The Natural Environment

Plate tectonic movement

Interior Structure of the Earth

• From the evidence of earth quake waves the Austrian Geologist Suess has divided the earth into
Crust, Mantle and Core.
• To know the plate tectonic movement, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and some landforms such as
Fold Mountain, rift valley, ridge etc, it is important to know the interior structure and its
characteristics.

Characteristics:

Crust (Lithosphere, 8-33km) – the topmost layer of the earth is the crust.
• Types of crust: The continental and oceanic crust.
• Temperature: 12000 C.
• Composition: Oceanic crust is made up of magnesium and basalt, while continental crust is made
of less dense mineral such as aluminium and granite lighter rock. The oceanic crust is heavier and
denser than the continental crust.

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Mantle (Asthenosphere 2900km) –
• The temperature here is 30000 C.
• Composition: consists of lower mantle is solid rock and the upper mantle of molten rock called
magma.

Core (Barysphere 6400 km) –

• the core is very dense and there is convectional current.
• The temperature here is 50000 C. The layers are composed mostly of Iron and nickel.

Plate Tectonics:
• The earth’s crust is broken up into pieces called plate.
• Heat rising and falling inside the mantle creates convection current.
• The convection current moves the plates.
• The movement of the plates and the activity inside the earth is called plate tectonics.
• The model builds on the concepts of continental drift theory, and was accepted by the geoscientific
community after the concepts of seafloor spreading were developed in the state in 1950s.

Why do tectonic plates move? Plate Tectonics Theory:

• According to the Plate tectonics Theory, the crustal plate which are resting on the soft, plastic-like
mantle areas constantly in motion.
• The force that brings about the motion of the crustal plates comes from the tremendous heat found
in the earth’s interior.
• This heat cause, the rock in the mantle to melt and become molten rock called magma.
• When magma is heated, it expands, rises and generates convectional current which push the plates
away from each other.
• When it cools, the magma sinks and brings the plate towards each other.
• This constant rising and sinking of the magma results in the movement of the plates over the earth’s
surface.
• The convectional currents move these plates away from or towards or alongside each other.
• These movements along plate boundaries give rise to earthquakes, volcanoes and fold mountains.
Where convection currents diverge near the earth’s crust, plates move apart. Where the convection
currents converge, plates move towards each other.

The major plates are:

1. North American plate
2. South American plate
3. Eurasian plate
4. Indo-Australian plate
5. African plate
6. Pacific plate
7. Antarctic plate

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There are seven smaller secondary plates namely:
1. Nazca 2. Cocos 3. Caribean 4. Scotia 5. Arabian 6. Phillipine and 7.
Juan de Fuca.

Because the plates are so big, they have faults and cracks in them sometimes divided into small
tertiary plate as well.

Types of plate boundaries:

1. Divergent boundaries (constructive) occur where two plates move apart from each other causing
sea-floor spreading; new oceanic crust is formed, creating mid-ocean ridges. (eg: Europe is moving away
from North America). Gentle volcanic and earthquake occur under these boundaries.

i. Oceanic – oceanic plate divergence: When two Oceanic plates meet, new sea floors are formed in
a process of sea floor spreading. When the plates move apart from each other, magma rises and solidifies to
form a ridge on the sea floor. The resultant features are – mid –oceanic ridge.

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ii. Continental – continental plate divergence: the divergence of two continental crusts may result
in the formation of steep-sided lowlands known as rift vallys. E.g: East African rift valley. When the
continental crusts move apart, fractures are form at the boundary and the continental crusts sinks. The
linear depression formed at the boundary is known as rift valley.

2. Convergent boundaries (destructive/subduction zones) occur where two plates moving

towards each other there is formation of a subduction zone (sink beneath) or folding of the crust takes place.

i. Oceanic – continental plate convergence: when the oceanic crust collides into a continental crust,
the denser oceanic is forced to sink under the less dense continental crust forming an oceanic trench. The
sinking crust melts to become magma, which rises to the earth’s surface through the fractures to form
volcanoes. The compression of the continental crust also forms a range of Fold Mountains. Nazca plate sinks
under the South American plate. Violent volcanic and earthquake occur under these boundaries.

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 ii. Oceanic – oceanic plate convergence:
when two oceanic plate collide, the denser oceanic crust will be forced under the less dense
crust. Some of the oceanic plates are more denser than the other due to the age of the sea floor. The
sinking crust melts under pressure of heat and become magma. This magma rises up through the fractures
forming undersea volcanoes. Sometime, this volcano builds up and forms volcanic Islands.

iii. Continental – continental plate convergence: when the two continental collide each other,
massive bending and folding of the crusts takes place.
With this kind of collision, the Fold Mountains are formed like the Himalayas. Earthquakes are
also occurred at the plate boundaries.

3. Transform boundaries (conservative) occurs where two plates slip sideways each other but land
is neither destroyed nor created. This movement result in the formation of transform fault. Violent
earthquake can be occurred but no volcanic eruption occurs. Eg: The San Andreas fault in California.
Earthquake are common along such boundaries, there are few or no volcanoes.

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Volcanoes

• A Volcano is a conical or dome-shaped landform formed from the accumulation of lava that has been
emitted onto earth’s surface.
• These materials include lava and pyroclastic materials, which consists of ash, dust, gas and rock
fragments.
• All fragments thrown into the air by a volcanic eruption are called pyroclastic material. Volcanoes
that consist predominantly of pyroclastic materials are called cinder cones.

Formation of Volcanoes:
• The formation of volcanoes begins when the magma chamber below the earth’s surface
experiences pressure from movements at plate boundaries.
• The pressure may result from the collision of two plates at convergent plate boundaries or the
moving apart of two plates at divergent plate boundaries.
• Such movements cause the magma to force its ways upwards through vents in the earth’s crust.
Eventually, the magma pours onto the earth’s surface as lava.

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EFFECTS OF VOLCANOES:

LAVA:
• Lava is magma that reaches the surface.
• This liquefied rock is many times hotter than boiling water and glows bright yellow, orange, and
red. Some lava cools quickly, on or near the volcano, but more fluid lava may travel for kilometres
before slowly harden into rock.

PYROCLASTIC MATERIAL:
• All fragments thrown into the air by a volcanic eruption are called pyroclastic material.
• During a violent eruption, the force of the blast sends super hot gas and millions of pieces of lava into
the air. It travels at a speed of 500km/hr with the tem.7000C

GASES:
• The gaseous substances are mainly composed of steam, hydrochloric acid, ammonium chloride,
sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

Ash clouds
• the weight of the falling ash can collapse building and destroy crops. It reduces sunlight by blocking
out the sun and even causes problems for air travel

Tsunami and acid rain

• tsunami also occur when there is volcanic eruption in the ocean and acid rain due to large amount
of elements emission in the air.

Types of Volcanoes
Composite volcano:
• A large cone-shaped with a steep slopes.
• The beautifully symmetrical cones of Fuji in Japan and Mayon in the Philippines are the examples.
• The Strato or composite volcanoes are the highest and steepest volcanoes in the world.

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Shield volcanoes:
• A cone-shaped with gentle slopes and wide bases, because they release fluid lava slowly.
• These volcanoes can create huge landforms. Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea on the island of
Hawaii are classic examples.

Acid Lava Dome Volcano:

• Dome-shaped with steep convex slopes. The lava flows from a central vent, cool and solidifies quickly

Fissure eruption:
• Under certain circumstances, instead of issuing from a central vent, lava pours out along cracks, or
fissures, that may extend for several kilometres across the land surface.
• Flows of this sort have created thick sheets of basalt covering thousands of square kilometres.
• The Deccan Plateau in India and the Columbia Plateau in the northwest United States are the
example.

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DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

1. CIRCUM PACIFIC BELT:

• The majority of the world’s active volcanoes occur along the plate boundaries.
• The most important belt of volcanoes is the so called the Ring of Fire.
• This belt is more or less surrounds the Pacific Ocean.
• Nearly 66% of the active volcanoes lie in this belt.
• It is co-incidental with the belt of earthquakes.
• It runs through the young fold mountains of the Rockies, and the Andes in North and South Americas
and along the eastern coastal areas and islands of East Asia.
• Mayon, Fuji are some examples.
• The Ring of Fire extends through the Andes of South America, Central America, Mexico, the
Cascade Mountain of Western USA.
• Volcano like Cotopaxi, Katmai, Fujiyama etc are located in this belt.

2. Atlantic Belt:
• Another belt runs north-south through the Atlantic and accordingly is known as Atlantic belt.
• It extends from Jan Mayen Island in the north to the Cape Verde Island in the south.
• Volcano like Mt. Pelee, St. Helena, Mt. Hekla etc are located.

3. Mediterranean Himalayan belt:

• Another volcanic belt is the Mediterranean Himalayan belt extending east-west from the
Alps via the Apennines to the Caucasus and the mountain of Asia minor.
• Volcanoes like Vesuvius, Etna, Mount Ararat are located in this belt.

Usefulness of Volcanoes:
• Fertile volcanic soils such as those found in Java, Indonesia, are excellent for growing crops.
• Valuable minerals and precious stones such as gold, diamonds, copper and silver are found in
volcanic rocks. E.g: diamond and copper mining are found in Kimberley in South Africa and
Bougainville in Papua New Guinea.
• Interesting volcanic landforms can lead to the development of the tourism industry which is an
important source of revenue. Mount Fuji in Japan, hot springs in Rotorua, New Zeland.
• Geothermal energy is an important source of clean energy for generating electricity like in New
Zealand, Japan, Italy, USA etc.

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Case study: Mount Merapi volcanic eruption, Indonesia

• The volcanic eruption in October 2010 in Mount Merapi in Central Java was said by authorities to be
the largest since the 1870s.
• On 25 Oct. the Indonesian government raised alert for Mount Merapi to its highest level (4) and
warned villagers to move to safer ground.
• Official said about 500 volcanic earthquakes had been recorded on the mountain over the weekend
of October, and that the magma has risen to about a kilometer below the surface due to the seismic
activity.
• Monday, 25 October: Merapi erupted three times on Monday afternoon spewing lava
down its southern and south-eastern slopes.
• Tuesday, 26 October: the pyroclastic activity had begun to subside.
• The eruptive events were classified as explosive events with volcanic bursts of ejected material,
visible flame and pyroclastic hot air flows.
• Friday, 29 October, an eruptive activity included lava ejection with hot ash clouds reported to be
flowing 3 kms down. Ash falls reached as far as the central Java town of Magelang.

Impacts of Mount Merapi volcanic eruption

Effects – social:
✓ The International Red cross reported on 29 October, pyroclastic flow from Merapi struck
Lamat river, Senowo river and Krasak river.
✓ The evacuation orders affected over 350,000 people were evacuated from the affected 10 kms
area.
✓ The price of many vegetables, such as potatoes and water spinach were reported as
increasing. Schools were reported closed up to 120 kms west of Yoyakarta.

Health problems:
✓ It was cautioned that volcanic ash could cause breathing difficulties, particularly for people
with chronic respiratory ailments such as asthma, emphysema or bronchitis
✓ The survivors of the Merapi eruption suffered from acute respiratory infection, hypertension,
headache etc.
✓ The President and Prime Minister of the UAE Red Crescent Authority responded to appeals
by Indonesian officials to assisted field hospital to the affected people.
Air travel disruption
✓ The eruptions and subsequent volcanic ash plumes caused extensive disruption to aviation
movements across central and western Java Island.

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 ✓ At Jakarta Soekarno-Hatta Airport (CGK) airlines cancelled 50 flights on 7
November in addition to 36 flights cancelled on 6 November due to volcanic ash.
Effect on Borobudhur temple

✓ Borodubhur – a Budhist temple, one the world’s largest Buddhist temple was affected.
✓ Volcanic ash from Mount Merapi fell on the temple, which is 28 kms west south west of the crater.
✓ A 2.5 cm layer of ash on temple statues during the eruption and was temporarily closed for tourists.

Foreign aids
✓ The European Commission announced that it was offering 1.5 million Euros to help the victims of
the Mount Merapi and the tsunami.
✓ The Australian government donated 1 million Australian dollar
✓ Malaysian made a contribution worth 1 billion
✓ Taiwan donated US dollar 3000,000 to finance reconstruction efforts in disaster hit regions in
Indonesia
✓ US ambassador announced to grant 2 million US dollar.

Earthquake
• An earthquake is a sudden shaking or vibration in the Earth’s crust.
• The vibrations in the form of seismic waves occur when tectonic energy that has built up over time
by plate movement is released rapidly.
• The crust is divided into sections, called plates, which continually move in relation to each other
and are bordered by faults.
• When plates suddenly move past each other, the built-up strain is released along the fault, and the
rock fractures.
• An earthquake also can be triggered by molten rock moving up into the chamber of a volcano
before eruption.

Cause of Earthquake
• The tectonic variety is by far the most devastating. According to the theory of plate tectonics, tectonic
quakes occur at the boundaries of the plates, where one plate slides past or beneath another.
Tectonic earthquakes occur in a variety of geological settings.
• Majority of the earth quakes occur along the fracture line, where slipping and settling down of rock
masses takes place.
• When rocks can bear no more stress, breaking with sudden displacement of the rocks on two sides
of the fault takes place.
• It produces a blow to the upper rocks on one side of the fault-plane and to the lower rocks on the
other side.
• Humans activities may contribute to the cause of earthquakes through a variety of activities such as
filling new reservoirs, detonating underground atomic explosives, or pumping fluids deep into the
ground through wells.
• For example, in 1962 Denver, Colorado, in the United States began to experience earthquakes.
• An epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the underground source, or focus, of
an earthquake. The impact of the earthquake is usually strongest near the epicenter.

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EFFECTS OF EARTH QUAKES.
Apart from the immediate destruction of life and property, EQ bring about several changes in the
earth’s crust.
1. Cracks and fissures develop in the surface of the rock strata due to which new springs may appear
on the surface or old may disappear.
2. If these cracks develop in hilly areas they result in landslides.
3. The rivers may change their courses, if fissures develop in their beds.
4. When an EQ affects the ocean floor, great sea waves which are known as TSUNAMIES spread
outwards
5. Contraction of the rock strata takes place.
6. It may form depressions forming lakes.
7. Due to uplift and subsidence some wells may become dry while others get more water.

DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES

• No place on the earth’s surface is totally free from earthquakes. But the earthquakes occur more
frequently in certain areas. These areas are the weak and unstable parts of the crust.

The Circum Pacific belt:

• This belt encircles the pacific Ocean and follows the western coast of North and South America, the
Aleutian islands and Islands of the eastern coast of Asia like Japan and Philippines.
• Nearly 68% of the earth quakes of the world originate in this belt.

Mid World Mountain belt:

• This belt is associated with the young fold mountain ranges of the Alps, The Himalayas and their
continuation in the south-east Asian islands.
• Nearly 21% of the earthquakes of the world originate in this belt.

Mid-ocean ridges are the sites of numerous such events of moderate intensity:
• Tectonic earthquakes also occur in a zone stretching from the Mediterranean and Caspian seas to
the Himalayas, and ending in the Bay of Bengal.

Fold-Mountains distribution:
• Generally, Fold Mountains are found near destructive plate boundaries on coastlines and they are a
liner formation.
• When two plates collide, the compressional force put the rock layers pressure.

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 • Eventually, they bend and fold. They are created by the uplift and folding of tectonic plates as they
move towards each and collide. Eg: the Himalayas and the Alps. Eg: Himalaya. ‘Young fold mountains’
and the ‘old fold mountains’ over 200 million years old.
• The Ural Mountains are over 250 million years old.

Richter Scale Mercalli Scale

2.5 Generally not felt, I. Felt by almost no one
but recorded on II. Felt by very few people
seismometers
3.5 Felt by many III. Tremor notice by many, but they often do not realize it is earthquake
people IV. Felt indoor by many. Feels like a truck has struck the building
V. Felt by nearly everyone; many people awakened. Swaying trees and
poles may be observed.

4.5 Some local VI. Felt by all; many people run outdoors. Furniture moved, slight
damage may occur damage occurs.
VII. Everyone runs outdoors. Poorly built structures considerably
damaged; slight damage elsewhere.
6.0 A destructive VIII. Specially designed structures damaged slightly, others collapse.
earthquake IX. All buildings considerably damaged, many shift off foundations.
Noticeable cracks in ground

7.0 A major X. Many structures destroyed. Ground is badly cracked

earthquake

8.0 and above Great XI. Almost all structures fall. Bridges wrecked. Very wide cracks in
earthquake ground.
XII. Total destruction. Waves seen on ground.

Revision Question

1. Explain why some volcanoes erupt on constructive (divergent) plate boundaries.

Ideas such as: plates move apart; so a line of weakness/gap is created; where magma or
lava can reach the surface/forms islands/bubbles up/bursts through crust; etc.

2. Describe the opportunities offered by volcanoes for people who live close to them.
Ideas such as: fertile soils/high crop yields/good for farming; geothermal power; attract
tourists/ tour guides/souvenirs or other examples; resource extraction/or examples e.g.
sulphur; volcanologists can study volcanoes; etc.

3. Explain how the Himalayas were formed as a result of plate movement.

Ideas such as: plates move towards each other; collision zone/convergent boundary (dev); both
are continental plates; pressure/compression; no subduction occurs; as rocks are of same
density; rocks squeezed; uplift occurs/land rises etc.;

4. Explain why earthquakes occur close to plate boundaries.

Ideas such as: plates move or slide towards/past/away from each other or plates collide;
friction/plates get locked together/plates stick; build up of pressure or tension or energy;

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pressure or tension released/sudden jolt; shockwaves/seismic waves/vibrations on surface,
etc.

5. Explain why people live in areas where earthquakes occur.

Ideas such as: they can’t afford to move; they have lived there all their lives/sentimental
attachment; lack of space elsewhere/they have nowhere else to go; there is work/
education/ source of income available; relatives/friends in area; confidence in
precaution/buildings; they are unaware of the risk/people don’t think it will happen;
willing to take the risk/benefits outweigh the risk (or example); they do not happen very
often, etc.;

6. Explain why earthquakes of the same magnitude (strength) are likely to cause
more deaths and injuries in an LEDC than an MEDC.

Ideas such as: poor quality or weak buildings; buildings easily collapsed; building regulations
are not enforced; poor medical services; people cannot be properly treated for their injuries;
less disaster planning/emergency procedures rescue equipment/disaster relief; poor
education re: earthquake precautions; less investment in emergency services; LEDCs have to
wait longer for rescue teams or relief/poor transport infrastructure; buildings/structures are
not earthquake proof, etc.

7. Explain why volcanoes erupt on destructive plate boundaries.

Ideas such as: plates move together/towards each other/converges; subduction occurs;
friction/ heat builds up; destruction/melting of crust/magma is created; pressure build
up/magma builds up/high pressure;

8. Explain how a volcanic eruption can damage the economy of a country.

Ideas such as: disruption of flights; so people are stranded (dev); airlines lose money (dev); ash
covers crops; reducing yields (dev); closure/damage to workplaces (or examples);

9. Name the fold mountains which have been formed close to the boundaries
between:
A. the South American and the Nazca plates;
B. the Eurasian and the Indo-Australian plates.
26. Name two plates which share a boundary along which it is happening.
A sea floor spreading
B subduction
C plates sliding past each other
27. Explain why fold mountains are formed close to some plate boundaries.
You may use labelled diagrams in your answer.
28. Describe ways in which both high fold mountains and active volcanoes may
cause problems for people who live in areas where they are located.
29. What is an active volcano?
30. Describe three likely problems which the volcanic eruption may have
caused for people living in the area.
31. Describe what can be done to protect people from volcanic eruptions.

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 32. Explain why most earthquakes occur at plate boundaries.
33. To what extent do you think earthquakes can be predicted?
34. Describe and explain the distribution of fold mountains. You should refer
to named examples. Content guide to answer: plate movement, plates meet/collision
margins, subduction/ continental and oceanic plates meet/destructive margins, plate
density, uneven distribution, narrow belts, uplift etc.

35. Explain why people live in areas where earthquakes occur.

Ideas such as: they can’t afford to move; they have lived there all their lives/ sentimental
attachment; lack of space elsewhere/they have nowhere else to go; there is
work/education/source of income available; relatives/friends in area; confidence in
precaution/ buildings; they are unaware of the risk/people don’t think it will happen; willing to
take the risk/benefits outweigh the risk (or example); they do not happen very often, etc.;

River system

Key term to understand about the river system:

• Hydrologic cycle- the continuous recycling of water between atmosphere and land surface.
• Evaporation- water is heated by sun and rises up the sky as water vapour.
• Transpiration- the loss of moisture from plants and leaves to the atmosphere.
• Condensation- the cooling down of water vapour into water droplets to form clouds.
• Precipitation- all form of water released from clouds/atmosphere such as rain, snow, hail.
• Surface runoff- the flow of water across the surface of the land.
• Interception- natural or manmade objects get into the way(fall) of rain.(trees, buildings)
• Percolation/Infiltration- the soaring down of water into the soil.
• Ground water flow- the movement of water through the rocks and soil.
• Through flow- the flow of water towards sea or lake through the soil.
• Water table- the level of saturated ground/ground water in the soil.
• River source- the starting point of a river.
• Tributaries- the streams which contribute water to the main channel.
• Distributaries- the streams which distribute water from the main channel
• River mouth/Estuary- the end point of a river.
• Delta- the triangular shaped deposition at the mouth of a river.
• Confluence- the point at which two rivers merge.
• Load- the materials carried by the river.
• Drainage basin- the area coming under the influence of a particular river.
• Water shed- the boundary between two drainage basins.
• Catchment area- the area from which the river collects its water.
• Estuary- the partially submerged delta at the mouth.
• Flood Hydrograph - the graph which shows how a storm affects a stream or river over a short
period of time.

• Stream of water that flows along a channel from the highlands to the lowlands is known as river.
• The great majority of rivers eventually discharge into either the sea or a lake, although some rivers
disappear due to water loss through seepage into the ground and evaporation into the air.
• The development of a river valley is the combined effect of river erosion, transportation and
deposition.

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Parts of the River systems:

• River systems – the main river, its tributaries and distributaries is known as river system
• Tributaries – small streams which flow into a larger stream or river
• Distributaries - newly created stream channels that are separated from the larger main stream
channel in a delta
• Drainage basin – the area drained by a river system is called a drainage basin or
catchment area.
• Watershed – the stretch of land that forms the boundary around a drainage basin
and separates it from another is called watershed.

Importance of River
1. River is an important an important agents that shape the landscapes of the earth, river also have a
great impact on human activities.
2. Rivers are important transportation routes that facilitate trade and communication.
3. River is also linking the regions with indigenous population, enabling cultural exchanges of social
and historical significance.
4. Some rivers also function as important political boundaries between boundaries. For example, the
Danube forms most of the borders of Bulgaria and Romania.
5. Rivers are important source of fresh water. In countries such as China, India and Indonesia, many
rural areas have no access to treated and safe drinking water and depend on water from rivers and wells.
6. Rivers are important for irrigation and industrial purposes.

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Hydrological Cycle
1. Evaporation - water is stored in the seas as a liquid. High temperature and warm winds change the
liquid water into gas (water vapour) which rises into the atmosphere.

2. Evapotranspiration - vegetation not only intercepts rainfall but also take it up through roots from
the soil. This water is eventually returned to the atmosphere by transpiration from leaves. Surface water is
also evaporated from leaves.

3. Condensation – as water vapour is blown towards mountain by the prevailing wind it is forced to
rise, cools and condensed back into water droplets. These form clouds and relief (orographic) rainfall or
snow.

4. Interceptions – some rainfall is intercepted by plants and trees before reaching the ground. Some
falls on the land and infiltrates the ground or flows on the surface as small fast- flowing streams.
5. Overland flow – upland streams flow downhill and join at confluences to form slower – moving
wider, deeper rivers which eventually discharge the water into lakes or the sea.
Course of the River
The course of the river can be divided into three parts:
1. Upper course
2. Middle course
3. Lower course.

Upper course • This is where the river begins.

• Many smaller streams and channels join up to form larger streams.
• Several streams join up to form a river.
• The river in this course flows along the steep gradient but the volume of
water is small.
• The velocity of the river is great due to which it has a corrosive power and
starts excavating its own bed.
Middle course • River starts to meander.
• Many tributaries join the river.
• Middle-course river processes are dominated by lateral rather than vertical
erosion and by sediment transport.
• The majority of sediment is transported as suspended load, and the
sediment becomes finer.
• Coarser cobbles and pebbles derived from upland erosion are largely
deposited.
• The valley is wider than in the upper course, the sides are less steep, and the
channel is bordered by a floodplain.
Lower course • Meanders are common.
• Many distributaries.
• River flows towards its mouth and enters the sea Delta may form at the river
mouth.
• Lower course river processes are dominated by sediment deposition, or
storage, and floodplain building.
• Sediment is deposited during lateral shifting by the channel (or channels, in
the case of braided rivers), and during flood flows.

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Speed of Flow
Gradient of river Steeper slope – faster speed of flow Gentler slope – slower speed of flow

Texture of river Rougher river bed and river banks – more friction – slower speed of flow.
bed and bank Smoother river bed and river banks – Less friction – faster speed of flow

Depth of Channel Greater depth of channel – less friction from the channel boundaries
– faster speed of flow
Shallower depth of channel – more friction from the channel boundaries
– slower speed of flow
Wetted Greater wetted perimeter – more friction – slower speed of flow Smaller
Perimeter wetted perimeter – less friction – faster speed of flow

River Processes
River Erosion (river erosion is the wearing down of the banks and bed of river and removal of the eroded
materials by the action of gravity and flowing water)

A river can erode materials in four main ways –

• Hydraulic action, abrasion (corrasion), attrition and solution (corrosion)

• Hydraulic action – hydraulic action refers to the action of the flowing water that hits against the
river banks and river bed.

• Abrasion/Corrasion – Abrasion is an Erosional process whereby the river uses its load, e.g. rock
fragments, to constantly scrap and grind against the channels’ wall and bed.

• Attrition – this is the process whereby rock fragments carried by the water knock against each other.
(sediments in the river rub against one another and become smaller, smoother and more rounded)

• Corrosion/Solution – this process occurs when water in the river reacts chemically with the
minerals in the rocks and dissolves them to form a solution. It is most common in limestone areas.

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2. River Transportation – eroded materials are carried by the moving water down the river course
through the process of transportation. This materials transported are known as the river load.

• Traction – this process occurs when there are large boulders that are too heavy to be
lifted up by the water in the river, so they roll and slide along the river bed.

• Saltation – this process occurs when larger particles such as gravel are part of the river load. These
particles are too heavy to be suspended in water all the time and they bounce or hop along the river bed.

• Suspension – Suspended materials are fine particles that are kept from settling down on the river
bed by the turbulent flow of water.

• Solution – this takes place when readily soluble rocks such as those found in limestone areas are
dissolved in water to form solution which is transported downstream.

3. River deposition
• a river may deposit its load anywhere along its course when the volume of flow is reduced or the
speed of flow is decreased.
• The coarser and heavier load will be transported throughout the river systems to the sea or lake into
which the river empties.

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Land forms and features

1. Erosional Landforms
a) Gorge: A gorge is a narrow valley with steep sides. Usually smaller than a canyon, it commonly
forms when a river cuts downwards into its channel more quickly than it erodes the valley walls.

b) Canyon: A canyon is a deep narrow valley with steep sides, usually wider and longer than a gorge.
Canyons usually form in arid mountainous regions and are the result of erosion caused by rivers and heavy
rains.

c) Rapids: Rapids are a stretch of a river where the water flows fast and usually over or around rocks.
The swift current results from a slight steepening of the stream bed or a narrowing of the channel.

d) Water fall:
• A waterfall is a place in a river where the water descends abruptly.
• It forms where the river flows from a resistant rock layer into a less resistant layer.
• The softer rock is eroded by the water, creating a drop in the riverbed.
• The highest waterfall in the world, Angel Falls which is 979 m.

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e) ‘V’ shaped valley:
• These valleys come into existence in the upper course of the river due to its downward cutting.
• The river valley becomes deep.
• Along with the river, different agents of weathering also play an important role in its formation.
• Due to these agents the sides of valleys are weathered and the resultant rock materials are carried
to the river, with the action of gravity.
• Thus these river valleys are wide at the top while their floors remain narrow. Eg. Western Ghats
(India).

f) Pot Holes: These features develop in the areas of the beds of the rivers have a number of joints and
cracks.
• The larger fragments carried by the river erode joints more easily and rapidly forming small
depressions.
• The rock fragments get caught in it and with the swift flow of river a grinding circular action is set
up due to which the floor becomes deeper and wider while the neck remains smaller Ex. River Mutha.

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2. Depositional Landforms

a) Flood plain:
• An area of low relief that is inundated by water when the river floods, and which is covered in
alluvium.
• When the river floods, the flood water spreads over a large low-lying area.
• It carries a large load and deposit when the flood water recedes very slowly without disturbing the
deposited material.
• This process is continues during each flood time and thus vast depositional plains come into
existence along both banks of the river.

b) Levees:
• During the flood, the finer particles are carried over long distances but the larger fragments are
deposited along the banks of the river.
• Thus, natural embankments come into existence along the banks of the river due to their deposition.
They are known as Levees.
• They are mainly made up of coarse material brought down by the river and thus are not very firm.

c) Meanders:
• meanders occur when a river twists and turns, and form hoop-like bends.
• The river usually bends and turns to avoid obstacles and find the easiest route down the slope.
• At this stage, usually no depositional landform is formed because the river carries little, if any load
and the flow is too swift for deposition to take place.
• Each meander consists of an outer concave band and an inner convex bank.
• As the river flows around the bend, the current is faster and stronger on the concave bank.
• Hence, erosion by undercutting takes place on the that bank.
• On the convex bank, the flow is slower and weaker and this results in deposition.
• The meanders is named after the Büyük Meanderes, a river in Southwestern Turkey.
• Occasionally, a meander bend is destroyed when a particularly large flood or a change in upstream
alignment causes the river to cut through the point bar.
• This leaves a reach of abandoned channel with a meander scar at the site of the former river cliff.

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d) OX-BOW lake:
• Lowland meandering rivers are more twisting than their middle course counterparts and channels
may become so twisted and bends.
• Deposition at convex banks and erosion at the concave banks become narrower in meander’s neck
over time.
• During the flood, the river cuts through the narrow neck of land separating the ends of the bend.
• This is known as a neck cut-off.
• Abandoned bends are characteristically horseshoe-shaped and form the oxbow lakes.

e) Alluvial fan:
• Where a river is heavily loaded with sediment from a steep upper course on the mountains,
abundant of sediments are deposited, which blocks and diverts the channel to form an alluvial fan.
• The Kosi River in India has one of the largest alluvial fans in the world, which is situated where the
river leaves the Himalaya to enter the wide floodplain of the Ganges.

f) Delta:
• A delta is a triangular or fan-shaped deposit of sediment that forms at a river’s mouth where that
river flows into an ocean, lake, or slower river.
• As a river enters another body of water, its current slows and the sediment carried by the current is
deposited.
• If ocean currents are strong enough, the sediment may be swept away, preventing a large delta from
forming.
• The triangular shape resembles the Greek letter delta; the term was first used by the Greek historian
Herodotus in the 5th century BC to describe the Nile delta.
• The triangular shape and the great width at the base are due to blocking of the river mouth by silt,
with resulting continual formation of distributaries at angles to the original course.
• Deltas are usually characterized by highly fertile soil.
• The combined delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers in India, and the deltas of the Nile in Egypt
and the Mississippi in the United States are the world's largest.

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 Natural Hazards

• There are opportunities and hazards for the human activities in the natural environments.
• Some of the natural environments are hazardous for the human activities, while some of the natural
environments provide opportunities for the human activities.
• The natural hazards include the hydrological, atmospheric and geological aspects.
• Some of the people are more vulnerable to natural hazards due to its location and economic aspects.

Floods: Flooding on the Rhine, Europe 1995

The Rhine is the longest river in Europe. It flows for 1320km. Not only is the river an important
physical feature, the drainage basin also contains 40 million people, and a large amount of
industry. As a result of its importance, the Rhine has been heavily protected and engineered, but
some of this work may have contributed to the floods of January 1995.

The causes of Rhine floods:

✓ Heavy rain – Switzerland had over three times its average rainfall in January
Saturated soils – there was nowhere for the rain to soak away Mild temperature –
this melted snow in the Alps.
✓ Much of the Rhine’s floodplain has been built upon – the impermeable surface
increases the amount of rain now reaching the river, and the speed with which it does
so.
✓ Intensive farming compacts the soil and increases overland runoff
✓ Vegetation clearance reduces interception
✓ Channel straightening speeds up the flow of water downstream Dykes create
faster and deeper flows.

Effects of flood in Rhine, Europe

• 27 people were killed
• Over 250,000 people were evacuated from their homes in the Netherlands
Flood damage in Germany alone was valued at over 640 pound million.
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Solutions to the flood problem
✓ Evacuation of people and livestock
✓ Sandbags placed across doors
✓ Removal of furniture upstairs
✓ Clearance of underground car parks and subways
✓ The development of an early warning system
✓ Dykes to increase the volume of water the river can hold – the Dutch flood
protection scheme has cost over 1billion pound to build 600km of dykes since 1995
✓ Relief channels and basins to divert some of the water during the peak of the flood,
but his requires co-operation between a number of countries in the upper course to
prevent flooding in the lower course of the river
✓ Artificial floodplains – called forelands in the Netherlands, located within the
winter dykes; these areas are allowed to flood and can be used for grazing and
recreation.
✓ Limited residential and industrial development in floodplain areas.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the formation of a flood plain.

Ideas such as: lateral erosion / or description; deposition in channel / on bed of river;
displacement of water; flooding of river / overflows bank; carrying large amount of sediment;
slow moving / stationary water / friction; deposition of sediment on flood plain / deposition of
alluvium; build up of layers; etc.

2. Describe the likely impacts of floods for people who live in an urban area.
Ideas such as: people trapped / forced to stay in houses; loss of life / drowning; damage to
housing; need to evacuate (dev); people are homeless; closure / flooding of workplaces; so
people cannot earn money (dev); disruption to road transport / railways / bridges; sewage
flows onto land / road / water; water borne disease; such as cholera / typhoid (dev); cost of
repairs to damage; leads to increase in insurance premiums (dev); damage to possessions or
examples e.g. car; cuts off electricity / gas; etc.

3. For a named river you have studied, explain why people live on its flood plain or
delta. Or Describe the advantages for people of living on a flood plain.
Content Guide: fertile soils / high yields of crops; good grazing land; water from river for
drinking / washing / in homes; irrigation; flat building land; transport along river; easy
communications / roads / railways can be built along valley; power available from river /
water mills / HEP; scenic beauty / make money from tourists; source of food / fishing; clay for
building / making pots; etc.

4. Explain how a meander might become an oxbow lake. You may use a diagram or
series of diagrams.
Ideas such as: faster flow of water on outside of bend; erosion on outer bank; neck narrows;
cuts through neck during flooding/cutting through/meander cut off; ends/former meander
sealed by deposition;

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Coastal system

Coast: A coast is the zone where the sea or ocean meets the land.
Wave: the movement of water rising and falling in the oceans or seas.

Wave energy:
• the three main factors which determine the size and energy of wave are wind energy, duration of
wind and fetch.
• Duration of wind refers to the length of time which the wind blows continuously while fetch refers
to the distance of the sea over which wind blows to generate waves.

Wave movements:
• Swash: the forward movement of waves up the shore is called swash.
• Backwash: the flow back to the sea (due to gravity) backwash carries the materials back towards
the sea.

The responsible agents that shape the coast are:

i) Types of waves
ii) Tides and
iii) Currents
1. Types of waves:
(i) Constructive waves:
• Constructive waves are waves that occur in calm weather on gently sloping coasts.
• They have a strong swash but a weak backwash.
• The gentle gradient allows waves to bring materials and deposited on the coast than are removed.
• Over time, the coast is built by the deposited sediment.

(ii) Destructive waves:

• Destructive waves occur on steeply sloping coasts.
• These waves break violently with high energy.
• They have a weak swash but a strong backwash.
• Instead of depositing materials on the coast, destructive waves erode the coast and transport coastal
rocks and beach materials away from it.

2. Tides:
• Besides waves, another agent responsible for shaping coast is tides.
• Tides refer to the daily alternate rising and falling of the sea level along the coast.
• They are caused primarily by the gravitational pull of the Moon and to a lesser extent, the Sun.
• The pull produces two tidal bulges or high tides on opposite sides of the earth.
• The tidal action, like wave action, has a significant impact on the coast.
• The rise and fall of the sea level affects coastal processes of erosion and transportation.
• At high tides, wave attack, erode and transport away.

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3. Currents:
• Coasts are also shaped by currents.
• Currents are large-scale and persistent movements of water in the ocean, driven largely by prevailing
winds.
• Longshore drift is the example of ocean current that flow parallel to a coast.
• They can transport an entire section of a sandy beach several kilometres down the coast within a
short period of time.

Coastal Processes are:

(i) Erosion
(ii) Transportation and
(iii) Deposition

Coastal Erosion: Coastal erosion is affected by the types of waves, the structure and the
composition of the coastal rocks and the position of coast.

i) Types of waves:
• destructive waves have more energy than constructive waves.
• More materials are eroded than deposited when destructive waves are present.

ii) Structure of coastal rocks:

• coastal rocks with numerous lines of weakness such as cracks and joints will be eroded
and broken down more quickly when attacked by waves.

iii) Composition of the coastal rocks:

• coastal rocks with minerals composition that can be easily dissolved in water, or that can
chemically react with water to form new chemicals may gradually weakened and broken
down under the constant attack of sea waves.

iv) Position of the coast:

• coasts that are protected or sheltered from prevailing winds and wave action by natural
or man-made structures will experience less erosion than coast that are open and
unprotected.

1. Processes of Coastal Erosion

i) Hydraulic action: Hydraulic action is the direct impact of the waves against the coast.
ii) Abrasion: refers to the impact of materials carried by the waves scraping against the coast.
iii) Solution: When waves react chemically with soluble minerals contained in the rock and dissolved
them, a chemical solution is formed. Eg: a coast made up of limestone is susceptible to this process.
iv) Attrition: when rocks carried by the wave rub or hit against each other, they break down into smaller
pieces.

2.Processes of Coastal Transportation

• One of the most important ways in which waves transport sediment along the coast is by longshore
drift.
• When waves approach the coast at an angle, the swash carries the materials in the water up the
beach at an oblique angle, while the backwash carries materials perpendicularly down the beach
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 because of the pull of gravity. It is a powerful process that is capable of moving very large amounts
of beach materials along the direction of movement.

3.Processes of Coastal Deposition:

Deposition of sediments along the coast depends on the following factors:
i) Supply of sediment:
• Most sediment is transported down to the coast by rivers. Some sediment come from coastal erosion.
• When the wave energy is weak and the weak and the waves cannot carry their load of sediment,
deposition takes place.
ii) Gradient of slope:
• On gentle slopes, constructive wave is prominent and the swash is stronger than backwash and it
deposits materials rather than erode the materials from the shore.
iii) Position of the coast:
along the coast that are sheltered or protected from strong winds such as indented coastlines and riverine
inlets, destructive waves are not common. The calm coastal conditions allow deposition to take place and a
beach may develop.

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1. Erosional features
➢ Notch
➢ Cave
➢ Cliff
➢ Wave –cut platform
➢ Bays
➢ Headland
➢ Arch
➢ Stack

i) Notch:
• due to hydraulic and abrasion action of wave a crack is created, which is known as notch.
• It is also known as wave-cut notch.
• Or Notch is a deep indentation at the base of a cliff due to intense wave erosion.
• It is also known as wave-cut notch.

ii) Cave: a notch is further deepened inwards and increased in size to form a cave.
iii) Cliff: due to continuous undercutting by the wave the roof of the cave is collapsed and formed a cliff.

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iv) Wave-cut platform:
• as the erosional process continues, the cliff may retreat further and gently-sloping platform appears
at the base of the cliff.
• This platform is called a wave-cut platform.
• wave-cut platform or marine terrace is the narrow flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff
caused by the action of the waves.

v) Bay:
• some of the coastlines are made of resistant rocks and less resistant rocks.
• The less resistant soft rocks are eroded faster than the more resistant hard rocks. When the softer
rocks are eroded away, bays are formed.

vi) Headland: on a coastline when the softer rocks are eroded away and formed the bays, the remaining
hard rocks extending into the sea is known as headlands.

vii) Arch: when the waves continue to erode the back of the cave and cut through the rocks,
a new feature is formed which is known as arch.

viii) Stack: when the arch roof falls into the sea, a stack is formed.

ix) Stump: after more erosion it is reduced in size to form a stump – a small remaining part of the stack
due to wave erosion is known as stump.

Formation of Headland and Bay

• Some coastlines are fairly straight because they are similar hardness and resistance to erosion.
• However, some have alternative strips of resistant hard rock and less resistant soft rock.
• The less resistant soft rocks will be eroded faster than the more resistant hard rocks.
• The result is the formation of indented coasts with headlands and bays.
• When the softer rocks are eroded away, bays are formed.
• The remaining hard rocks extending into the sea is known as headland. Y is the bay and X is the land
in the given photograph.

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Formation of Cliff and Wave-cut platforms:

•
•
•
• Cliffs are produced by the action of waves undercutting a steep rocky coast.
• Hydraulic action and abrasion erode a crack on the rock and eventually the crack is enlarged to
produce a notch.
• This notch is further deepened inwards to produce a cave.
• Further undercutting by the waves cause the roof of the cave to collapse.

• As the process continues, an overhanging cliff is formed.

• As the erosional process continues, the cliff may retreat further inland. Over time, a gently- sloping
platform appears at the base where the cliff used to be.
• This platform is called as wave-cut platform.
• Another term for a wave-cut platform is a shore platform. In the given photograph, X is the Cliff and
Y is the wave cut platform.

2. Depositional Features
• Beach
• Spit
• Tombolo
• Sand bar
• Sand dunes
• Saltmarsh

i) Beaches:
• A zone of deposition, usually consisting of loose sediments such as sand and gravel along the
sheltered part of a coast.
• Although beaches usually consist of sandy materials, they can also be formed from broken coral
pieces, broken shells, small stones and black volcanic sand.
• The size and composition of the materials on the beach vary greatly and may change over time
according to change in weather conditions.
• Generally the finer materials are deposited nearer the sea and the coarser materials further inland.
• During calm conditions, fine materials are deposited further up the coast and the coarser materials
are deposited nearer to sea.

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 ii) Spit:

• A spit is a long narrow ridges of sand or shingle running out from the coast with one end attached to
the land.
• They are formed by longshore drift. When there are abrupt changes in the direction of the coastline,
the longshore drift continues to transport the materials in the original direction into the sea
• The materials are deposited in the sea where they accumulate over time. Eventually, the accumulated
materials will appear above the surface of the water forming a spit.

iii) Tombolo:

• A spit that connects A spit has one end connected to a

mainland while the other end projects out into the sea.
• If an Island lies near the mainland where the split is
formed, the spit may continue to expand until it joins the
island to the mainland.
• In this case, a new landform is formed known as
Tombolo.

iv) Sand Bar: Bars are ridges of sand and other

materials that run roughly parallel to the coast.

v) Sand dunes: Sand dunes are a distinctive coast

features but they are caused by the wind, not the sea.
Sand blown up from the beach develops into small
hills, which is known as sand dunes.

vi) Saltmarsh: A salt marsh is a type of marsh found in the intertidal transition between
land and ocean. They are also called tidal marshes or saltings.

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Coastal Management or planning
There are two types of approaches to protect coasts are:

1. Hard Engineering and 2) Soft engineering

• The hard engineering approach refers to the construction of physical structures to defend against
the erosive power of waves. This is also known as structural approach.

• The soft engineering approach, on the other hand, does not involve the building of any physical
structures.
• It focuses on planning and management so that both coastal areas and property will not be damaged
by erosion.
• It also aims at changing individual behavior or attitudes towards coastal protection by encouraging
minimal human interference and allowing nature to take its course.

Hard engineering measures:

1) Seawalls: sea walls can be built along the coast. These structures absorb the energy of waves before
they can erode away loose materials. Sea walls are effective in protecting cliffs from erosion.

2) Breakwater: break waters help to protect the coast and harbor by reducing the force of
the high energy waves before they reach the shore. They can built with one end attached to
the coast or build away from the coast.

3) Groynes: Groynes are built at right angles to the shore to prevent longshore drift. These
structures absorb or reduce the energy of the waves and cause materials to be deposited on
the side of the groyne facing the longshore drift.

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 4) Gabions: Gabions are wire cages usually filled with crushed rocks. These cage are then
pilled up along the shore to prevent or reduce coastal erosion by weakening the wave energy.

Soft Engineering measures:

1) Beach nourishment: This soft engineering measure refers to the constant replenishment
of large quantities of sand to the beach system. The beach is therefore extended seawards,
which lead to the improvement of both beach quality and storm protection.

2) Relocation of property: Instead of constructing seawalls and groynes, coastal planners

are trying to protect man-made structures such as buildings by relocating them and letting
the nature reclaim the beach in its own time. No building of new properties or structures
would be allowed in coastal areas that are vulnerable to coastal erosion.

3) Planting of mangroves: mangroves, with their long, curved roots that prop up from the
soil help to trap sediments

4) Stabilising dunes:
• coastal dunes can be found along the shore where there is a large supply of and strong winds. The
winds carry and deposit the sand on the coast further inland.
• The piled up sand forming coastal dunes help to defend the coastal from the sea.
• These dunes are so fragile that delicate shrubs struggle to hold in place.
• To prevent the dunes from being disturbed by human traffic, access points to the beach should be
controlled and designated.
• Shrubs and trees can be planted to stabilize the dunes as the roots can reach downwards to tap the
ground water and thereby anchor the sand in the process.

5) Growth of coral reefs:

• Coral reefs can weaken wave energy.
• When coral reefs are destroyed, the waves may move towards the shore at full force and wash away
beaches.
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 • The natural reefs can be conserved and protected while damaged reefs can be restored.
• Artificial reefs can be created along the coast by placing environmentally friendly and durable
materials such as steel or concrete on the sea floor.
• Such manmade reefs can be just as protective of the coast as naturally formed reefs.

Tropical Storms: Hurricane Katrina, USA

• Hurricane Katrina was the USA’s worst natural disaster in living memory.
• The storm hit land near New Orleans on 29th August 2005 at a speed of some 225km/h.
• The battering winds were not the only danger.
• The low pressure at the centre of the hurricane and the high winds made the ocean rise up by a
much as 9m in places.

• The hurricane was a particular threat to New Orleans, which is built on land below sea level, putting
it at risk of serious flooding.
• Over 1830 people were killed in the USA. Economists suggest Hurricane Katrina cost the US
economy $80 billion.
• The rescue operation was criticized for not doing enough to help the poorest members of this
population.
• Many of the poor neighbourhoods were the worst hit by the hurricane.
• When Katrina made landfall, it flooded the streets, wrecked the power grid, tore roofs and wall off
historic buildings and brought down many trees.
• The floods brought with them poisonous snakes, water-borne disease, carcasses of livestock and
abandoned pets and swollen human corpses.
• This was shocking sight of an MEDC society like the USA.
• There were also health dangers arising from fallen power lines and sewage tainted water.

Many homes in New Orleans were submerged by the surge of floodwater brought on by the
storm. Over 70% of the city is below sea level and 80% of it went under water, with some sections
as deep as 6m. The floodwaters in New Orleans were ten times more toxic than is considered
safe.

……………………………………………………………………………………………..
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Name two processes of coastal erosion.
Hydraulic action;
Corrasion/abrasion;
Corrosion/solution;
Attrition;

2. Explain how a wave cut platform is formed. Ideas such as:

• erosion of cliffs/hydraulic action/corrasion;
• wave cut notch formed;
• undercutting;
• collapse;

35
 • retreat of cliffs/leaves base at cliffs;
• smoothing by waves; etc.

3. Describe the impacts of a tropical storm. Content Guide:

Impacts are likely to include;
• death and injury,
• flooding, • impact on agriculture,
• impact on tourism,
• water borne disease;
• economic impact,
• impact on transport/communications etc.

Coral Reef

• Coral reefs are underwater structure made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. (
• A structure built up from remains of living organisms/coral polyps/offshore rocks formed of
limestone skeletons, etc.).
• They are colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients.
• Often called “rainforests of the sea”, coral reefs from some of the most divers ecosystems on earth.
• They occupy less than 0.1% of the world’s ocean surface, yet they provided a home for 25% of all
marine species.

Location and distribution:

• Coral reefs are largely between Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn/between 300N and 300S.
• In those areas where warm ocean currents are found more coral reefs are found.

Distribution or location of coral reef: Name of the countries:

• South East Asia, Caribbean, east African coast). Mexico, United States, Peru, Cuba, Haiti, South Africa,
Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Madagascar, India, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Thailand, etc.

Ideal conditions for formation:

• Plenty of sunlight to aid photosynthesis
• Warm sea water; temperatures between 230 and 250 C
• Shallow water; not more than 50 metres deep
• Water free from sediment or clear water
• Plentiful supply of oxygen in water or unpolluted
• Plentiful supply of plankton, etc.

36
(Coral cannot grow in freshwater, and cannot tolerate silt nor water in high nutrients that allow
plants to use the oxygen that the coral needs.

Types of reef
1. Fringing reef – coral platforms grow out to sea attached to the mainland. A shallow lagoon lies
above them. (or directly attached to a shore, or borders it with a shallow channel lagoon)
2. Barrier reef – coral grows in a shallower area away from the mainland. The barrier reefs to be much
farther away from shore than fringing reef.
3. Atoll reef – fringing reefs grow in a circle attached to the land. Sea level rises and subsidence of the
land causes the coral to grow at the height of the rising sea level to reach the light. This eventually forms a
ring of coral reefs with a lagoon replacing the island in the centre.

Threats to the Coral reef

1. Deforestation causes erosion, which releases a large amount of carbon stored in the soil, which then
flows into the ocean, contributing to ocean acidification.
2. Coral reefs are dying around the world due to coral mining
3. Coral reefs are also destroyed due to agricultural and urban runoff pollution
4. Over fishing, blast fishing, disease
5. Digging of canals and access into Islands and bays
6. Broader threats are sea temperature rise, sea level rise and pH changes from ocean
acidification, all associated with greenhouse gas emissions.
7. A study released in April 2013 has shown that air pollution can also stunt the growth of
coral reefs – it shows the threat of factors such as coal- burning and volcanic eruptions.

Protection of coral reefs:

1. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have become increasingly prominent for reef management
2. MPAs promote responsible fishery management and habitat protections
3. MPAs encompass both social and biological objectives, including reef restorations, aesthetics,
biodiversity, and economic benefits. Conflicts surrounding MPAs involves lack of
participation, clashing views, effectiveness and funding
4. In some situations, as in the Phoenix Islands, Protected Areas, MPAs can also provide revenue.
5. Many land use laws aims to reduce CO2 emissions by limiting deforestation
6. Biosphere reserve, marine park, national monument and world heritage status can protect reefs. For
example, the Galapagos Islands, Great Barrier Reef etc are world heritage sites.
7. In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and
is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan.

Human activities that damage the natural environment in coastal areas

1. Tourists walking through shallow reef waters damage coral structures;
2. The noise from ships could scare fish;
3. Litter from tourism pollute the environment;
4. Sewage outflows pollutes seas;
5. Oil spill to the sea from cruise and ships pollute the sea water
6. Overfishing has left stocks of fish seriously depleted;
7. Food chains – the fish consumes the contaminated oil in the sea
8. Visual impacts of developments, etc
…………………………………………………………………………………..

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 Revision Question on Coral Reef:

1. What is a coral reef?

2. For a coral reef at a named location
you have studied, describe its main
features and explain its formation.
Content Guide: composition of
coral, biodiversity, locational
features, deposition of calcium
carbonate, colonization etc.
3. Describe the global distribution of
coral reefs.
4. Identify the type of coral reef
5. Name any two countries where the coral reefs are found.
6. Describe the conditions required for the development of coral reefs.
7. Name a country or an area you have studied about the coral reef. Describe about
the threat to coral reef and solution to threat.
Compiled by Tr Gumbi

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