MODULE 3

PROPOSITIONS AND SYLLOGISMS

DIVISION OF LOGIC
Judgment
• is the act by which the mind affirms or denies something about something else. A
judgment however, gives the mind a complex object.
• it is the second act of the intellect by which it pronounces the agreement between
terms or ideas.
• ideas or concept, in themselves, are neither true nor false. Truth becomes a logical
issue when the intellect relates, compares, and pronounces whether two ideas or
concepts agree or disagree with each other.
• Ex. “Lady” “Beautiful”
• when the mind compares two terms and expresses whether they agree or disagree
in a statement, then we can say whether the statement is true or false.
• Ex. “The Lady is beautiful”
 PROPOSITION
• Is the basic building block of logic.
• It is defined as a DECLARATIVE SENTENCE that is either True or
False, but not both.
• A Proposition, therefore, is the verbal expressions of judgment.
• It is a statement in which something is either affirmed or denied
• A proposition always has a truth value therefore it may either be true or
false
• A proposition is always a sentence. It is a kind of sentence that makes an
assertion or a claim, it asserts that something is true or false, hence, not all
sentences are propositions
• For a sentence to be a proposition, it must express an assertion or claim that
is meaningful or coherent.
Recitation
State whether the sentence is a proposition or not a proposition.
• John is the husband of Mary.
• Get off the grass!
• My dog is big and fluffy.
• My car is a Toyota Corolla.
• What is your name?
• Tell me something about yourself.
• I think this class is fascinating.
• Do we exist?
• Do your homework.
KINDS OF PROPOSITIONS
Categorical Proposition
• is one which gives a direct assertion of agreement or disagreement between the
subject term and predicate term. For this reason
• it is also called assertoric proposition. It is called categorical because it directly
declares something unconditionally.
• always makes a direct claim, thus its truth-value is directly known
• Ex. “The weather is fine.” “A book is useful.” “No man is perfect.”
• According to the number of individuals (denotation) to whom a proposition
applies, a categorical proposition may be either singular, particular, universal, or
collective.
Three elements of a Categorical Proposition
• Subject term – the term designating the idea (thing) about which something is
affirmed or denied.
• Predicate term – the term designating the idea (thing or attribute) which is
affirmed or denied of the subject term.
• Copula – is the linking verb is or is not (am, am not, are, are not, was, was not,
were, were not) expressing the agreement or disagreement between the subject
term and the predicate term. As a linking verb, it links the predicate term to the
subject term.
• Ex. Some Students are hardworking.
(Quantifier) (Subject) (Copula) (Predicate)

Peter is a living person.

(Subject). (Copula) (Quantifier) (Predicate)
 Hypothetical Proposition
• Does not declare an unconditional affirmation or denial, but expresses a relation of
dependence such as an opposite or a likeness between two clauses.
• The truth value of a hypothetical proposition depends on the relationship or
connection between the two judgements.
• The hypothetical is always a compound statement since it is always composed of
two single or basic propositions
• Ex. “If there is no typhoon, the the weather is fine”
“If the book is useful, then keep it”
Three kinds of a Hypothetical Proposition
1. Conditional Proposition
• one which expresses a condition or relation of dependence between two
propositions. The expressed relation points out that one proposition necessarily
follows from the other because of a definite condition. To put simply, one of the
constituent propositions implies the other.
• a conditional proposition is one in which two parts are joined by if, unless, when,
where, suppose, in case. It is sometimes called an if-then proposition because of its
usual structure; If A is B Then C is D.
• Ex. “If a man is farsighted, he needs eyeglasses.”
“If dry weather continues, the harvest will be poor.”
“If one works hard, then he will succeed in life.”
2. Disjunctive Proposition
• is one whose subject or predicate consists of parts which exclude each other. It is
sometimes called an either-or statement due to its construction. The parts of
disjunction are called disjuncts (alternants).
• A disjunction is proper (or perfect, complete, strict) if and when the parts
(disjuncts) Mutually exclusive. One disjuncts necessarily excludes the other; that
is, the disjuncts can either be true nor false together at the same time.
• Ex. “A man is either married or unmarried.”
“A person is either male or female.”
“A proposition is either true or false”
3. Conjunctive Proposition
• is one which denies that two contrary predicates together can be true of the same
subject at the same time. It denies the simultaneous possibility of two alternatives.
• The truth of a conjunctive hypothetical proposition depends solely upon a true
exclusive opposition existing between their components parts. The parts of a
conjunctive are called conjuncts. Propositions of this type are reducible to two
connective hypothetical propositions or a combination of hypothetical and
categorical propositions.
• Ex. You cannot be in Makati and Quiapo at the same time.
(If you are not in Quiapo, you are not in Makati. If you are in Makati, you are not in Quiapo.)
Today cannot be both Sunday and Monday.
(If today is Sunday, then today it is not Monday. If today is Monday, today is not Sunday.)
 Modal Proposition
• is meant the degree of certainty with which the predicate is affirmed or denied of
the subject. In so far as modal propositions have a verb copula, hey are species or
forms of categorical propositions. Modal propositions, however, are different from
the assertoric categorical proposition.
 SYLLOGISM
• The word syllogism comes from the Greek words “synlegein” which mean
“connected thought”. It is defined as an argumentation in which, from two
judgments that contain a common idea and at least one of which is, universal, a
third judgments, distinct from either of the former, follow with necessity.
• The fundamental arrangement of the syllogism consists, therefore, of two premises
and a conclusion. The two propositions are called premise while the last is called a
conclusion. The first premise is called a major premise and the second premise is
called the minor premise. The conclusion expresses the agreement or disagreement
between the two main terms in the premises.
• Ex. All Christians believe in Christ - major premise
All Catholics are Christians - minor premise
Ergo, all Catholics believe in Christ - conclusion
• Major Term. The major term The major term is the predicate of the conclusion. It
must occur in the conclusion and in one of the premises, specifically in the major
premise.
• Minor Term. The minor term is the subject of the conclusion and must occur in
the conclusion and in the minor premise. The minor premise which contains the
minor terms is often introduced by the adversative conjunction “Atqui” (but) since
in argumentation and the debate it introduces a turn of thought contrary to the
expectations of an opponent.
• Middle Term. The middle term is the “bridge, ‘the “connecting link” between the
major and the minor terms. It occurs in each of the premises but not in the
conclusion. As opposed to the middle term, the minor and the major terms are
called EXTERMES.
• There are three terms: major term (P) which is the predicate of the conclusion and
it is contained in the major premise, the minor term (S), which is the subject of the
conclusion and it is contained in the minor premise, and the middle term (M),
which is the common term and appears in both premises.
• Ex. All Bankers are businessmen businessman - major term (P)
Mr. Cruz is a banker Mr. Cruz - minor term (S)
Ergo, Mr. Cruz is a businessman bankers - middle term (M)
• One of the premises contains a comparison of the major term (P) with the middle
term (M) and the other contains the comparison of the minor term (S) with the
middle term (M). The conclusion expresses the agreement or disagreement
between the minor term(S) and the major term (P).
Examples.
• Some Filipinos are good entertainers
Some good entertainers are credible performers
Ergo, all credible performers are Filipinos
• All senators are legislators
Some legislators are deep-thinkers
Ergo, some deep-thinkers are senators
• All highschool school students are teenagers
Some teenagers are rebellious
Ergo, some highschool students are rebellious
• All birds are animals
All Parrots are birds
Ergo, All Parrots are animals
• All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Ergo, Socrates is a mortal
• From the very nature of the categorical syllogism, logicians have developed Eight
General Laws or Canons governing every type of categorical syllogism, and must
be rigidly observed, otherwise, the consistency of the argumentation will be
demolished, and the conclusion will suffer from falsity or will not follow with
logical force from the premises.
• Eight Laws of Categorical Syllogism
• Only three terms must exist in the syllogism
• Neither the major or minor term may be a universal term in the conclusion, if it was treated as
a particular term in the premises;
• The middle term may not appear in the conclusion
• The middle term must be used at least one distributively, i.e., as a universal term, in the
Premises;
• If both premises are affirmative, the conclusion must also be affirmative.
• Both premises may not be negative; one at least must be affirmative.
• No conclusion can be drawn from two particular premises; at least, one must be a Universal
proposition;
• The conclusion takes the weaker side, that is (a) if one of the premises is negative, the
Conclusion must be negative; and (b) if one of the premises is particular, the conclusion must
also be particular.
1. Only three terms must exist in the syllogism
• These terms are the major, minor, and middle term.
• In a standard categorical syllogism, there must only be three terms, the third term is the middle
term serving as the connection between the two other terms, the major and the minor.
• If there are only two terms or ideas involved in the inference, it cannot be called mediate inference.
On the other hand if there are more than three, then there will be no third term acting as a common
connection between the two terms. If there are more then three, for example four terms involved in
the inference then, we call it a "four- term construction. The fallacy of Four-term construction is
committed when there are four terms instead of three terms in the syllogism.
• Ex. All politicians are influential individuals.
Some local officials are elected by the people.
Ergo, some local officials are politicians
2. Neither the major or minor term may be a universal term in the conclusion, if it
was treated as a particular term in the premises
• This means that neither the major nor the minor term may be universal in the conclusion if they are
only particular in the premises. This applies to the two terms in the conclusion, namely the major
and the minor terms. If a term is used as a particular in the premise it must remain particular in the
conclusion, otherwise the same term would have a wider extension in the conclusion and that may
not be the same term used in the premise.
• Fallacy of Illicit Minor term - this is committed when the minor term has a wider or greater
extension in the conclusion than in the minor premise, when the minor term is particular in the
minor premise and universal in the conclusion.
• Ex.
All boxers are fighters
Some soldiers are boxers.
Ergo, all soldiers are fighters.
3. The middle term may not appear in the conclusion
• The middle term is always in the premises. The middle term cannot be in the conclusion, its
function is confined in the premises, if it appears in the conclusion then it may just be a repetition
of the premises. The fallacy committed is misplaced middle term, when the middle term appears in
the conclusion.
• Ex.
All philosophers are wise
St. Thomas is a philosopher
Ergo, St. Thomas is a wise philosopher
• Although the third proposition is a correct statement, the syllogism cannot be considered as a valid
form of argument since the middle term which is "philosopher" still appears in the conclusion.
4. The middle term must be used at least one distributively, i.e., as a universal term,
in the Premises
• The middle term cannot appear in the premises twice as particular, but it could be universal twice.
This is to ensure that there would be a connection between the middle term and at least one of the
other terms or both of them.
• If the middle term is used twice as particular, then there might not be a connection between the
middle term and the minor and major terms. The fallacy committed is undistributed middle term -
this happens when the middle term is taken twiceas a particular in both premises.
• The middle term may both be universal, or once universal in the premises, but when it is taken as a
particular in both premises, then this fallacy is committed.
• Ex.
All congressmen are legislators.
All senators are legislators.
All senators e are congressmen.
5. If both premises are affirmative, the conclusion must also be affirmative
• Two affirmative propositions means that the major and minor terms agree with the same third term
and therefore should agree with each other. If "A is B” and "B is C” therefore "C is A."
• Ex. All bankers are business men
Some bankers are accountants
Ergo, some accountants are not businessmen.
• This syllogism commits the fallacy of a negative conclusion from two affirmative premises.
6. Both premises may not be negative; one at least must be affirmative.
• If two terms do not agree with the same third term, the argument cannot proceed since there will be
no common ground between the two terms. Hence for the syllogism to be valid, one premise must
be affirmative.
• Ex. No pagan believe in Jesus Christ.
No Christian is a pagan.
Therefore ?
• From these two negative propositions no conclusion can ever be inferred. A syllogism with two
negative premises commits the fallacy of two negative premises.
7. No conclusion can be drawn from two particular premises; at least, one must be a
Universal proposition
• A syllogism with two particular premises will violate one or more rules of inference, like
undistributed middle term or illicit process. Hence for a syllogism to be valid one premise must be
universal when there are two particular premises, the fallacy committed is fallacy of double
particular premises.
• Ex.
Some government official are elected by the people.
Some individuals who are elected by the people are politicians.
Ergo, some politicians are government officials.
• This obviously commits the fallacy of undistributed middle term
8. The conclusion takes the weaker side, that is (a) if one of the premises is negative,
the Conclusion must be negative; and (b) if one of the premises is particular, the
conclusion must also be particular.
• This means that if one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative, if one premise is
particular, the conclusion must be particular. So if the major or minor premise is negative, while the
other premise is affirmative, the conclusion must be a negative proposition; if the major or minor
premise is particular and the other premise is universal, then the conclusion must be a particular
proposition.
• The following are invalid syllogisms:
• Ex.
All surgeon are doctors,
Some surgeons work in charity hospitals,
Ergo, all who work in charity hospitals are doctors.
 No soldier is a coward
Some criminals are coward
So, all criminals are not soldiers.

Every income earner must pay taxes

Some employees do not pay taxes
Hence, every employee pays tax.

• These syllogisms commits the fallacy of a stronger conclusion than the premises, aside from other
possible fallacies.
 VENN DIAGRAM
• The English logician John Venn popularized the diagram in the 1880s. He called
them Eulerian circles after the Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler, who created
similar diagrams in the 1700s.
• The term Venn diagram did not appear until 1918 when Clarence Lewis, an
American academic philosopher and the eventual founder of conceptual
pragmatism, referred to the circular depiction as the Venn diagram in his book A
Survey of Symbolic Logic.
• A Venn diagram uses overlapping circles or other shapes to illustrate the logical
relationships between two or more sets of items. Often, they serve to graphically
organize things, highlighting how the items are similar and different.
• Venn diagrams are used to depict how items relate to each other against an overall
backdrop, universe, data set, or environment. A Venn diagram could be used, for
example, to compare two companies within the same industry by illustrating the
products both companies offer (where circles overlap) and the products that are
exclusive to each company (outer circles).
• Venn diagrams are, at a basic level, simple pictorial representations of the
relationship that exists between two sets of things. However, they can be much
more complex. Still, the streamlined purpose of the Venn diagram to illustrate
concepts and groups has led to their popularized use in many fields, including
statistics, linguistics, logic, education, computer science, and business
• Say our universe is pets, and we want to compare which type of pet our family
might agree on.
• Ex.
Set A contains my preferences: dog, bird, hamster.
Set B contains Family Member B’s preferences: dog, cat, fish.
Set C contains Family Member C’s preferences: dog, cat, turtle, snake.
• The overlap, or intersection, of the three sets contains only dog. Looks like we’re
getting a dog.
• Of course, Venn diagrams can get a lot more involved than that, as they are used
extensively in various fields.