REVIEW MODULE: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING (STRESSES OF SOIL and SOIL SETTLEMENT)

SITUATION. Given the following layers

STRESSES IN SOIL
~ VERTICAL STRESSES ~
Effective Stress, PE
It is the stress resulting from particle-to-particle contact of soil.
PE = PT - Pw
Pore-Water Pressure, Pw
It is the stress induced by water-pressure.
Pw = γ w h
Total Stress, PT
PT = PE + P w

SITUATION. A river is 4 m deep having a clay layer at the bottom with

water content of 60% and specific gravity of 2.70. At a depth of 10 m from
the bottom of the river: 1. Determine the value of height “h” after the application of the surface
1. Find the total stress. load 150 kPa.
2. Find the pore-water pressure 2. Determine the degree of consolidation at Point A when h = 12 m?
3. Find the effective stress 3. Determine the value of “h” if the degree of consolidation at A is 80%.

SITUATION. A clay layer 8 m thick rest beneath a deposit of sand layer ~ TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION ~
12 m thick with water table located 4 m below the ground surface. The Coefficient of Consolidation, cv
water content and specific gravity of saturated sand are 30% and 2.65 It is the parameter used to describe the rate at which saturated clay or
respectively. other soil undergoes consolidation, or compaction, when subjected to an
4. Solve for the effective stress at a depth of 12 m. increase in pressure.
𝐤
5. If the specific gravity and void ratio of the clay layer are 2.70 and 0.90 𝐜𝐯 =
𝐦𝐯 𝛄𝐰
respectively, determine the effective stress at the bottom of the clay
layer.
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv
6. If the water level rises by 2 m from the original water level, determine It is the volume decrease of a unit volume of soil per unit increase of
the decrease in effective stress at the bottom of the soil formation. effective pressure during compression.
𝐚𝐯
𝐦𝐯 =
𝟏 + 𝐞𝐨
~ DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION ~
The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the amount of consolidation at Coefficient of Compressibility, av
a given time within a soil mass, to the total amount of consolidation It is the slope of the void ratio-pressure curve when both are plotted on
obtainable under a given stress condition. an arithmetic scale.
𝐞𝟏 − 𝐞𝟐
𝛅𝐭 𝐚𝐯 =
𝐔= 𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏
𝛅𝐦𝐚𝐱
Time Factor, Tv
where: δt = settlement at time t It is the parameter used to find the consolidation coefficient with time
δmax = settlement at the end of primary consolidation taken for consolidation settlement in soil. It is a non-dimensional number.
𝐂𝐯 𝐭
Another way to solve the degree of consolidation: 𝐓𝐯 =
(𝐇𝐝𝐫 )𝟐
𝐮𝐨 − 𝐮𝐭
𝐔=
𝐮𝐨
𝛑 𝐔 𝟐
where: uo = initial excess pore water pressure 𝐓𝐯 = ( ) when: 0 < U ≤ 60%
𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎
ut = excess pore water pressure at time t
𝐓𝐯 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐔) when: 60% < U < 100%

where: k = coefficient of permeability / hydraulic conductivity

t = time corresponding to the degree of consolidation
Hdr = thickness of soil sample (one way or two way)
U = degree of consolidation in %
SITUATION. The soil sample tested was 25 mm thick and drained both Settlement is defined as the vertical movement of the ground due to
sides. The time required for the specimen to reach 50% consolidation increased vertical stresses are applied to the ground surface.
was 4 mins. A similar clay layer in the field 3.0 m thick and drained both
sides is expected to have a primary consolidation settlement of 90 mm. Soil Settlement may be divided into three categories:
1. Immediate settlement - caused by the elastic deformation of
1. What is the average degree of consolidation of the soil in the field dry, moist, and saturated soils, without any change in moisture content.
when it reaches 36 mm settlement?
2. Primary consolidation settlement – caused by a volume
2. From the data results in the laboratory, what is the coefficient of change in saturated cohesive soils due to expulsion of water that
consolidation of the clay soil, mm2/min? occupies the void spaces.
3. What is the length of time (in days) required for the settlement in the 3. Secondary consolidation settlement – caused by plastic
field reaches 40 mm? readjustment of soil fabrics. It is an additional form of compression that
occurs at constant effective stress.
4. How long (days) will it take in the field for 90% primary consolidation
to occur?
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT (CLAY)
~ CAPILLARY RISE ~
The same idea that water moves upwards through a small tube against ∆𝒆
𝑺= 𝑯
the force of gravity, water in soil moves upwards through soil pores or 𝒆𝒐 + 𝟏
the spaces between soil particles. The height to which the water rises is
dependent upon the pore size where: H = thickness of stratum
𝐂 eo = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
𝐡=
𝐞(𝐃𝟏𝟎 ) S = primary consolidation settlement

where: C = Capillary constant PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT OF NORMALLY

e = Void ratio CONSOLIDATED CLAY
D10 = Effective diameter
𝑪𝑪 𝑯 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
𝑺= 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [ ]
Pore-Water Pressure: 𝒆𝒐 + 𝟏 𝑷𝒐
Fully Saturated
Pw = - γ w h PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT OF
Partially Saturated OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAY
Pw = - γ w h S Case 1: (Po + ∆P) ≤ Pc

where: γw = unit weight of water 𝑪𝒔 𝑯 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷

𝑺= 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [ ]
h = height measured from the water level 𝒆𝒐 + 𝟏 𝑷𝒐
S = degree of saturation Case 2: (Po + ∆P) > Pc
𝑪𝒔 𝑯 𝑷𝒄 𝑪𝒄 𝑯 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
𝑺= 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [ ] + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [ ]
SITUATION. A dense silt layer has a void ratio of 1.0. The groundwater 𝒆𝒐 + 𝟏 𝑷𝒐 𝒆𝒐 + 𝟏 𝑷𝒄
level is at 7.0 m depth. (Other soil properties: Effective diameter = 5 μm,
Capillary constant = 0.20 cm2) where: H = thickness of clay layer eo = initial void ratio
Cc = compression index Cs = swell index
1. Determine the height of the capillary rise in the silt? Pc = preconsolidation pressure ∆P = additional load
Po = present overburden pressure
2. Find the vertical effective stress (kPa) at 2 m depth, 5 m depth, 7 m
depth, and 10 m depth. (Assume unit weight of solids = 26.487 kN/m3 COMPRESSION INDEX, Cc (Skempton)
and that the soil above the capillary rise and ground surface is
For Remolded Clay: For Undisturbed Clay:
partially saturated at 60 %.)
Cc = 0.007(LL – 7%) CC = 0.009(LL – 10%)
3. The groundwater table of a deep sand layer is located 3.0 m below
SWELL INDEX, Cs
the ground surface. The sand above the water table is partially 𝟏 𝟏
saturated due to capillary action. If the soil above the water table is Cs ≅ 𝟓 𝑪𝒄 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟎 𝑪𝒄
only partially saturated at 70%, what is the vertical effective stress at
a depth of 2 m? Moist unit weight of sand is 18 kN/m3
SITUATION: A 7 m thick saturated clay layer is overlain by a 10 m thick
sand layer and is underlain by rock. The water table is 4 m below the
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL sand ground surface. The saturated unit weights of clay and sand are 21
kN/m3 and 18.50 kN/m3 respectively. The sand above the water table has
The increase in stress caused by foundation and other loads compresses a unit weight of 16 kN/m3. A uniformly distributed load, ∆p = 50 kPa, is
a soil layer. This compression is caused by: applied at the ground surface, Assume Cs = 1/5Cc. initial void ratio =
1. Compaction 0.60. LL = 60%. Determine the settlement of the clay layer caused by
It is the instantaneous process of reducing the volume voids due to primary consolidation if:
expulsion of pore air. .
2. Consolidation 1. The clay is normally consolidated.
It is a time dependent process of reducing the volume voids due to 2. The preconsolidated pressure pc is 175 kPa.
expulsion of pore water and plastic readjustment of soil solids.
3. The overconsolidated ratio OCR is 2.5.
Settlement is defined as the deformation of soil due to vertical stress.
 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT UNDER A IMMEDIATE & SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION
FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT
Approximate Slope Method: Immediate Settlement, Se
∆𝑷𝒕 + 𝟒∆𝑷𝒎 + ∆𝑷𝒃 𝑩𝒒(𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐𝒔 ) 𝑰𝒇
∆𝑷 = 𝑺𝒆 =
𝟔 𝑬𝒔
where: ∆Pt = increase in pressure at the top of the layer
∆Pm = increase in pressure at the middle of the layer Secondary Consolidation Settlement, Ss
∆Pb = increase in pressure at the bottom of the layer
𝑪𝜶 𝑯 𝑻𝟐
𝑺𝒔 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [ ]
𝒆𝒑 + 𝟏 𝑻𝟏
SITUATION: It is desired to calculate the consolidation settlement of the
3 m thick clay layer shown in figure that will result from the load carried
by the footing measuring 3 m x 1.5 m in plan. Assume the clay to be TOTAL SETTLEMENT
normally consolidated and using 2:1 method. 𝑺𝑻 = 𝑺 𝒆 + 𝑺𝒑 + 𝑺𝒔

SITUATION Figure shows the geometry of a rectangular footing (4 m x

2.5 m) of a three storied building and the properties of clay layer.

1. Calculate the bearing pressure at the base of the foundation.

2. Calculate the overburden pressure.

3. Calculate the immediate settlement.

1. Calculate the initial effective stress at the mid-height of the clay 4. Compute the secondary consolidation settlement of the clay 4 years
layer. after the completion of primary consolidation settlement. Time for
the completion of primary settlement is 2 years. Secondary
2. Calculate the induced stress at the mid-height of the clay layer.
compression index is 0.020.
3. Calculate the consolidation settlement of the clay layer if it is
normally consolidated. 5. From the figure shown above, if the water table rises to the surface
of clay over a period of time, determine the total consolidation
4. If the coefficient of volume compressibility is 0.0005 m2/kN, settlement of the clay 3 years after the completion of primary
calculate the settlement. consolidation settlement. Time for the completion of primary
settlement is 1 year. Secondary compression index is 0.025.
Ans. Sp = 216.95, Se = 10.6875, Ss = 53.04 mm, St = 280.68mm

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