Food Research International 147 (2021) 110563

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Food Research International

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Review

A review on recent advances of egg byproducts: Preparation, functional

properties, biological activities and food applications
Nanhai Xiao a, Xi Huang b, Wen He a, Yao Yao a, Na Wu a, Mingsheng Xu a, Huaying Du a,
Yan Zhao c, *, Yonggang Tu a, *
a
Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products and Functional Food, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
b
National Research and Development Center for Egg Processing, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
c
State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The rapid development of egg industries produced vast byproducts that have not been effectively used. In this
Egg byproducts paper, the comprehensive utilization of egg byproducts was reviewed. Protein extraction and enzymatic hy­
Preparation drolysis were the main used ways for recycle of egg byproducts. The fact that eggshell membrane could accel­
Functional properties
erate would healing and improve facial skin of healthy people for 12 weeks was found. However, salted egg
Biological activities
Food applications
white had poor functional properties owing to high salt and ultrafiltration was an effective technology to remove
92.93% of salt. Moreover, Defatted yolk protein had the great potential to be used as food additives and func­
tional foods. Other egg byproducts such as egg inhibitor and eggshells also were discussed. The novel applica­
tions of egg byproducts in the food field included food additives, feeds, food packaging materials and
nutraceuticals based on current knowledge, but the proportion needed to be improved. This paper would provide
a new insight for comprehensive utilization of egg byproducts.

1. Introduction have been recycled as its considerable economic value and nutritional
value are gradually emphasized. For example, ESM can be applied to
The rapid developments of agriculture and industries have increased peptides preparation, food-borne materials and food supplements. SEW
consumption of agricultural products, resulting in an increasing agri­ has been used to produce hydrolysates, food additives and DYP has been
cultural byproducts and waste. It causes environmental pollution and applied to peptides preparation, food supplements and feeds. These re­
safety issues if allowed to accumulate. These byproducts have inherent sults indicate that egg byproducts have a great potential.
safety advantages and valuable ingredients, which can be fully utilized Waheed et al. have comprehensively reviewed the eggshell applica­
or transformed into value-added products (Gemechu, 2020). tions such as eggshell calcium, animal feed and plant fertilizer (Waheed
Eggs are composed of four parts: eggshells, eggshell membranes, egg et al., 2019, 2020), but other egg byproducts are lacking. Recently, some
white and egg yolk (Table 1), which have excellent functional properties researchers have reported that other egg byproducts can be applied to
and many biological activities (Chen, Sheng, Gouda, & Ma, 2019; peptide preparation or food applications, but a novel and systematic
Gouda, Zu, Ma, Sheng, & Ma, 2018; He et al., 2021; N. Xiao et al., 2020). review covering the utilization of egg byproducts should be carried out.
China is the leading eggs producing countries followed by USA and Especially, the main arguments are referring to preparation, functional
India, and annual egg production is more than 33 million tons in 2020 properties, biological activities and food applications of egg byproducts.
with China as an example (Li et al., 2020). The increasing egg con­ Therefore, this paper would provide useful future directions for
sumption has produced abundant egg byproducts, such as eggshells, comprehensive utilization of egg byproducts.
eggshell membranes (ESM), and salted egg whites (SEW), defatted yolk
proteins (DYP) (Fig. 1), which are mainly originated from food in­ 2. Eggshell membrane as byproduct
dustries and household garbage referring to baked foods, egg powder,
sauce, yolk phospholipids and other foods. Fortunately, egg byproducts ESM is a thin and highly collagenized fibrous membrane that

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: zhaoyan@ncu.edu.cn (Y. Zhao), tygzy1212@jxau.edu.cn (Y. Tu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110563
Received 8 March 2021; Received in revised form 10 June 2021; Accepted 24 June 2021
Available online 28 June 2021
0963-9969/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Xiao et al. Food Research International 147 (2021) 110563

Table 1 rate of collagen obtained by acid extraction was low (8.35%). Moham­
The composition and biological activities of egg white, egg yolk and eggshell. madi et al. obtained collagen with a 30% extraction rate by response
Major Relative Biological Reference surface methodology (Mohammadi et al., 2016). It might be that en­
components percentage activities or zymes more powerfully promoted collagen dissolution. Although ESM
(%, w/w) application can be directly used, their applications are limited due to their structure
Egg Ovalbumin 54.0 Antioxidant, anti- Moreno- with potent cross-linking and base tolerance.
white Ovotransferrin 13.0 inflammatory, ACE- Fernández The preparations of hydrolysates or peptide by protein hydrolysis is
(58%) Ovomucoid 11.0 inhibitory, et al., 2020 an effective method. Zhao et al. showed a quick, green and efficient
Ovomucin 3.5 antihypertensive
Lysozyme 3.4 and antidiabetic
method to prepare ESM-derived peptides by enzymatic hydrolysis as­
Egg yolk Lipids 62.5 Anti-inflammatory, Xiao et al., sistant with sodium sulfite, and the product had a good antioxidant
(36%) Proteins 33.0 antioxidant, 2020 activity. It might be that sodium sulfite could break disulfide bond of
Minerals 3.5 neuroprotective, ESM protein, making the protein structure looser and more conducive to
Carbohydrates 1.2 ACE-inhibitory
enzymatic reaction (Zhao, Zhao, Ahn, Jin, & Huang, 2019). In addition
Carotenoids <0.6
Eggshell Ash 94.6 Food supplement, Waheed to proteases hydrolysis, microbial fermentation also could produce
Protein 3.9 animal feed, water et al., 2020 bioactive peptides. Jain et al. found that the fermented product of ESM
Calcium 34.1 treatment, by lactobacillus had excellent functional properties and biological ac­
Magnesium 0.3 composite material tivities, such as solubility, foaming, emulsifying and antioxidant activity
(Jain & Anal, 2017).
protects egg white and yolk from microbial contamination. ESM con­
tains 80%-85% organic matrix and 15–20% inorganic matrix. 10% of
2.2. Functional properties of eggshell membrane and hydrolysates
organic matrix is collagen composed of type I, type V and type X, and
70% is minor proteins such as keratin, glycoprotein, proteoglycan, hy­
The functional properties of protein include solubility, foaming,
aluronic acid and sialic acid (Sah & Rath, 2016). It was estimated that
gelling and emulsifying properties. However, ESM is difficult to be
more than 7.0 million tons of eggshell waste were produced all around
effectively utilized due to their insolubility and numerous disulfide
the world every year, which meant that vast ESM was produced (Liu,
bonds. Currently, some methods have been adopted to improve its value
Chen, Kang, Zheng, & Yang, 2020). Many researchers have studied the
such as enzymatic hydrolysis and microbial fermentation. The ESM
recycle and efficient use of ESM considering its nutritional composition.
hydrolysates obtained under optimal ultrasonic conditions of 95.74%
Currently, ESM have been used for biomaterials, agriculture, medicine
amplitude (UP200S, 200 W, Hielscher, Teltow, Germany, with a fixed
and promoting body health.
frequency of 24 kHz), 28.06 min, and solid–liquid ratio of 1:30 had
better solubility, foaming and emulsifying properties, compared with
2.1. Preparation of eggshell membrane protein and hydrolysates the hydrolysate without ultrasonic pretreatment (Table 2). It might be
that the cavitation caused by ultrasonic treatment affected protein
Collagen is a structured protein to maintain the structure and biology conformational change, so that more proteins and peptides were
integrity of the extracellular matrix (Subhan, Hussain, Tauseef, Shehzad, adsorbed on the interface, which reduced the interfacial tension and
& Wahid, 2020). It mainly comes from animal skin and bones, but these improved functional properties (Jain & Anal, 2016). However, the
animal tissues have some controversy. The collagen of ESM had a low emulsion stabilized by ESM hydrolysate prepared by ultrasound had a
allergic reaction and high bio-safety, although its content was less than poor emulsion stability. The addition of resistant starch could enhance
10% of organic matrix (King’Ori, 2011). Therefore, ESM can be used as its emulsion stability and effectively delay oil oxidation but further
the preferred choice for collagen extraction. flocculation and fatty acids release occurred when the emulsion passed
It is necessary to perform alkali treatment before acid-extracted through the small intestine (Jain & Anal, 2018). How to control diges­
collagen because there are non-collagen proteins in ESM (Kheirabadi, tion behavior of these emulsions would provide new insights for the
hadi Razavi, Khodaiyan, & Golmakani, 2018). However, the recovery development of ESM nutrient delivery systems. Lactobacillus

Fig. 1. The preparation of egg byproducts.

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N. Xiao et al. Food Research International 147 (2021) 110563

Table 2
The functional properties of egg byproducts.
Ingredient Treatment Functional properties Mechanism Reference

ESM Enzymolysis and ultrasound ↑Foaming and Emulsifying Cavitation effect Jain et al., 2016
Adding starch ↑Emulsifying ↓Droplet flocculation Jain et al., 2018
Microbial fermentation ↑Foaming and Emulsifying ↓Interfacial tension Jain et al., 2017
SEW Adding polysaccharide ↑Gelling ↑Electrostatic interaction Tang et al., 2021
Desalted and drying ↑Foaming ↓Electrostatic repulsion Thammasena et al., 2020
Enzymolysis ↑Foaming × Venkatachalam et al., 2019
DYP Enzymolysis ↑Foaming and Emulsifying ↓Interfacial tension and droplet coalescence Wang et al., 2009; Bao et al., 2017

Subcritical technique ↑Emulsifying ↑Smaller droplets Su et al., 2020

ESM: eggshell membranes; SEW: salted egg whites; DYP: defatted yolk proteins.

fermentation is a green technology for preparing bioactive peptides. The ascribe to different sensitivity of bacterial cell membrane (Yoo et al.,
envelope protease of Lactobacillus catalyzed protein hydrolysis into oli­ 2014). Cordeiro et al. found that ovocalyxin-36 isolated from ESM had an
gopeptides, and these hydrolysates were further hydrolyzed into smaller antibacterial activity because it was highly homologous with lipopoly­
peptides and amino acids by intracellular peptidases. Jain et al. fer­ saccharide binding protein (Cordeiro, Esmaili, Ansah, & Hincke, 2013).
mented ESMs using Lactobacillus and found that hydrolysates had good The presence of ovocalyxin-36 was also contributive to prevent micro­
foaming (36.7%), emulsifying activities (94.6 m2/g), solubility (90.7%) bial invasion. Recently, Li et al found that nanocomposite material
and biological activities (Jain & Anal, 2017). prepared by ESM had an excellent antibacterial activity against both
gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria (Li, Cai, Ahn, &
Huang, 2019). These novel designs not only strengthened antibacterial
2.3. Biological activities of eggshell membrane and hydrolysates activities of ESM and hydrolysates, but also provide good insights for
antibacterial materials development.
The biological activities of ESM and hydrolysates include antibac­
terial, promoting wound healing, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant 2.3.2. Promoting wound healing
activities as shown in Table 3. The skin as the largest organ is to protect the body from external
stimulation (Moeini, Pedram, Makvandi, Malinconico, & d’Ayala,
2.3.1. Antibacterial 2020). Once damaged, skin can occur inflammation reaction and sec­
ESM effectively protects eggs quality from spoilage and deterioration ondary infections. The long pathological periods and complications are
caused by external dust and microorganisms, which attributes to its not accepted by the patient. Therefore, it is urgent to develop cost-
compositions containing defensins, ovotransferrin, and keratin peptides. effective materials for promoting wound healing, especially for large-
The antibacterial activities of these substances have already been area wounds. ESM as an industrial waste is rich in collagen and has
confirmed (Moreno-Fernández, Garcés-Rimón, & Miguel, 2020). The the potential to become a wound healing material. ESM significantly
natural ESM exerted an antibacterial activity by interacting with bac­ increased the speed of wound healing in the early stages, but this
terial cell membrane and destroying cell membrane integrity (Mine, beneficial effect was not obvious in the later stages (Guarderas, Leavell,
Oberle, & Kassaify, 2003). Moreover, the size and concentration of ESM Sengupta, Zhukova, & Megraw, 2016). Furthermore, ESM activated the
largely determined its antibacterial activity including Staphylococcus activities of metalloproteinases-2 (MMP2) and MMP9 in the early stage
aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Kulshreshtha, Ahmed, Wu, Diep, & and increased keratinocytes proliferation (Vuong et al., 2018). To
Hincke, 2020). The hydrolysates with different molecular weights all further enhance promoting wound healing and antibacterial activities of
had antibacterial activities, but the inhibitory effect on gram-positive ESM, Liu et al. found that nano-silver modified ESM accelerated wound
bacteria was more obvious than gram-negative bacteria, which might

Table 3
The biological properties and mechanism of egg byproducts.
Ingredient Model Dose Biological activities Mechanisms Reference

ESM Bacterial 100ug/ml Anti-bacterial Interacting and disrupting bacteria membrane integrity Mine et al., 2003
Cell and Mice 1 mg/ml 0.1 mg/ Promoting wound healing Regulating cellular function and increasing MMP activity Vuong et al., 2018
ul
Mice 80 g/kg Anti-inflammatory Repairing epithelial injury and alleviating microbial dysbiosis Jia et al., 2017
Mice 0.24 g Anti-obesity Modulating gut microbiota and accelerating lipid metabolism Ramli et al., 2020
Peptides Cell 0.5 mg/ml Antioxidant Improving antioxidant enzyme activity and glutathione Shi et al., 2014b
synthesis
Bacterial 10 mg Anti-bacterial × Yoo et al., 2014
SEW
Peptides Cell 800 mg/kg Promoting calcium uptake Interacting with TRPV6 Hou et al., 2018
Mice 600 mg/kg Promoting osteogenesis Wnt/β-catenin pathway Guo et al., 2020b
Hydrolysates Chemical 1.25 mg/ml Antioxidant Clearing free radical Thammasena et al., 2020
assay
DYP
Peptides Chemical 361.5 μmol/L Antidiabetic Inhibiting enzyme activity Zambrowicz et al., 2015b
assay
Chemical 10 mg/ml ACE-inhibitory × Yousr et al., 2015
assay
Cell 100 μg/ml Anti-osteoporosis Increasing cell proliferation Kim et al., 2011
Hydrolysates Mice 121.5 μg Immunomodulating Orchestrating Th1/Th2 response Nelson et al., 2007
Eggshell
Ca2+ Mice Enhancing SOD activity El-Zeftawy et al., 2020

ESM: eggshell membranes; SEW: salted egg whites; DYP: defatted yolk proteins.

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N. Xiao et al. Food Research International 147 (2021) 110563

healing by promoting epithelial regeneration and granulation formation repairing intestinal epithelial damage and regulating intestinal micro­
(Liu et al., 2017). Recently, the synergistic effects of composite material biota disorders (Jia et al., 2017). Moreover, ESM powder reduced serum
on promoting wound healing were found (Liu et al., 2020). For example, triglycerides and liver total cholesterol in high-fat fed mice by regulating
chitosan significantly enhanced the antibacterial activity of ESM, intestinal microbiota and promoting lipid metabolism (Ramli et al.,
increased the absorption of wound exudate and prevented further 2020). These results indicated that ESM exerted biological activities via
wound worsening (Li, Ma, Ahn, & Huang, 2019). Notably, when ESM hydrolysates or gut microbiota. Arthritis is an autoimmune disease
was hydrolyzed, the effect of promoting wound healing depended on characterized by joint pain and joint damage. ESM could improve joint
molecular weight of the hydrolysates, although a clinical experiment inflammation, cartilage damage and periosteum formation in rats (Ruff
showed that hydrolysates improved facial skin and hair of healthy et al., 2018). Clinical experiments also showed that ESM relieved joint
middle-aged people at 450 mg/day for 12 weeks (Kalman & Hewlings, pain and injury, and this effect was synergistic after adding dietary
2020). In brief, the roles of ESM and hydrolysates on promoting wound supplements (Kiers & Bult, 2020; Ruff et al., 2020). In short, these evi­
healing have mostly been examined in vitro models (Fig. 2) and more dences have shown the anti-inflammatory activity of ESM, but relevant
evidences are needed, even though the gut barrier protection of ESM mechanisms are worthy of further exploration.
have been proven (Jia et al., 2017).
2.3.4. Antioxidant
2.3.3. Anti-inflammatory Oxidative stress refers to changes in the body’s redox balance.
Inflammation is a normal physiological response. However, exces­ Excessive oxidative stress aggravates the development of many diseases,
sive inflammation causes chronic inflammatory diseases such as in­ such as colitis and liver fibrosis (Jia et al., 2013; Shi, Kovacs-Nolan,
flammatory bowel disease and arthritis. The anti-inflammatory Jiang, Tsao, & Mine, 2014b). The body relieves oxidative stress
activities of egg-derived components have been extensively studied, through endogenous antioxidant reactions and supplementation of
including fresh egg protein, pickled egg protein, phospholipids, peptides exogenous antioxidants. The antioxidant activities of food-borne pro­
and amino acids (Moreno-Fernández et al., 2020; Xiao et al., 2020). ESM teins and peptides have been extensively studied (Moreno-Fernández
has the potential to relieve inflammation owing to its components. Shi et al., 2020; Wen, Zhang, Zhang, Duan, & Ma, 2020). Huang et al.
et al. confirmed that ESM hydrolysates reduced the secretion of pro- confirmed that ESM protein hydrolysate extracted by 3-mercaptopro­
inflammatory cytokine in vitro, and alleviated excessive secretion and pionic acid had a radical scavenging ability. However, the 3-mercapto­
expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in colitis mice (Shi, Rupa, propionic acid had potential safety risks (Huang, Zhou, Ma, Cai, & Li,
Jiang, & Mine, 2014). Furthermore, the fact that ESM regulated 2010). The ESM hydrolysates prepared by the multi-enzyme hydrolysis
inflammation through nuclear factor kappa-b signaling pathway was showed a safe effect and relieved oxidative stress in Caco-2 cells (Shi,
confirmed in vitro (Vuong et al., 2017). However, this anti- Kovacs-Nolan, Jiang, Tsao, & Mine, 2014a). However, the antioxidant
inflammatory activity in vitro was difficult to truly reflect the diges­ activities of hydrolysates with different molecular weight were different.
tion and absorption of ESM in vivo because ESM had a low digestibility The hydrolysates with small molecular weight showed a better antiox­
(46%), although more than 80% of ESM protein was absorbed and uti­ idant activity than hydrolysates with large molecular weight, mainly
lized in the bodies of rats (Jia et al., 2017; Matsuoka, Kurihara, Yukawa, because small molecular peptides enhanced the activities and expres­
& Sasahara, 2019). Interestingly, it was utilized by intestinal microbiota sions of antioxidant enzymes. From the view of amino acid composition,
and played a key role in the colitis remission (Fernández-Tomé et al., small peptides contained more aromatic amino acids and hydrophobic
2019). Similarly, ESM powder alleviated colon inflammation by amino acids (Shi, Kovacs-Nolan, et al., 2014b). Mine et al. confirmed that

Fig. 2. The biological activities of egg byproducts.

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N. Xiao et al. Food Research International 147 (2021) 110563

the two kinds of amino acids alleviated oxidative stress by increasing hydrolysates have been extensively studied, their functional properties
glutathione expression and antioxidant enzymes activities (Katayama & and food applications are relatively lacking. Additionally, the current
Mine, 2007). Furthermore, specific amino acids also had an obvious protein extraction of ESM is mainly focused on collagen, but collagen
impact on antioxidant activity. The antioxidant activities of peptides only accounts for 10% of the ESM quality. The 70% residual is still
were enhanced when its composition contained proline, histidine and disregardful, which is contrary to the concept of maximizing resource
tyrosine or leucine and valine (Shahidi & Zhong, 2010). These results utilization. Importantly, biological activities of residual organic matrix
indicated that antioxidant activity of peptides was closely related to its such as hyaluronic acid have been proved, indicating that ESM still have
composition and molecular weight. However, the secondary structure, great potential for development.
hydrophobicity and charge also affected its antioxidant activity.
Particularly, when single peptides had a better antioxidant activity than 3. Salted egg white as byproduct
hydrolysates, these structural differences were crucial for peptide syn­
thesis and activity determination (Wong, Xiao, Wang, Ee, & Chai, 2020). Salted egg is a traditional egg product formed by salt pickling with
Computer simulation and molecular docking technology provided new fresh duck eggs for a certain period, which is deeply popular in South­
ideas for structure–activity relationship studies of peptides (Wen et al., east Asia, such as China and Thailand. The effect of high salt during
2020). Excessive oxidative stress also aggravated liver fibrosis. In vivo pickling process of salted eggs gave egg yolk pleasant flavor and unique
experiments have shown that ESM could prevent liver fibrosis by taste (Xu et al., 2019). The billions of salted egg yolks are widely used in
partially down-regulating c-jun and c-fos signaling pathways (Jia et al., many foods, such as moon cakes, sushi and bakery products every year
2013). in China. However, ten thousand tons of SEW were produced during the
process of salted egg yolk (Wei, Chen, Tong, & Gao, 2020). Egg white
accounts for 54% of whole egg and contains many high-quality proteins
2.4. Food applications of eggshell membrane and hydrolysates such as ovalbumin, ovotransferrin, lysozyme and ovomucin. SEW is
often discarded as industrial waste due to desalination with high cost,
Currently, ESM as a food byproduct has the potential as food-borne resulting in protein waste and environmental pollution. Many methods
materials although it is mostly used in wastewater recycle, heavy have been adopted to recycle SEW. Desalting and hydrolysis are the
metal filtration and biological materials. The food applications of ESM most common methods, which can recover protein and prepare bioac­
include food supplements and edible films (Fig. 3). A clinical experiment tive peptides from SEW.
showed that supplementation with ESM (500 mg/day) quickly relieved
arthritis pain and reduced the expression of cartilage degradation
marker CTX-II (Ruff et al., 2020). Edible film is used to protect foods 3.1. Preparation of desalted egg white and hydrolysates
from oxygen, microorganisms, odors invasion by replacing traditional
non-degradable plastic film. It needs good functional properties, such as Salt used as flavor enhancers, preservatives and antibacterial agents
barrier property, film-forming property, safety, and degradability. Nat­ plays an important role in the food industries. However, high salt
ural biological macromolecules have broad development prospects in (7–10%) intake increased the body’s metabolic burden, even causing
food packaging materials due to their outstanding safety and degrad­ high blood pressure and stroke (Albarracín, Sánchez, Grau, & Barat,
ability (Umaraw et al., 2020). Mohammadi et al. found that the inter­ 2011). Moreover, SEW also showed the low digestibility (45%) because
action of ESM gelatin and chitosan changed the functional properties of high salt affected protein crosslinking (Gao et al., 2021). Desalination
composite film, which gave composite film a uniform and dense treatment can significantly reduce salt content of SEW. Some physical
microstructure at an appropriate ratio, thereby showing the potential as methods have been used for SEW desalination such as reverse osmosis,
food packaging materials (Mohammadi et al., 2018). The ESM-soy dialysis, and ion exchange, but these methods were relatively expensive
protein isolate composite film loaded with eugenol had better struc­ (Wang, Zheng, Li, Li, & Chen, 2015). Ultrasonic assistance and micro­
tural and functional properties (Li et al., 2020). These evidences showed wave assistance were beneficial for SEW desalination, but the desali­
that ESM had the great potential applied into new food materials. nation effects were undesirable. Detailly, ultrasonic assistance and
In summary, although the biological activities of ESM and their microwave assistance only increased desalination rate by 10% and 3%,

Fig. 3. Food applications of egg products.

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N. Xiao et al. Food Research International 147 (2021) 110563

respectively (Wang, Zhang, Fang, & Liu, 2016; Zhou, Zhang, Fang, & increased the surface hydrophobicity and free sulfhydryl content,
Liu, 2015). The pH migration method was an effective technique for improved the gel texture and water holding capacity, and made the gel
protein recovery, which recovered 31% of protein and removed 74% of microstructure smoother and denser. It attributed to polysaccharides-
salt from SEW (Chaijan & Panpipat, 2018). However, residual salt was proteins interaction and thickening property of polysaccharides (Tang
still more than 25% by this method. Ultrafiltration is a filtration method et al., 2021). Emulsion is a thermodynamically incompatible system,
characterized by low energy consumption, continuous process and and the presence of emulsifiers inhibits emulsions flocculation and
compact equipment, which promotes the separation of solute and sol­ stratification such as proteins and phospholipids. Egg white protein and
vent relying on pressure or concentration as the driving force. Ultrafil­ its hydrolysates as emulsion stabilizers have been proven (Farjami,
tration removed 92.93% of salt from SEW and made the saltness of final Babaei, Nau, Dupont, & Madadlou, 2020). However, the emulsifying
SEW less than 0.7% (Thammasena, Fu, Liu, & Liu, 2020). It is worth property of SEW was significantly lower than fresh duck egg whites,
noting that nutritional components and amino acid composition of even if SEW had been desalted and spray dried (Thammasena et al.,
desalted egg white (DEW) and DEW powder were significantly lower 2020). It was because salt reduced the solubility of protein, resulting in
than fresh duck egg white, which might attribute to the presence of high decreased protein content on the oil–water interface. Interestingly, SEW,
salt. The removal of salt greatly enhanced SEW utilization. Ovalbumin desalted egg white prepared by ultrafiltration, and desalted egg white
could be extracted from SEW through PEG1000/(NH4)2SO4 liquid two- powder prepared by ultrafiltration-spray drying all had excellent
phase separation system, and there was no significant difference on foaming performances, and desalted egg white powder was superior to
functional properties between final product and standard ovalbumin the others (Table 2), which ascribed to that sodium chloride promoted
(Jiang et al., 2019). Lysozyme is a small monomeric protein stabilized by proteins adsorption on the air–water interface and weakened electro­
four disulfide linkages among the eight cysteine residues of its poly­ static repulsion of protein molecules. On the other hand, heat treatment
peptide chain. It mainly contains three families: invertebrate-type, promoted expansion of protein structure and exposure of hydrophobic
chicken-type, goose-type and other types based on different character­ groups, thereby improving the foaming ability of SEW (Thammasena
istics (Wu et al., 2019). Lysozyme has many biological activities et al., 2020). However, different drying methods had greater impacts on
including antibacterial, antiviral and anti-inflammatory activities owing the functional properties of desalted egg white powder (Zhou, Zhang,
to its unique characteristics. Lysozyme also could be extracted from SEW Fang, & Liu, 2014). Therefore, it is necessary to fully consider the effect
by affinity precipitation technology (Ding, Li, & Cao, 2014). In addition of drying technology on the functional properties of SEW powder during
to desalination and protein extraction, the preparations of bioactive food processing, so as to obtain special SEW powder by adopting cor­
peptides from SEW have attracted great attentions. Enzymatic hydro­ responding technology. Moreover, enzymatic hydrolysis also improved
lysis and microbial fermentation are the main methods to prepare functional properties of SEW (Venkatachalam & Nagarajan, 2019).
bioactive peptides. Xiao et al. found specific amino acids and γ-amino­
butyric acid in bacteria-fermented SEW product, although peptides 3.3. Biological activities of salted egg white and hydrolysates
analysis was lacking (Xiao et al., 2019). In contrast, enzymatic hydro­
lysis breaks the restriction of microbial activity and long fermentation 3.3.1. Promoting mineral absorption
period. The preparations of bioactive peptides from SEW by enzymatic Minerals such as calcium, iron, sodium, and potassium are essential
hydrolysis have been widely evaluated, and the hydrolysates had nutrients that play key roles in forming body tissues, maintaining os­
excellent biological activities (Guo, He, & Hou, 2020; Li, He, Shi, & Hou, motic pressure balance, signal transmission and physiological meta­
2019). The SEW-derived product hydrolyzed by neutrase (four different bolism. Long-term minerals deficiency causes many diseases referring to
proteases including alcalase, ficin, protamex and neutrase) showed the osteoporosis, iron deficiency anemia, growth retardation. Dietary intake
highest foaming and free radical scavenging ability, but the DEW is the only source of calcium supplementation, and most of calcium are
powder-derived product hydrolyzed by pepsin (three different proteases absorbed in the form of ionized calcium. However, ionized calcium
including pepsin, bacillus spp. And natokinase) had a better antioxidant preferentially formed calcium depositions in gastrointestinal tract,
capacity, which ascribed to the specificity of protease and the influence resulting in low calcium absorption rate and bioavailability (Sun et al.,
of salt content on enzyme activity (Thammasena & Liu, 2020; Ven­ 2016). Recently, there were four kinds of calcium supplements including
katachalam & Nagarajan, 2019). Therefore, high-value utilization of inorganic calcium salt, organic calcium salt, amino acid-calcium chelate
SEW should pay attention to ultimate effect of salt content on human and peptide-calcium chelate (Zhao, Ma, He, Guo, & Hou, 2020). Peptide-
health, and more focus on the impact on the protein structure and calcium chelate was mostly used because it was soluble and avoided the
enzymatic hydrolysates, because it happens before dietary intake and limitations of ionized calcium such as biotoxicity and low bioavailability
greatly affects the structure and activity of final product. Moreover, (Sun et al., 2016). It has been proven that DEW peptides could promote
ovomucoid and ovalbumin are the major egg white allergens, so the calcium transport (Table 3) (Hou, Liu, Shi, Ma, & He, 2017). However,
safety of proteins obtained from salted egg white also needs to be further its transport mechanism and structure–activity relationship were still
considered (Ma, Liang, Xing, & Lozano-Ojalvo, 2020). unclear. Hou et al. found that peptide sequence and amino acid
composition were very critical for calcium transport because peptide
3.2. Functional properties of salted egg white and hydrolysates sequence affected the interaction of peptide-calcium channels (Hou
et al., 2018). Although SEW peptides could promote calcium transport,
Proteins include the three major functional properties referring to its bioavailability and pathological improvement after absorption were
emulsifying, foaming and gelling properties. Good functional properties still unclear. Hou et al. confirmed that SEW peptides (800 mg/kg)
are essential for food quality. Many environmental factors affect func­ regulated bone formation and reduced an increase of osteoclasts in mice
tional properties of proteins such as salt and temperature. Gelation is with bone injury (Hou, Liu, Kolba, Guo, & He, 2017). Meanwhile, the
one of important functional properties of egg-derived protein, and gel peptides (600 mg/kg) relieved osteoporosis by enhancing osteoblasts
formation changes the texture and taste of foods. Salt changed the sec­ differentiation through the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. These
ondary structure of egg yolk protein during pickling process of salted bone protection effects were not limited to pathological conditions. SEW
eggs, but it still stabilized protein molecules by increasing denaturation peptides also improved tibia length and calcium absorption of healthy
temperature and surface hydrophobicity of protein (Xu et al., 2018). In mice (Guo, He, Zhao, Zhang, & Hou, 2020).
contrast, high salt not only affected gelling behavior of SEW, but also In addition, DEW peptide-chitosan oligosaccharide copolymer (600
had a negative impact on water holding capacity, microstructure and mg/kg) was used as calcium deliver systems and improved intestinal
texture properties of egg white gel (Xu et al., 2017). However, the gel­ health of mice (Zhao et al., 2020). Similarly, SEW peptides also pro­
ling property of SEW was improved by adding polysaccharides, which moted biological transport of iron ions, and its amino acid composition

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N. Xiao et al. Food Research International 147 (2021) 110563

played an important role in their binding and transport (Li et al., 2019). lipoprotein (7.6%), high-density lipoprotein (11.6%), livetin (9.9%)
These results showed that SEW peptides had a superiority in promoting and phosvitin (3.6%) (Xiao et al., 2020). Egg yolks are widely used in the
mineral absorption and provided a choice for high-value utilization of pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic industries because of good emulsi­
SEW (Fig. 2). However, current evidences are difficult to clearly eluci­ fying property and safety. Particularly, egg yolk phospholipids have an
date binding sites of mineral-chelated peptides, and further verifications excellent emulsifying property and better biological activities than
are required via site-specific knockouts assay. soybean phospholipids, which are often used as food emulsifiers and
nutrient delivery systems. Organic solvents, especially ethanol, are often
3.3.2. Antioxidant used to extract egg yolk phospholipids. However, vast denatured egg
Under normal physiological conditions, the body maintains redox yolk proteins are produced after lipids extraction. DYP are generally
balance by eliminating harmful oxidation products through endogenous ignored as byproducts or wastes due to their high insolubility and low
antioxidants and exogenous antioxidants. However, excessive produc­ surface hydrophobicity. In fact, these byproducts contain high-quality
tion or insufficient removal of oxidation products leads to oxidative proteins and amino acids, which can be recovered and reused by
stress, which ultimately causes cellular components injury and physio­ appropriate technologies, such as enzymatic hydrolysis and protein
logical disorders (Wen et al., 2020). The antioxidant activities of fresh extraction. Egg yolk proteins or its hydrolysates have excellent biolog­
egg white proteins and hydrolysates have been reported (Moreno- ical activities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-
Fernández et al., 2020). SEW contains many high-quality proteins hypertensive and anti-diabetic activities (Moreno-Fernández et al.,
including ovalbumin, ovotransferrin and lysozyme, which establishes 2020).
the material foundation for its development as an antioxidant. The
peptides with antioxidant activity can be produced by enzymatic hy­ 4.1. Preparation of defatted yolk protein and hydrolysates
drolysis. The SEW hydrolysates obtained by different enzymes showed
diverse free radical scavenging capabilities. The hydrolysates obtained Egg yolk proteins account for about 33.0% of dry weight of whole
by neutral protease had the highest free radical scavenging capabilities egg yolk, which are denatured during yolk lipid extraction, leading to
including 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hydroxyl free radical protein waste and environmental pollution. An in vitro experiment
and ferrous ion chelation assay (Venkatachalam & Nagarajan, 2019). showed that the digestion rate and protein utilization rate of DYP was
The hydrolysates derived from desalted egg white powder by pepsin had significantly higher than casein. More importantly, the functional
a better antioxidant activity and also exhibited an excellent antibacterial properties and biological activities of DYP and its hydrolysates could not
ability (Thammasena & Liu, 2020). On the one hand, this attributed to be completely lost under ethanol-induced denaturation (Moreno-
the inherent properties of enzyme and different restriction sites. On the Fernández et al., 2020). Therefore, the recovery and reuse of DYP have a
other hand, it was because salt existed in SEW affected enzyme activity. certain practical significance and economic value. Yolk proteins include
However, the antioxidant evaluations of SEW and hydrolysates are still livetin (38%, α-, β-, γ-forms), lipoprotein (36%, α-, β-forms), low-density
limited to chemical antioxidant experiments, and it is worth performing lipoprotein (17%) and phosvitin (8–9%), among which the most valu­
further investigation at cell level and in vivo level. able proteins are immunoglobulin Y (also named γ-livetin) and phosvitin
(Huang & Ahn, 2019). As the main phosphorous protein in egg yolk,
3.4. Food applications of salted egg white and hydrolysates phosvitin was easily extracted from DYP by ethanol and salt (Ko, Nam,
Jo, Lee, & Ahn, 2011). However, it was difficult to fully metabolize
Salted egg is a traditional preserved food widely used in moon cakes, phosphorus for patients with chronic kidney disease or metabolic ab­
zongzi, cakes and other products, mainly because salted egg yolks with normalities, which might cause hyperphosphatemia and cardiac calci­
unique flavors are popular with consumers, such as fresh, thin, tender, fication. Long et al. prepared low-phosphorus phosvitin from defatted
loose, sand, and oil (Xu et al., 2019). Vast SEW are produced during the yolk powder, but final product had a decreased nutritional value and an
processing of salted egg yolk. Although high content of salt and hydro­ unpleasant odor (Long et al., 2019). The phosvitin partially affected the
phobicity limit further application of SEW, this does not mean that SEW bioavailability of iron existed in egg yolk owing to too many phosphate
cannot be used in foods. SEW can be used to replace the table salt groups, but it still had good functional properties and biological activ­
considering that it is rich in proteins and salt (Fig. 3). Tan et al. ities (Yilmaz & Ağagündüz, 2020). Immunoglobulin Y is a yolk immu­
confirmed that SEW maintained the cooking property, hardness and noglobulin that is highly homologous with mammalian immunoglobulin
elasticity of yellow alkali noodles, and gave it a good sensory acceptance G. It has attracted great attention because of low cost, high yield, and
(Tan, Phatthanawiboon, & Mat Easa, 2016). The texture and micro­ low immunogenicity. There are three main methods to extract immu­
structure of sardine surimi gel also were improved by adding appro­ noglobulin Y from egg yolk: chromatographic technology, defatting
priate SEW powder (Quan & Benjakul, 2019). Moreover, SEW combined with precipitation, and precipitation technology. The yield,
hydrolysates also improved the quality of Pacific white shrimp by purity and stability of immunoglobulin Y obtained by these methods
replacing phosphate (Kaewmanee, Benjakul, & Visessanguan, 2009). were different (Hussein et al., 2020). Ren et al. found that organic sol­
Desalted egg white was used as a fat substitute to reduce the fat content vent extraction greatly reduced lipids content of the product. There were
of mayonnaise, and the products exhibited lower calories and higher higher yields of immunoglobulin Y obtained by water dilution method,
storage stability (Wang et al., 2015). Notably, the appearance and color polyethylene glycol precipitation and phenolic acid extraction, and
of mayonnaise were affected because fat was reduced. Complex systems carrageenan precipitation gave the product high purity (Ren, Yang,
can be further considered to maintain sensory evaluation of mayonnaise Thirumalai, Zhang, & Schade, 2016). The preparation of bioactive
and also act as a fat substitution. peptides is an effective method to increase protein value, including
In conclusion, the functional properties, biological activities and enzymatic hydrolysis and microbial fermentation. Enzymatic hydrolysis
food applications of SEW are very limited although there are some re­ has widely been used in the food industries. Chay Pak Ting et al. found
ports covering its utilizations. Therefore, it is urgent to address the high that the phosphoproteins hydrolyzed with trpsin had a low hydrolysis
salt existed in SEW by developing high-efficient equipment and conve­ degree (5.2%), which could be explained by the high specificity of
nient technology. trypsin (Chay Pak Ting et al., 2011). A multifunctional peptide with
antioxidant, anti-ACE and anti-obesity activities was obtained from DYP
4. Defatted yolk protein as byproduct hydrolysate using pepsin, which demonstrated that proteins with more
hydrophobic groups and positively charged residues had the potential to
The dry egg yolk is composed of lipids, proteins, carotenoids and produce multifunctional peptides (Zambrowicz, Pokora, et al., 2015).
minerals as shown in Table 1. Egg yolk proteins include low-density Similarly, others also prepared bioactive peptides from DYP (Eckert

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N. Xiao et al. Food Research International 147 (2021) 110563

et al., 2019). yolks for nutrient delivery, food packaging and cosmetics industries in
view of unique safety and emulsifying properties. Abundant DYP are
4.2. Functional properties of defatted yolk protein and hydrolysates produced when egg yolk lipids are separated. These byproducts can be
used in the food industries as food additives, feeds, and food packaging
The surface hydrophobicity and solubility of DYP are reduced under materials. Antibiotics are generally used to disease prevention and
ethanol induction, and its functional properties are almost lost. Mod­ growth promotion in farms. However, antibiotics residual forms invis­
erate enzymatic hydrolysis can effectively improve functional properties ible challenges on poultry quality and human health. The combination
of DYP. Wang et al. found that proper enzymatic hydrolysis improved of probiotics and immunoglobulin Y not only had an antibacterial ac­
emulsion stability and foam stability of DYP as shown in Table 2 (Wang tivity, but improved the chicken quality and extended shelf life (Hussein
& Wang, 2009). Bao et al. found that enzymatic hydrolysis significantly et al., 2020).
changed solubility, microstructure and functional properties of proteins, Lipid oxidation is a serious problem in food industries. Excessive
mainly due to the decreased molecular weight and increased solubility, lipid oxidation causes undesirable taste, color and potential toxicant.
hydrophobicity and molecular flexibility (Bao, Zhao, Wang, & Chi, The phosvitin and its peptides extracted from DYP were added to inhibit
2017). Others also found that enzymatic hydrolysis improved functional lipid oxidation in food productions and processes, which mainly
properties of DYP (Pokora et al., 2013). However, the main purpose of attributed to strong metal chelating ability of proteins and peptides
protein hydrolysis is to maximize the recovery of valuable components (Yilmaz & Ağagündüz, 2020). Besides, phosvitin also inhibited the
and maintain high quality, so it is necessary that to ensure entire reac­ production of melanin, which had the potential to be used as a food
tion system being under a controlled condition. Although excessive preservative and cosmetics (Jung et al., 2012). Moreover, DYP was also
enzymatic hydrolysis has a little effect on nutritional properties of final used to prepare edible films and nutrient encapsulating materials except
product, it cannot maintain good functional properties or even lose it. being directly applied into foods, which showed better performances
Egg yolk oils and low-fat yolk powder were jointly prepared from egg combined with other substances (Marcet, Sáez, Rendueles, & Díaz,
yolk using supercritical extraction, and emulsifying property of low-fat 2017; Sassi, Marcet, Rendueles, Díaz, & Fattouch, 2020).
yolk powder was similar to whole yolk powder, which provided a new
idea for extraction of egg yolk lipids and retained functional properties 5. Other egg byproducts
of DYP (Su et al., 2020).
There are other byproducts in the egg industries except ESM, SEW
4.3. Biological activities of defatted yolk protein and hydrolysates and DYP, such as egg white protein isolates, egg yolk protein isolates and
eggshells. Egg white protein contains ovalbumin, ovotransferrin, ovo­
Bioactive peptide prepared from food-derived proteins is a rapidly mucin, lysozyme and other proteins. The preparation, functional prop­
developing field in food innovation. Bioactive peptides are composed of erties, biological activities and applications of these main proteins have
2–50 amino acids and are produced by proteolysis under the action of been extensively studied (Ji et al., 2020; Moreno-Fernández et al.,
food processing, exogenous enzyme and microbial fermentation. DYP as 2020). However, there are still bioactive proteins in the remaining
an industrial byproduct has poor functional properties, which limits its byproducts. Yao et al. isolated the egg inhibitor from egg white protein
development in food industries. The preparation of bioactive peptides isolates using Amberlite FPC 3500 ion exchange resin, and identified its
through enzymatic hydrolysis is a feasible way to improve its value. The inhibitory activities of elastase, trypsin, and α curd protease and sub­
hydrolysates of DYP had antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, and tilisin, which provided related information for its development as a food
anti-ACE activities as shown in Table 3 (Eckert et al., 2019; Yousr & additive (Yao et al., 2020).
Howell, 2015; Zambrowicz, Eckert, et al., 2015; Zambrowicz et al., Phosvitin and immunoglobulin Y are the most valuable proteins in
2012). In vivo experiment also showed that DYP (121.5 μg/day) regu­ egg yolk. When the two proteins are separated, the remaining byprod­
lated the Th1/Th2 response and enhanced mucosal immune response in ucts have many bioactive components including phospholipids.
mice, and played an important role in preventing bacterial infections Compared with the control group, the combined treatment of protease
(Nelson, Katayama, Mine, Duarte, & Matar, 2007). Moreover, defatted and lipase improved the average recovery rate (94%) and purity (57%)
yolk hydrolysates could prevent osteoporosis by promoting bone of phosphatidylcholine from immunoglobulin Y-separated yolk
metabolism (Fig. 2). There was a close relation between sex hormones byproduct (Navidghasemizad, Temelli, & Wu, 2014). However, related
and bone metabolism. The decreased estrogen of postmenopausal studies on its functional properties, biological activities and food ap­
women led to increased bone absorption, decreased bone formation and plications are still lacking.
bone mineral density. A clinical evidence showed that supplementation Eggs include eggshells, ESM, egg white and egg yolk. The eggshell
of yolk protein-derived peptides (100 mg/day) had antifracture and weighs about 11% of the total mass of whole egg and it contains calcium
antiresorptive activities on bone markers and bone density in perimen­ carbonate (94%), organic matter (4%), magnesium carbonate (1%) and
opausal women. Besides, there was no abnormal side effect during the 6- calcium phosphate (1%) (Mignardi, Archilletti, Medeghini, & De Vito,
mouth study (Abdou et al., 2014). These beneficial effects might be 2020). Eggshell is inedible but it is important to provide a physical
attributed to the fact that DYP-derived peptides promoted osteoblasts barrier for eggs. Eggshells are mainly collected from egg processing in­
proliferation and differentiation, and effectively inhibited osteoclasts dustries, homes, hatcheries and egg stations, and China, USA and India
formation. The beneficial effects of egg yolk protein-derived peptides in are the leading eggshells producing countries. Discarded eggshell
regulating bone metabolism have also been elucidated, but these pro­ annually generates 8 million tons of waste around the world, and global
tective effects were not observed in casein-treated rats (Kim, Lee, & eggshell production will increase to about 9 million tons by 2030, which
Leem, 2011; Kobayashi et al., 2015). However, more information about means that eggshells have great potential if it is made the most (Hem­
the allergy and bioavailability needed to be further investigated because brick-Holloman, Samuel, Mohammed, Jeelani, & Rangari, 2020).
α-livetin and YGP42 in egg yolk were reported to be allergens (Ma et al., Recently, comprehensive utilization of eggshells has been systematically
2020). reviewed, including milk tablets, lactose-free milk, calcium tablets, bone
graft substitutes, heavy metal adsorbents, catalysts, fertilizers, com­
4.4. Food applications of defatted yolk protein and hydrolysates posite materials and animal feeds (Waheed et al., 2019, 2020). Here, we
only list some recent novel eggshell-related reports. Eggshell-derived
Traditionally, the egg yolks are mainly applied into cakes, mayon­ calcium ions effectively increased superoxide dismutase activity and
naise, baked goods because of its excellent emulsifying and gelling reduced nitric oxide and weight gain in high-fat diet mice, indicating
properties (Xu et al., 2018). Egg yolk lipids have been extracted from egg that dietary eggshell supplementation inhibited obesity-related

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complications (El-Zeftawy, Ali, Salah, & Hafez, 2020). Novelina et al. Chen, Y., Sheng, L., Gouda, M., & Ma, M. (2019). Impact of ultrasound treatment on the
foaming and physicochemical properties of egg white during cold storage. LWT-Food
found that the concentration of eggshell powder significantly affected
Science and Technology, 113, Article 108303.
water content and gel strength of soymilk jelly, but had no significant Cordeiro, C. M., Esmaili, H., Ansah, G., & Hincke, M. T. (2013). Ovocalyxin-36 is a
effect on protein and water activity (Novelina, Anggraini, & Putri, pattern recognition protein in chicken eggshell membranes. PLoS One, 8(12), Article
2020). e84112.
Ding, Z., Li, S., & Cao, X. (2014). Separation of lysozyme from salted duck egg white by
affinity precipitation using pH-responsive polymer with an L-thyroxin ligand.
6. Conclusion and prospect Separation and Purification Technology, 138, 153–160.
Eckert, E., Zambrowicz, A., Bobak, Ł., Zabłocka, A., Chrzanowska, J., & Trziszka, T.
(2019). Production and identification of biologically active peptides derived from
The egg byproducts are often discarded but it is not equal to waste. by-product of hen egg-yolk phospholipid extraction. International Journal of Peptide
There is lacking in-depth studies although the necessity of recycling Research and Therapeutics, 25(2), 669–680.
El-Zeftawy, M., Ali, S. A. E. M., Salah, S., & Hafez, H. S. (2020). The functional
byproducts has been realized based on the available evidences. In terms
nutritional and regulatory activities of calcium supplementation from eggshell for
of the evidences listed above, it seems that most of egg byproducts have obesity disorders management. Journal of Food Biochemistry, e13313.
been included. In fact, some steps need to be further addressed. Farjami, T., Babaei, J., Nau, F., Dupont, D., & Madadlou, A. (2020). Effects of thermal,
non-thermal and emulsification processes on the gastrointestinal digestibility of egg
white proteins. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 107, 45–56.
(1) Other byproducts such as defective eggs and broken eggs should Fernández-Tomé, S., Hernández-Ledesma, B., Chaparro, M., Indiano-Romacho, P.,
be valued. Bernardo, D., & Gisbert, J. P. (2019). Role of food proteins and bioactive peptides in
(2) The efficient and economical separation equipment and methods inflammatory bowel disease. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 88, 194–206.
Gao, X., Guo, W., Wu, N., Yao, Y., Du, H., Xu, M., … Tu, Y. (2021). Effects of salt and heat
are required for large-scale preparation of egg byproducts and treatment on the physicochemical properties, microstructure, secondary structure
combined extraction of multiple bioactive components. and simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of duck egg white. Journal of the
(3) Functional properties of foods have been improved by adding egg Science of Food and Agriculture. (Online).
Gemechu, F. G. (2020). Embracing nutritional qualities, biological activities and
byproducts, but the stability and feasibility need to be further technological properties of coffee byproducts in functional food formulation. Trends
improved. in Food Science & Technology, 104, 235–261.
(4) The food flavor, taste and acceptability after adding egg Gouda, M., Zu, L., Ma, S., Sheng, L., & Ma, M. (2018). Influence of bio-active terpenes on
the characteristics and functional properties of egg yolk. Food Hydrocolloids, 80,
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(5) Biological activities in vivo, bioavailability, long-term safety, and Guarderas, F., Leavell, Y., Sengupta, T., Zhukova, M., & Megraw, T. L. (2016).
clinical effects are also needed. Computer technology and artifi­ Assessment of chicken-egg membrane as a dressing for wound healing. Advances in
Skin & Wound Care, 29(3), 131–134.
cial intelligence can provide technical support for its target
Guo, D., He, H., & Hou, T. (2020). Purification and characterization of positive allosteric
research. regulatory peptides of calcium sensing receptor (CaSR) from desalted duck egg
(6) Collaborative assemblies with other bioactive ingredients are the white. Food Chemistry, 126919.
focus of future product development. Guo, D., He, H., Zhao, M., Zhang, G., & Hou, T. (2020). Desalted duck egg white peptides
promoted osteogenesis via wnt/β-catenin signal pathway. Journal of Food Science, 85
(3), 834–842.
In conclusion, this review provides useful future directions for He, W., Xiao, N., Zhao, Y., Yao, Y., Xu, M., Du, H., … Tu, Y. (2021). Effect of
comprehensive utilization of egg byproducts. polysaccharides on the functional properties of egg white protein: A review. Journal
of Food Science, 86(3), 656–666.
Hembrick-Holloman, V., Samuel, T., Mohammed, Z., Jeelani, S., & Rangari, V. K. (2020).
Ecofriendly production of bioactive tissue engineering scaffolds derived from egg-
Declaration of Competing Interest and sea-shells. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 9(6), 13729–13739.
Hou, T., Liu, W., Shi, W., Ma, Z., & He, H. (2017). Desalted duck egg white peptides
The author declare that there is no conflict of interest. promote calcium uptake by counteracting the adverse effects of phytic acid. Food
Chemistry, 219, 428–435.
Hou, T., Liu, Y., Kolba, N., Guo, D., & He, H. (2017). Desalted duck egg white peptides
Acknowledgements promote calcium uptake and modulate bone formation in the retinoic acid-induced
bone loss rat and Caco-2 cell model. Nutrients, 9(5), 490.
Hou, T., Lu, Y., Guo, D., Liu, W., Shi, W., & He, H. (2018). A pivotal peptide (Val-Ser-Glu-
This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of Glu) from duck egg white promotes calcium uptake and structure-activity
China (Grant Nos. 31871832 and 31760467). relationship study. Journal of Functional Foods, 48, 448–456.
Huang, X., & Ahn, D. U. (2019). How Can the Value and Use of Egg Yolk Be Increased?
Journal of Food Science, 84(2), 205–212.
Huang, X., Zhou, Y., Ma, M., Cai, Z., & Li, T. (2010). Chemiluminescence evaluation of
Author contributions antioxidant activity and prevention of DNA damage effect of peptides isolated from
soluble eggshell membrane protein hydrolysate. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Nanhai Xiao collected, wrote and revised the manuscript. Wen He Chemistry, 58(23), 12137–12142.
Hussein, M. A., Rehan, I. F., Rehan, A. F., Eleiwa, N. Z., Abdel-Rahman, M. A.,
and Huaying Du collected part of the papers and modified the tables and Fahmy, S. G., … Batiha, G. E. (2020). Egg Yolk IgY: A Novel Trend of Feed Additives
figures in the manuscript. Xi Huang, Na Wu, Yao Yao and Mingsheng Xu to Limit Drugs and to Improve Poultry Meat Quality. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7,
participated in revision of the manuscript. Yan Zhao and Yonggang Tu 350.
Jain, S., & Anal, A. K. (2016). Optimization of extraction of functional protein
provided conception and revised the manuscript.
hydrolysates from chicken eggshell membrane (ESM) by ultrasonic assisted
extraction (UAE) and enzymatic hydrolysis. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 69,
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