same memory location.

2. Constant Folding:

Compiler Design 93
 Evaluating constant expressions during compilation instead of runtime.

3. Strength Reduction:

Replacing expensive operations with cheaper ones, like replacing

multiplication with shifts for power-of-two operations.

4. Dead Code Elimination:

Removing unreachable or redundant code sequences.

5. Optimizing Conditional/Branch Instructions:

Replacing complex conditional jumps with simpler ones when applicable.

6. Register Usage Optimization:

Reducing unnecessary register spills or reloads within a small code

sequence.

Limitations of Peephole Optimization:

1. Localized Scope:

Limited scope may overlook optimization opportunities that span larger

code sequences.

2. Compiler Overhead:

Multiple passes through the code may increase compilation time.

3. Compiler Specificity:

Effectiveness may vary based on the compiler implementation and the

targeted architecture.

Conclusion:
Peephole optimization serves as a quick and effective technique to improve code
quality by identifying and replacing inefficient code patterns within a small window of
instructions. While it offers local optimizations and can enhance code in specific
cases, it's just one of many optimization strategies employed in compiler design and
might not cover larger-scale optimizations that consider more extensive code
structures.

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 Register allocation and assignment
Register allocation and assignment are crucial tasks in compiler design, aiming to
efficiently manage the limited number of CPU registers available for storing
variables and intermediate values during program execution.

Register Allocation:
Definition:

Register Allocation: Assigning variables in the program to a limited set of

hardware registers to minimize memory accesses and improve performance.

Techniques:

1. Local Register Allocation:

Allocates registers within a basic block or a small code section.

Usually performed using graph coloring algorithms or heuristic approaches.

2. Global Register Allocation:

Considers the entire program's control flow to allocate registers.

Involves interprocedural analysis and potentially spilling values to memory.

Strategies:

1. Graph Coloring:

Represents interference between variables as a graph.

Colors the graph nodes (representing variables) to allocate registers without

conflicting colors for connected nodes.

2. Spilling:

Moves variables from registers to memory when there are insufficient

registers.

Chooses which variables to spill based on their usage and the impact on
performance.

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 Register Assignment:
Definition:

Register Assignment: Deciding which variables or values are to be placed in

specific registers during program execution.

Techniques:

1. Static Register Allocation:

Determines register assignments during compile-time.

Typically used in architectures with fixed registers for specific purposes.

2. Dynamic Register Allocation:

Performs register assignments dynamically at runtime.

Common in architectures allowing register allocation decisions during

program execution (e.g., JIT compilation).

Challenges and Considerations:

1. Register Pressure:

Balancing the demand for registers against the limited number available.

Optimizing allocation to minimize register spills to memory.

2. Interference and Constraints:

Handling interference between variables that cannot reside in the same

register due to their overlapping usage.

3. Live Range Analysis:

Identifying the duration (or live range) for which a variable requires a
register.

4. Instruction Scheduling Impact:

Register allocation affects instruction scheduling, which can influence

performance.

Importance:

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 Execution Speed: Efficient register allocation minimizes memory accesses,
enhancing execution speed.

Resource Utilization: Optimally using registers reduces memory traffic,

enhancing overall resource utilization.

Conclusion:
Register allocation and assignment are crucial tasks in compiler design aimed at
efficiently managing the limited number of hardware registers available for storing
values during program execution. Effective strategies involve graph-based coloring
techniques, handling interference, and optimizing register usage to improve code
performance.
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Compiler Design 97