PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF CLAY SAMPLES AROUND ISAN

EKITI, SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA

by

ADEYEMO MUHAMMAD ABIODUN

GLY/2019/1022

BEING A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY,

FACULTY OF SCIENCE, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.SC.) DEGREE IN GEOLOGY,
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OYE-EKITI, EKITI STATE.

JULY, 2024.
 CERTIFICATION

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OYE-EKITI

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF CLAY SAMPLES AROUND ISAN

EKITI, SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA

by

ADEYEMO MUHAMMAD ABIODUN

GLY/2029/1022

THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS CERTIFY AS FOLLOWS:THAT THIS IS THE

ORIGINAL WORK OF THE CANDIDATE; THAT THE PROJECT IS ACCEPTED IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc.) IN GEOLOGY

Dr. A. AWE
_________________________ ______________________
Supervisor Signature/Date

Dr. C. A. OYELAMI
_________________________ ______________________
Head of Department Signature/Date

_________________________ ______________________
External Examiner Signature/Date

ii
 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to God Almighty . I would also like to dedicate this research to my late
parents and to my siblings for their love and support .

iii
 ACKNOWLDEGEMENT

I owe immerse gratitude to Almighty God for his love , grace and immeasurable protection and
also for giving me sound hehalath and ultimate gift of life during my period on stay on campus .
I'm deeply grateful to Dr Awe for his supervision during the time of the project, I pray that Good
bless you greatly, I would like to extend my gratitude to Professor O.J OJO, for his absolute
understanding during the cause of this project. And also to all my friend, Omidokun Raphael
and David Emmanuel Ebong to mention but few for their support.

iv
 ABSTRACT

The physical and chemical characteristics of clay minerals determine their various industrial

applications. This study investigates the particle size distribution, Atterberg limits (liquid and

plastic limits), and cation exchange capacity (CEC) of for clay samples (P1A, P1D, S1A, S1D 1)

collected from Isan Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria. The primary objective is to determine the

textural characteristics, geotechnical properties (plasticity, expansiveness and activity) and

potential industrial applications of the clay samples. The particle size distribution analysis

reveals varying dominant particle size fractions: gravel (P1A -1% P1D -2% S1A 8% S1D 1%),

sand (P1A -54% P1D -32% S1A 30% S1D 35%), Silt (P1A -28% P1D -45% S1A 36% S1D 41%)

and clay (P1A -17% P1D -21% S1A 26% S1D 23%) providing insights into their textural

classification. The Atterberg limits indicate that samples P1D and P1A have medium plasticity

while S1D and S1A have low and high plasticity respectively. CEC results of the clay samples

varies from 7.7 to 24.89 (cmolc/kg) suggesting differing levels of acidity and potential cation

replacement. The granulometry results, plotted on the Winkler diagram, suggest specific

industrial applications for the samples, such as the manufacture of solid bricks and roof filler

slabs. Further detailed mineralogical and chemical analyses are recommended to enhance

understanding of the samoles’ s compositon and variability.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE PAGE

CETIFICATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

TABLE OF CONTENT vi-viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF TABLES x

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 General Statement. 1-2

1.2 Aim 2

1.3 Objective of Study 2

1.4 Location 3

1.5 Topography. 3

1.6 Drainage 3

1.7 Climate and Vegetation 3

1.8 Literature Review 6

vi
CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Regional Geological Settings 8

2.1 Nigerian Basement Complex 8

2.1.1 Migmatite Gneiss 10-11

2.1.2 The Schist Belt 11-13

2.1.3 The Older Granites 13-14

2.1.4 The Younger Granites 14-15

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and Methodology 18

3.1 Research Material 18

3.2 Sample collection 18

3.3 Sample preparation 18

3.4 Laboratory Analysis 19

3.4.1 Particles and size Analysis 19

3.4.2 Atterberg Limit. 20

3.4.2.1 Liquid Limit 20-22

3.4.2.2 Plastic Limit 22-26

3.4.2.3 Plasticity Index. 26

vii
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Results and Interpretation 27

4.1 Lithology Description 27-29

4.2 Particle Size Distribution 31-34

4. 3 Liquid And Plastic Limits 35-37

4.4 Mineralogy 38-39

4.5 Activity of The Samples 40-41

4.6 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 42-43

4.7 Possible Industrial Application 44

CHAPTER FIVE:

5.0 Conclusion 45

REFERENCES 46-50

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1.1: Map of Ekiti state showing the study area (Field survey, 2019)

Fig 2.1: Generalized geological map of Nigeria (Obaje 2009).

Fig 2.2 : Geological map of Ekiti State (after NGSA [14] ).
Figure 4.1: Pit illustration from the study area

Figure 4.2: Surface illustration from the study area

Figure 4.3: Sample collection from the field

Figure 4.4: Particle size distribution of the analysed sample

Figure 4.5: Plasticity chart for classification of cohesive soils (after casagrande, 1948)

Figure 4.6: Diagram of liquid limit and plasticity index (according to GRIM, 1968)

Figure 4.7: Estimation of expansiveness of clay in analysed sample (according to BELL, 1993)

Figure 4.8: Winkler diagram showing the particle size distribution and possible industrial
application

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Particle size distribution of the studied sample showing the corresponding Wentworth
class size

Table 2: Particle size distribution of the studied clay samples and textural classification

Table 3: Atterberg limit of the studied clay sample

Table 4a: Table showing the range of exchangeable bases

Table 4b: Table showing the range of exchangeable bases according to United State Department
of Agricultural Purposes

x
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL STATEMENT

Clay is a naturally occurring material composed of layered structures of fine-grained minerals

which exhibit the property of plasticity at appropriate water content but becomes permanently
hard when fired (Heckroodt, 1991; Njoka et al., 2015). The clay material is formed from
chemical weathering processes on the earth’s surface, and contributes about 40% of the fine
grained sedimentary rocks (mudrocks) which includes mud stones,clay stones and shales. Clay
minerals are generally composed of aluminum silicates which are formed by tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets that are linked together through sharing of apical oxygen atoms (Madejova,
2003). The formation of clay minerals is dependent on physicochemical conditions of the
immediate weathering environment, nature of the starting materials and other related external
environmental factors (Wilson, 1999), thus resulting into various types of clay materials.
Consequently, the application potential of any clay mineral type in nature will depend on its
chemical composition, structure and other inherent properties (Landoulsi, 2013). On this regard,
clay minerals are classified into different groups as follows; Kaolinite, Smectite, Vermiculite
Illite and Chlorites. Ologunwa et al (2022) Clay is chemically known as hydrated alumina
silicate (Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O) which is derived from the chemical and mechanical disintegration
of rocks, this could be igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary. Clay is a natural raw material
many industrial finished products such as refractories, ceramics wares in different colours from
white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red.
Guggenheim et al (1995) described clay minerals are the characteristics minerals on the earth
found near planetary surface (the surface where the outer crust of the object comes in contact
with atmosphere) environment with variable amount of ions like iron, magnesium, alkali metals,
alkaline earth metals and other cations. They are considered as important constituents of soil and
form by diagenetic and hydrothermal alteration of rocks in presence of water. Guggenheim et al.
(1995) further stated that clay minerals are commonly found in fine grained sedimentary rocks
such as shale, mudstone and siltstone. Clay minerals act as “chemical sponges” as they have
capacity to hold water and dissolved plant nutrients eroded from other minerals due to the
presence of some unbalanced electrical charge on their surface .As water is essential for clay
minerals formation, therefore, most of the clay minerals are known as hydrous alumino silicate
or hydrous aluminum phyllosilicate.

According to (Benjamin, 2004).The properties that define the composition of clay minerals are
derived from chemical compounds present in clay minerals, symmetrical arrangement of atoms
and ions and the forces that bind them together. The clay minerals are mainly known as the
complex silicates of various ions such as aluminum, magnesium and iron .

1.2 AIM

The aim of the study is to characterize the clay around Isan Ekiti and determine its possible
application

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY

 To determine the textural characteristics of the clay

 To determine the atterberg limits, activity and plasticity of the clay

 To determine possible industrial application of the clay samples

2
1.4 LOCATION

Ishan Ekiti is located in the southwestern part of Nigeria, which lies between Latitude 7° 55' 16"
N and longitude 5° 19' 6" Ekiti State (figure 1.1). It is one of the many towns in the state, known
for its natural resources, including clay deposits. Ekiti State is bordered by Kwara State to the
north, Kogi State to the northeast, Ondo State to the south and southeast, and Osun State to the
west (Adetoro and Abe, 2018).

1.5 TOPOGRAPHY

Ishan Ekiti's topography is characterized by a combination of hilly terrain and undulating

landscapes, typical of the region in southwestern Nigeria. The area features rolling hills, valleys,
and plains, contributing to a diverse natural environment. This topographical variation influences
local agriculture, water flow, and settlement patterns, making the land suitable for various uses,
including farming and natural resource exploration. The general elevation of this area is 571
meters (1,873 feet) (Adetoro and Abe, 2018).

1.6 DRAINAGE

Ishan Ekiti's drainage system consists of seasonal streams and small rivers that flow through its
hilly and undulating terrain, primarily active during the rainy season.

1.7 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

Isan Ekiti, located in the Ekiti State of Nigeria, enjoys a tropical climate with two distinct
seasons:Rainy Season (April - October): This is the wetter period, characterized by frequent
rainfall and high humidity. The south-westerly winds bring in moisture from the Atlantic
Ocean.Dry Season (November - March): This is the hotter and drier period, with the North East
Trade winds, also known as the Harmattan, blowing in from the Sahara Desert, bringing down
humidity and causing dry and dusty conditions (Ekiti State Directorate of ICT).

Temperatures in Isan Ekiti typically range between 21°C (70°F) and 28°C (82°F) throughout the
year. Due to this variation in rainfall, the vegetation in Isan Ekiti differs across the region:
Tropical Forest: Found in the southern parts of Ekiti State, including areas around Isan Ekiti, this
zone receives more rainfall and is characterized by tall trees with broad leaves, forming a dense
3
canopy. These forests provide habitat for a variety of plant and animal life (Adetoro and Abe,
2018).

4
 Study area

Fig 1.1: Mao of Ekiti state showing the study area (Field survey, 2019)

5
1.8 Literature Review

Ologunwa et al (2022) investigated the performance evaluation of Irefin (Isan Ekiti) in the
production of refractory brick. It was discovered that the clay has potential application as raw
materials for refractory.

According to Silas et al (2018), there were presence of large deposits of lateritic soil with large
contents of clay and its minerals in the study area (Isan Ekiti). The deposits were acidic in nature,
though weak. The soil was inferred to have high retention capacity and the presence of clay
minerals such as Kaolinite, Allophone, Chlorite, Illite and Smectite were discovered in the study
area.

According to Murray (1991), clay is used as adsorbent, decolouration agents, ion exchanger, and
molecular sieve catalyst. Despite their importance, the clay minerals form a difficult group of
minerals to study due to their small size, variable structural composition, and relative slow
kinetics of formation and alteration .

According to Moore et al (1997) the physical and chemical properties of a particular clay mineral
are dependent on its structure and composition.

Reidmiller (1978) stated that the main controlling factor of clay mineral transformation
sequences in the decrease is permeability as a consequence of agitation.

Gliozzo et al., (2014) stated that clays are materials with various mineral compositions and are
the main ingredients in ceramic processing; as a result, extensive studies have been made on
clays and their applications.

Akintonde et al. (2014) catergoruzed clay in to two based on geological formation. They are
primary and secondary clays. Primary clay is residual or

in-situ clay found at the base of mother rock that formed it. It is almost pure in composition
because it has little interaction with other foreign bodies which may affect its chemical and
physical composition. Primary clay which is also known as kaolin is There are two types of clay
based on geological formation. They are primary and secondary clays. Primary clay is residual or
6
in-situ clay found at the base of mother rock that formed it. It is almost pure in composition
because it has little interaction with other foreign bodies which may affect its chemical and
physical composition. Primary clay which is also known as kaolin is

7
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Regional Geology of Nigeria

2.1 Nigerian Basement Complex
The Nigerian basement complex forms a part of the Pan-Africanmobile belt and lies between
theWest African and Congo Cratons and south of the Tuareg Shield (Black,1980).The Nigerian
basement was affected by the 600 Ma Pan-African orogenyand it occupies the reactivated region
which resulted from plate collision between the passive continental margin of the West African
craton and the active Pharusian continental margin (Burke and Dewey, 1972; Dada, 2006). (Fig
2.1).

According to Rahman, (1988). The Nigeria basement complex is classified into four major
classes namely;
1) Migmatie Gneiss
2) Schist belt
3) Older Granite
4) Younger Granite

8
Fig 2.1: Generalized geological map of Nigeria (Obaje 2009).

9
2.1.1 The Migmatite-Gneiss Complex
The Migmatite-Gneiss Complex is one of the most significant geological units within the
Nigerian basement complex. This extensive unit is characterized by a diverse array of
migmatites, gneisses, and granitic rocks that have undergone multiple phases of deformation and
metamorphism. The Migmatite-Gneiss Complex represents the oldest geological formation in
Nigeria, reflecting a long and complex history of geological processes that have shaped the
region’s crust over billions of years (Rahaman, 1988).

Migmatites are composite rocks that display both igneous and metamorphic characteristics,
formed under high-temperature conditions that partially melt the rock. This process results in a
mixed texture, with darker metamorphic components interspersed with lighter, vein-like igneous
material. The presence of migmatites in the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex indicates significant
thermal events in the geological past, likely related to tectonic activities and crustal reworking.
These rocks provide critical insights into the thermal and tectonic history of the Nigerian
basement complex (Rahaman, 1988).

Gneisses, another major component of the complex, are high-grade metamorphic rocks
characterized by their distinct banded or foliated appearance. The gneisses in the Nigerian
basement complex have undergone intense deformation, resulting in the alignment of mineral
grains into parallel layers. This foliation is indicative of significant tectonic pressures and
shearing forces that have acted upon these rocks over time. The gneisses are primarily composed
of quartz, feldspar, and mica, with variations in mineral composition reflecting the original
protoliths and the specific conditions of metamorphism they experienced (Dada, 2006).

The Migmatite-Gneiss Complex also includes various granitic intrusions, which are crucial for
understanding the magmatic history of the region. These granitic bodies, often referred to as the
Older Granites, were emplaced during the Pan-African orogeny around 600 million years ago.
The granitic intrusions cut through the migmatites and gneisses, indicating that they formed later
in the geological timeline. The interaction between these granitic intrusions and the surrounding
metamorphic rocks provides valuable information about the processes of magma generation,
emplacement, and the subsequent cooling and solidification within the crust (Rahaman, 1988).

Structurally, the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex exhibits a high degree of complexity, with evidence
of multiple deformation events. These structural features include folds, faults, and shear zones,
which record the intense tectonic forces that have shaped the region. The complexity of these
structures is a testament to the dynamic geological history of the Nigerian basement complex,
involving multiple phases of tectonic convergence, crustal thickening, and subsequent extension
and exhumation. The study of these structures is essential for understanding the tectonic
evolution of not only Nigeria but also the broader West African Craton (Odeyemi, 1976).

10
Geochronological studies have provided precise age constraints for the various events recorded
in the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex. Radiometric dating techniques, such as U-Pb zircon dating,
have revealed that the formation of the migmatites and gneisses dates back to the Archean and
Proterozoic eons. These ancient rocks, some of which are over 2.5 billion years old, represent the
foundational crust upon which subsequent geological processes have built. The Pan-African
orogeny, a significant tectonothermal event, further reworked these ancient rocks, adding another
layer of complexity to their history (Dada, 2006).

The economic significance of the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex cannot be overstated. The complex
hosts a variety of mineral resources, including precious and base metals such as gold, tin, and
columbite-tantalite. The complex interplay of magmatic, metamorphic, and tectonic processes
has created favorable conditions for the concentration of these minerals. As a result, the
Migmatite-Gneiss Complex is a focal point for mining activities in Nigeria, contributing
significantly to the country’s economy (Odeyemi, 1976).
In conclusion, the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex is a cornerstone of Nigeria’s geological
framework, representing a profound record of the region’s geological history. Its diverse rock
types, complex structures, and rich mineral deposits make it an area of great interest for both
scientific research and economic exploitation. Continued studies of this complex are essential for
furthering our understanding of the geological evolution of Nigeria and the broader West African
Craton, as well as for identifying and harnessing its economic potential.

2.1.2 The Schist Belt

The Schist Belt Complex in Nigeria is a prominent geological feature within the Nigerian
basement complex, characterized by narrow, elongated zones of low-grade metamorphic rocks.
These belts are primarily composed of schists, phyllites, quartzites, and marbles, with minor
occurrences of metavolcanic rocks. The Schist Belts represent remnants of ancient sedimentary
basins that were subsequently deformed and metamorphosed, offering invaluable insights into
the tectonic and metamorphic history of Nigeria and the broader West African Craton (Odeyemi,
1976).

Schists, the dominant rock type within the Schist Belt Complex, are medium- to coarse-grained
metamorphic rocks that exhibit a pronounced schistosity due to the alignment of platy minerals
such as mica. This foliation results from significant regional metamorphism, where intense
pressure and temperature conditions reoriented the mineral grains. Schists in the Nigerian Schist
Belts often contain quartz, feldspar, and chlorite, along with accessory minerals like garnet and
staurolite, which provide clues about the metamorphic conditions during their formation
(Rahaman, 1988).

Phyllites, another important component of the Schist Belt Complex, are fine-grained
metamorphic rocks that exhibit a silky sheen and well-developed foliation. They represent a
lower grade of metamorphism compared to schists and are typically composed of fine-grained
11
mica, quartz, and chlorite. The presence of phyllites indicates a progressive metamorphic
sequence from slate to schist, reflecting increasing metamorphic conditions. These rocks provide
essential information about the early stages of metamorphism and the tectonic processes that
affected the sedimentary precursors (Turner, 1983).

Quartzites within the Schist Belt Complex are highly resistant metamorphic rocks derived from
the recrystallization of quartz-rich sandstone. They exhibit a granular texture and are
predominantly composed of interlocking quartz grains. Quartzites are notable for their hardness
and durability, making them significant for understanding the mechanical behavior of the Schist
Belts. The occurrence of quartzites suggests the presence of significant sedimentary sequences
that have undergone intense metamorphism (Dada, 2006).

Marbles, formed from the metamorphism of limestone or dolomite, are another key rock type
within the Schist Belt Complex. They are primarily composed of calcite or dolomite crystals and
often display a range of colors due to impurities. Marbles in the Schist Belts are significant both
geologically and economically, as they can contain valuable mineral deposits such as graphite,
talc, and mica. Their presence indicates the original carbonate sedimentary environments and the
subsequent metamorphic processes (Rahaman, 1988).

The Schist Belt Complex also includes minor occurrences of metavolcanic rocks, which are
volcanic rocks that have undergone metamorphism. These rocks provide evidence of ancient
volcanic activity associated with the sedimentary environments of the Schist Belts. The study of
metavolcanic rocks helps in reconstructing the volcanic history and understanding the tectonic
settings that influenced the formation of the Schist Belts (Odeyemi, 1976).

Structurally, the Schist Belt Complex exhibits a high degree of complexity, with features such as
folds, faults, and shear zones. These structural elements record the intense tectonic forces that
have shaped the Schist Belts, including compressional and extensional regimes. The presence of
tight folds and thrust faults indicates significant crustal shortening, while extensional features
suggest subsequent crustal stretching. These structures are crucial for interpreting the tectonic
history and the geodynamic evolution of the Nigerian basement complex (Turner, 1983).

Geochronological studies have provided age constraints for the various events recorded in the
Schist Belt Complex. Radiometric dating techniques, such as U-Pb zircon dating, have revealed
that the formation and metamorphism of the Schist Belts occurred during the Proterozoic Eon,
particularly around 600 to 700 million years ago. These dates correspond to the Pan-African
orogeny, a major tectonothermal event that affected large parts of the West African Craton. The
Pan-African orogeny was characterized by significant crustal reworking, including the formation
of the Schist Belts through the deformation and metamorphism of sedimentary basins (Dada,
2006).

The economic significance of the Schist Belt Complex is notable, as these belts host a variety of
mineral resources, including precious and base metals such as gold, lead, zinc, and barite. The
12
structural complexity and the presence of hydrothermal systems within the Schist Belts create
favorable conditions for the concentration of these minerals. Consequently, the Schist Belts are a
focal point for mining activities in Nigeria, contributing significantly to the country’s economy.
The exploration and exploitation of these mineral resources are essential for sustainable
development and economic growth (Odeyemi, 1976). In conclusion, the Schist Belt Complex in
Nigeria is a geologically and economically significant unit within the Nigerian basement
complex. Its diverse rock types, complex structures, and rich mineral deposits make it an area of
great interest for both scientific research and economic activities. The study of the Schist Belts
provides essential insights into the tectonic, metamorphic, and sedimentary history of Nigeria,
contributing to a broader understanding of the geological evolution of the West African Craton.

2.1.3 The Older Granites

The Older Granites of Nigeria, also referred to as the Pan-African Granitoids, are a prominent
geological feature within the Nigerian basement complex. Emplaced during the Pan-African
orogeny approximately 600 million years ago, these granitic intrusions are pivotal in
understanding the tectonic and geodynamic evolution of the West African Craton. The Older
Granites are distributed widely across Nigeria and are known for their coarse-grained texture and
intricate interactions with surrounding rock units, including the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex and
the Schist Belts (Rahaman, 1988).

The mineralogical composition of the Older Granites primarily includes quartz, feldspar (both
plagioclase and orthoclase), and biotite, with accessory minerals such as muscovite, hornblende,
and garnet. These granitic rocks exhibit a variety of textures ranging from equigranular to
porphyritic, indicating different crystallization environments and cooling histories. For instance,
the presence of large feldspar phenocrysts in some granites points to slow cooling at deeper
crustal levels, followed by rapid ascent and emplacement nearer to the surface (Dada, 2006).

Geochemically, the Older Granites are classified as calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline,

suggesting their formation in a convergent plate margin setting. This geochemical signature
aligns with the tectonic processes associated with the Pan-African orogeny, which involved the
collision and amalgamation of various crustal blocks. The granites are typically enriched in
silica, potassium, and aluminum, while exhibiting relatively low concentrations of iron,
magnesium, and calcium. These chemical characteristics imply that the granites originated from
the partial melting of pre-existing continental crustal materials rather than from direct mantle-
derived magmas (Dada, 2008).

Structurally, the Older Granites intrude both the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex and the Schist Belts,
indicating a complex emplacement history. These intrusions often form large batholiths, stocks,
and dykes that disrupt the pre-existing fabric of the surrounding metamorphic rocks. The
emplacement of these granitic bodies is associated with significant deformation, including
folding, faulting, and shearing, which has contributed to the overall tectonic architecture of the
13
Nigerian basement complex (Rahaman, 1988). The structural relationships between the Older
Granites and the surrounding rocks provide valuable insights into the tectonic processes that
dominated the Pan-African orogeny.

The geochronology of the Older Granites has been extensively studied using various radiometric
dating techniques, such as U-Pb zircon dating. These studies have confirmed the Pan-African age
of these granites, placing their emplacement at around 600 million years ago. This timing
corresponds with a major tectonothermal event that reworked the West African Craton and led to
the formation of extensive granitic plutons. The radiometric ages also help to constrain the
timing of metamorphic and deformational events in the region, providing a chronological
framework for the geological history of the Nigerian basement complex (Dada, 2006).

Economically, the Older Granites are significant due to their association with various mineral
deposits. These granitic rocks host a variety of economically important minerals, including tin,
columbite-tantalite, and rare earth elements. The processes of magmatic differentiation and
hydrothermal alteration associated with the emplacement of the granites have concentrated these
minerals into economically viable deposits. Consequently, the Older Granites are a focal point
for mining activities in Nigeria, contributing substantially to the country’s mineral wealth
(Odeyemi, 1976). In conclusion, the Older Granites of Nigeria are a key component of the
Nigerian basement complex, representing a critical phase in the region’s geological evolution.
Their mineralogical and geochemical characteristics, structural relationships, and
geochronological framework provide essential insights into the tectonic processes of the Pan-
African orogeny. Additionally, their economic significance underscores the importance of these
granitic rocks both in geological research and in the development of Nigeria’s mineral resources.
Continued study of the Older Granites is vital for advancing our understanding of the geological
history and mineral potential of the West African Craton.

2.1.4 The Younger Granites

The Younger Granites of Nigeria, also known as the Mesozoic Younger Granites, are a
geologically significant feature predominantly found in the Jos Plateau region of north-central
Nigeria. These granitic intrusions, notable for their distinct ring complex formations, were
emplaced during the Jurassic period, approximately 160 to 180 million years ago. The Younger
Granites are essential for understanding the tectonic and magmatic processes associated with the
rifting that preceded the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. Their study offers crucial insights
into the geological evolution of the region (Bowden & Turner, 1974).

The Younger Granites are characterized by their circular to elliptical shapes, forming prominent
ring complexes that are easily identifiable in geological maps and satellite imagery. These
complexes comprise a variety of rock types, including granites, syenites, rhyolites, and trachytes,
indicating a complex magmatic history. The granitic rocks within these complexes are typically
14
coarse-grained and porphyritic, containing large crystals of feldspar, quartz, and biotite, with
accessory minerals such as zircon, fluorite, and tourmaline (Jacobson & Webb, 1946). These
mineralogical components define not only the physical properties of the granites but also their
geochemical signatures, which are essential for interpreting the magmatic processes involved.

Geochemically, the Younger Granites are classified as peralkaline and metaluminous, with high
concentrations of alkali elements such as sodium and potassium. This geochemical signature
suggests that these granites were derived from highly evolved magmas, possibly generated by the
partial melting of the lower crust or the upper mantle. The enrichment in incompatible elements,
such as uranium, thorium, and rare earth elements (REEs), supports the hypothesis of a
differentiated magmatic source. These geochemical characteristics are valuable for tracing the
magmatic evolution and the tectonic settings of the Younger Granites (Bowden & Turner, 1974).

Structurally, the Younger Granites are associated with significant tectonic features, including
faults and fractures that facilitated the ascent and emplacement of the magmas. The ring
structures themselves are believed to result from magmatic stoping and roof collapse, creating
the characteristic ring dykes and central volcanic structures. The emplacement of these granitic
bodies was likely controlled by extensional tectonics related to the breakup of Gondwana and the
initiation of rifting along the Benue Trough. This tectonic setting is crucial for understanding the
broader geodynamic context of Jurassic magmatism in Nigeria (Obaje, 2009).

The geochronology of the Younger Granites has been extensively studied using radiometric
dating techniques, such as U-Pb zircon dating and Ar-Ar dating. These studies have confirmed
their Jurassic age, with precise dates clustering around 160 to 180 million years ago. This timing
corresponds with significant global tectonic events, including the initial stages of the opening of
the South Atlantic Ocean. The radiometric ages help to constrain the timing of magmatic and
tectonic events in Nigeria, providing a chronological framework for the geological history of the
region (Bowden et al., 1984).

Economically, the Younger Granites are highly significant due to their association with various
mineral deposits. These granitic rocks host a variety of economically important minerals,
including tin, niobium, tantalum, and rare earth elements. The processes of magmatic
differentiation and hydrothermal alteration associated with the Younger Granites have
concentrated these minerals into economically viable deposits. Consequently, the Jos Plateau and
surrounding areas have been the focus of extensive mining activities, particularly for tin and
columbite, contributing substantially to Nigeria’s mineral wealth and industrial development
(Kinnaird, 1984).

15
2.2 GEOLOGY OF EKITI STATE

Ekiti State, situated in southwestern Nigeria, boasts diverse geological formations,

predominantly underlain by some of the most ancient rocks on Earth. (Fig 2.2). These rocks
belong to the Precambrian Basement Complex, which formed billions of years ago.

1. Granitic Rocks: The state is characterized by extensive granitic formations, forming the
foundational bedrock in many areas. These granites are often associated with hilly landscapes.
(Ajibade et al., 2013).

2. Lateritic Soils: Ekiti State contains significant deposits of lateritic soils, particularly in the
northern and central regions. These soils develop through the weathering of underlying rocks,
primarily granites, and are enriched in clay and iron oxides, contributing to agricultural fertility
(Oyediran & Folorunso, 2015).

3. Mineral Resources: The state is endowed with various mineral resources, including tantalite,
columbite, kaolin, and gemstones. These resources are distributed across different parts of the
state and support economic activities such as mining and quarrying (Fayose et al., 2019).

4. Structural Features: Ekiti State exhibits diverse structural features, including fault zones and
fractures, which influence the distribution and occurrence of geological formations and mineral
resources (Obaje et al., 2010).

16
Fig 2.2 : Geological map of Ekiti State (after NGSA [14] )

17
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH MATERIALS

The materials used for this project includes:

1) GPS: It is a satellite based on electronic device that used the suspended satellite in the space to
give coordinate of a point on earth and also give the elevation of a particular point on the earth
surface .

2) Field Note : This is a small book where filed activities on filed were being record .

3) Sample Bag: This was used to pack collected sample to the lab for examination .

4) Shovel : It was used to pack sample into the sample bag .

5) Measuring Tape : This is a surveying material that was used to measure the distance between
two points and the depth at which sample are collected on field .

6) Masking Tape : This is user to label the sample collected from filed for easy identification of
the sample .

7) Digger: It was used to pit the hole for collection of samples .

3.2 SAMPLE COLLECTION

Different clay samples were collected from a single locations within the study area (Isan Ekiti) ,
along Ilemesho road . Some of the samples were collected at a depth of 3 meters , 2 meters and
1.5 meters below the surface , the samples were designated for proper identification .

3.3 SAMPLE PREPARATION

The collected samples was dried at room temperature for two weeks before any test will be
carried out to avoid cracking of the sample .

18
3.4 LABORATORY ANALYSIS

The samples collected were subject to the following tests in the laboratory , these tested
includes particle (grain) size analysis , Atterberg limits I.e (liquid limit (ii) , plastic limit (iii)
linear shrinkage ), collection test , California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and specific gravity test .

3.4.1 PARTICLE(Grain) SIZE ANALYSIS

This is the determination of the proportion of size range of particles in the soil, and is is
expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight. The stages involved in the grain size
distribution analysis include ; wet sieving and mechanical sieving

* Mechanical sieving : This us used to determine the distribution of particles size in the coarser
grain fraction I.e particles size greater than 0.75microns. It involves the use of stack of sieve with
various sizes.

Materials used :

A set of sieve, weighing balance, sieve brush and large pans.

Procedure : Performing a mechanical sieving analysis involves several steps:

1. Sample Preparation: Collect a representative sample and ensure it's properly dried to remove
any moisture.

2. Selection of Sieves: Choose the appropriate set of sieves with different mesh sizes to cover the
entire particle size range of the sample.

3. Arrangement of Sieves: Stack the sieves in descending order of mesh size, with the coarsest
sieve at the top and the finest at the bottom. Place a catch pan at the bottom to collect the fines.

4. Weighing: Weigh the sample and record its initial weight.

5. Sieving: Place the sample on the top sieve and cover it. Start the mechanical sieving machine
and allow it to run for a sufficient amount of time to ensure thorough sieving.

19
6. Weighing Residue: After sieving, weigh the material retained on each sieve and the material
collected in the catch pan.

7. Calculations: Calculate the percentage of material retained on each sieve and the cumulative
percentage retained. Also, calculate the percentage passing through each sieve.

8. Graphical Representation: Plot the particle size distribution curve using the data obtained from
the analysis.

9. Interpretation: Analyze the results to understand the particle size distribution of the sample
and draw conclusions about its characteristics.

10. Cleaning and Maintenance: Clean the sieves and the sieving equipment after use to prevent
contamination and ensure accuracy in future analyses.

3.4.2 ATTERBERG LIMIT

The Atterbrg limit is also referred to as consistency limit test. It is quite possible for two soil
sample that have closely similar grading curves to exhibit widely different prooeties due to
differences in the characteristics of clay size particles. After her limit gives the plasticity
characteristics of cohesive soil I.e. reflection of cohesive properties of the soil sample rather than
liquid limit, plastic limit and linear shrinkage .

3.4.2.2 LIQUID LIMIT

The liquid limit of soil sample define the minimum moisture content at which a soil tends sir
began to flow under the influence of its weight. At this point, the shear strength is I lost I.e the
soil sample does not have answer strength any longer.

Materials Used :

1) Weighing balance

2) Cassangranding machine cup

3) Mixing dishes

20
4) Spatula

5) Oven

6) Moisture can

7) Palette knife

The liquid limit test determines the moisture content at which soil changes from a liquid state to
a plastic state. Here's a breakdown of the procedure:

Materials:

I. Air-dried soil sample sieved through a 425-micron sieve

II. Distilled water

III. Liquid limit device with cup and grooving tool

IV. Evaporating dish

V. Spatula

VI. Balance for weighing

Procedure:

Prepare the soil paste: Weigh 250 grams of your soil sample and place it in the evaporating
dish. Add distilled water gradually while mixing thoroughly to form a uniform paste. The
consistency should require around 30 to 35 drops from the cup of the liquid limit device to close
a standard groove for a sufficient length.

Fill the cup: Place a portion of the prepared paste in the cup of the liquid limit device and level it
with a few strokes of the spatula.

Shape and groove: Trim the soil paste in the cup to a depth of 1 centimeter at its thickest point.
Use the grooving tool to create a standard groove in the center of the paste.

21
Dropping and counting: Raise the cup containing the soil paste to a specified height (typically 10
millimeters) using the crank mechanism of the device. Then, drop the cup repeatedly at a
controlled rate (usually two revolutions per second) until the two halves of the soil separated by
the groove close for a specific distance (usually 12 millimeters) due to the flow of the soil. Count
the number of drops it takes to achieve closure.

Moisture content determination: Take a representative sample of the soil paste from the cup and
determine its water content by oven drying.

Repeat: Repeat steps 1 to 5 at least three more times with the same soil but adjusted moisture
contents. Aim for a range of drops between 15 and 35 for closure in each test.

Safety precaution: Wear gloves and safety glasses while handling soil samples and operating the
liquid limit device.

3.4.2.3 PLASTIC LIMIT

The plastic limit (pl) is determined by rolling out attire of fine portion of a sample on a flat non
porous surface. It denotes the water content at which the soil sample no longer behaved as a
plastic material I.e point at which soil sample loss plasticity .

Material Used: Porcelain (evaporating) dish, moisture cans , weighing balance, water, glass
plate, spatula, palette knife and drying oven set at 105c .

Procedure:

Prepare the soil paste: Similar to the liquid limit test, mix 20 grams of your soil sample with
distilled water in an evaporating dish to create a uniform paste. Aim for a consistency that allows
for molding with fingers.

Shape the soil mass: Pinch off a small portion (around 8 grams) of the prepared soil paste and
roll it into an ellipsoidal shape between your palms.

22
Rolling and threading: Place the ellipsoidal soil mass on the glass plate and roll it back and forth
with your palm or a rolling tool, applying gentle pressure. Maintain a consistent rolling speed
(around 80-90 strokes per minute).

Thread diameter monitoring: As you roll, observe the diameter of the soil thread forming. The
goal is to achieve a uniform thread with a diameter of 3 millimeters (around 1/8 inch).

Moisture content determination: Once the thread reaches 3 millimeters in diameter and crumbles,
collect the crumbled pieces for moisture content analysis. You can use a small container to store
the sample.

Repeat with adjustments: Repeat steps 2 to 5 with new portions of the soil paste, adjusting the
moisture content by adding small amounts of water or drying the soil slightly by rolling it
between your palms. Aim to perform at least three tests with varying water contents.

Moisture content determination: After collecting crumbled thread samples from each test,
determine their water content by oven drying them and measuring the weight difference before
and after drying.

PROCEDURES FOR LIQUID LIMIT

The liquid limit test determines the moisture content at which soil changes from a liquid state to
a plastic state. Here's a breakdown of the procedure:

Materials:

Air-dried soil sample sieved through a 425-micron sieve

Distilled water

Liquid limit device with cup and grooving tool

Evaporating dish

Spatula

Balance for weighing

23
Procedure:

Prepare the soil paste: Weigh 250 grams of your soil sample and place it in the evaporating dish.
Add distilled water gradually while mixing thoroughly to form a uniform paste. The consistency
should require around 30 to 35 drops from the cup of the liquid limit device to close a standard
groove for a sufficient length.

Fill the cup: Place a portion of the prepared paste in the cup of the liquid limit device and level it
with a few strokes of the spatula.

Shape and groove: Trim the soil paste in the cup to a depth of 1 centimeter at its thickest point.
Use the grooving tool to create a standard groove in the center of the paste.

Dropping and counting: Raise the cup containing the soil paste to a specified height (typically 10
millimeters) using the crank mechanism of the device. Then, drop the cup repeatedly at a
controlled rate (usually two revolutions per second) until the two halves of the soil separated by
the groove close for a specific distance (usually 12 millimeters) due to the flow of the soil. Count
the number of drops it takes to achieve closure.

Moisture content determination: Take a representative sample of the soil paste from the cup and
determine its water content by oven drying.

Repeat: Repeat steps 1 to 5 at least three more times with the same soil but adjusted moisture
contents. Aim for a range of drops between 15 and 35 for closure in each test.

Liquid limit calculation: Plot the water content values obtained from each test on the y-axis and
the corresponding number of drops on the x-axis. Draw a best-fit line through the data points.
The liquid limit is the moisture content on the y-axis that corresponds to 25 drops on the x-axis
(the standard number of drops for the test).

Safety precaution: Wear gloves and safety glasses while handling soil samples and operating the
liquid limit device.

24
PROCEDURES FOR PLASTIC LIMIT

The plastic limit test determines the minimum water content at which soil can be molded without
crumbling. Here's the procedure:

Materials:

1) Air-dried soil sample sieved through a 425-micron sieve

Distilled water

2) Glass plate or smooth, non-porous surface

3) Spatula

4) Balance for weighing

5) Rolling tool (optional, can be your fingers)

6) Containers for moisture content determination (usually small crucibles)

Procedure:

Prepare the soil paste: Similar to the liquid limit test, mix 20 grams of your soil sample with
distilled water in an evaporating dish to create a uniform paste. Aim for a consistency that allows
for molding with fingers.

Shape the soil mass: Pinch off a small portion (around 8 grams) of the prepared soil paste and
roll it into an ellipsoidal shape between your palms.

Rolling and threading: Place the ellipsoidal soil mass on the glass plate and roll it back and forth
with your palm or a rolling tool, applying gentle pressure. Maintain a consistent rolling speed
(around 80-90 strokes per minute).

Thread diameter monitoring: As you roll, observe the diameter of the soil thread forming. The
goal is to achieve a uniform thread with a diameter of 3 millimeters (around 1/8 inch).

25
Moisture content determination: Once the thread reaches 3 millimeters in diameter and crumbles,
collect the crumbled pieces for moisture content analysis. You can use a small container to store
the sample.

Repeat with adjustments: Repeat steps 2 to 5 with new portions of the soil paste, adjusting the
moisture content by adding small amounts of water or drying the soil slightly by rolling it
between your palms. Aim to perform at least three tests with varying water contents.

Moisture content determination: After collecting crumbled thread samples from each test,
determine their water content by oven drying them and measuring the weight difference before
and after drying.

Plastic limit calculation: Plot the water content values obtained from each test on the y-axis and
the corresponding number of trials needed to achieve a 3 mm crumbled thread on the x-axis.
Draw a best-fit line through the data points. The plastic limit is the moisture content on the y-axis
that intersects the line at a point corresponding to one trial (representing successful rolling to 3
mm diameter in a single attempt).

3.4.2.4 PLASTICITY INDEX

Plasticity index is the measure of the plasticity of soil sample. It is the size of the range of water
content where soil sample exhibit plastic properties . It can be determine by difference between
the liquid limit and plastic limit.

Plasticity of fine soil has an important effect on such engineering properties such as shear
strength and compressibility , and it is an external manifestation of grain size distribution and the
affinity of t he individual particles of aggregate to one another under define conditions of
moisture content and mechanical stress (Gidigasu , 1973). Other factor that affect plasticity
includes parent materials, degree of lateralization , clay size content, clay mineral type and
topographic condition (Ola, 1980).

26
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 LITHOLOGY DESCRIPTION

The study section which is located in Isan-Ekiti along Ilemesho road Ekiti state was exposed due
to human activities , from which three samples were taken from pit and another three were taken
from surface . The pit is about 3-4 m meters deep. The lithologic section (Figure 4.1) lies
between longitude LONGITUDE 7° 56’45’’ and LATITUDE 8°19’ 29’’. The exposed section
consists of white-colored clay with approximately 20% quartz grains and 80% clay particles, as
determined by simple modal analysis with hand.This suggests a clayey lithology with a minor
quartz component. The white color of the clay is likely due to the dominance of kaolinite or other
light-colored clay minerals.

27
 PIE-1.2M

P1D- 1.5M.

PIA-3.3M

Fig. 4.1: Pit Illustration from the study area

28
 S1D 0.58m

S1C 0.5m

S1A 0m

Fig. 4.2: Surface Illustration from the study area

29
Figure 4.3: Sample collection from the field

30
4.2 Particle Size Distribution

The particle size distribution (PSD) results presented in table 2 reveals the percentages of the
three main components (Sand-Silt-Clay) in the analyzed samples. The clay samples have the
following components respectively; gravel (P1A -1% P1D -2% S1A 8% S1D 1%), sand (P1A -
54% P1D -32% S1A 30% S1D 35%), Silt (P1A -28% P1D -45% S1A 36% S1D 41%) and clay
(P1A -17% P1D -21% S1A 26% S1D 23%). The results further shows that S1A has the highest
gravel and clay components (8% and 26% respectively), P1A has the highest sand component
(54%), P1D has the highest silt component (45%).

31
 Table 1: Particle Size Distribution of the studied samples showing the corresponding Wentworth
class size

Sieve size P1A P1D S1A S1D Wentworth Class Size

3.35 100 100 97 100 Granule

2 99 98 92 99 Granule

1.18 98 91 86 95 Very coarse sand

0.6 88 83 78 82 coarse sand

0.43 78 80 76 78 Medium sand

0.3 63 78 73 75 Medium sand

Dry 0.21 55 77 73 74 Fine sand

Sieving(% 0.15 Fine sand

47 69 64 65
Passing)
0.06 45 66 62 64 Coarse silt

Hydrometer 0.01 21 30 35 30 Fine silt

(% Passing) 0 17 Clay
21 26 23

32
Table 2: Particle Size Distribution of the studied Clay samples and textural classification

Sizes (%)
Clay
Sample Gravel Sand (0.02–2 Silt (0.002– Classification
(<0.002
(>2mm) mm) 0.02 mm)
mm)
P1A 1 54 28 17 Silty-snd
P1D 2 32 45 21 Sandy-silt
S1A 8 30 36 26 Sandy-clay
S1D 1 35 41 23 Sandy-silt

33
Figure 4.4. Particle size distribution of of the analysed samples

34
4. 3 LIQUID AND PLASTIC LIMITS

The result of plasticity tests are shown in the Table 3, the result shows that sample S1A has the
highest values of liquid limit (52%) and plastic limit (25%), followed by sample P1D with liquid
limit (47%) and plastic limit (18%), P1A has liquid limit of 42% and then the least S1D with
liquid limit (30%) and plastic limit (14%). It is observed that the higher the percentage of clayey
content, the higher the plasticity. The result of the plastic limit of the samples reveals that P1A
and P1D are moderately plastic while S1D and S1A have low and high plasticity respectively.
The plasticity indices of the samples range from 16% to 29%.

Studies have shown that particle size distribution can have a significant influence on plasticity
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). The positioning of the various samples in the Casagrande (1948)
diagram reveal that S1D and S1A fall within low plasticity and high plasticity field respectively
while P1D and P1A are considered medium plasticity.

35
Table 3: Result of Plasticity index

SAMPLE ID Atterberg

Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Plastic Index (Liquid Limit – Plastic

Limit)

P1A 42 19 23

P1D 47 18 29

S1A 52 25 27

S1D 30 14 16

36
 Organic clays

Figure 4.5: Plasticity chart for classification of Cohesive Soils (after Casagrande, 1948)

37
4.4 Mineralogy

A plot of liquid limits and plasticity indices (figure 8) according to Grim, 1968 shows that the
samples fall in the zone between kaolinite and illite. This suggest that the samples possess low to
moderate plasticity and low shrink- swell potential which make them suitable for construction
and agricultural purposes. The moderate plasticity and low expansiveness of kaolinite and illite
make these samples favorable for contruction project. Foundations, roadbeds and other structures
built on such soils are less likely to suffer from differential settlement or heaving. The good
drainage and water holding capacity also make them applicable for agricultural purpose.

38
Figure 4.6: Diagram of Liquid limits and plasticity indexes (according to GRIM, 1968).

39
4.5 Activity of the Samples

Activity of clay is a measure of the soil’s potential to undergo volume changes when subjected to
changes in moisture content Skempton, 1953. It is the ratio of the plasticity index to the
percentage of clay sized-particles in the soil. All of the tested samples have a clay fraction in the
range between 17–26% with all of them having clay activity in the range A = 0.7–1.38 (medium
expansion). Typical values of activities for the three principal clay mineral groups are as follows:
A = 0.3 -0.5 for kaolinite, A = 0.5-1.25 for illite and A= 1.5- 7.0 for montmorillonite groups
(Skempton, 1953). Therefore, according to activity, the samples are best fit in the group of illite
(Fig. 9).

40
Figure 4.7: Estimation of expansiveness of clay in analyzed samples (according: BELL, 1993)

41
4.6 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

The cation exchange capacity (CEC) results of six analyzed samples as presented in (table 4a)
varies from 7.7 to 24.89 (cmolc/kg) (see Figure 5). According to USDA., the six samples have
low exchanges values of Ca (0.4-0.8), while the values of Mg(2.9-4.6), Na(0.76), K(2.27-3.13)
fall within high exchange value for the respective cations (Table 2). The CEC values in the six
analysed samples except P1E are higher than the individual corresponding ECEC (effective
cation exchange capacity) values which suggest acidity or low pH of the analysed samples as
shown in Table 1 (Essington,2004,). This indicates that they fall within acidic range, this may
suggest the replacement of cations like Ca2+, Na+, K+ and Mg2+ with others like H+ and Al3+
(Rhoades and Loveday, 1990).

42
 Table 4a. Table showing the range of exchangeable bases

EXCHANGEABLE BASES (cmol/kg)

S/N SAMPLE
Ca Mg Na K Ex. Acid ECEC CEC
1 ISAN SID 0.8 4.6 0.76 3.13 0.16 8.65 16.49
2 ISAN SIA 0.8 3.5 0.76 3.13 0.88 8.27 24.89
3 ISAN S1C 0.6 2.9 0.76 2.81 0.32 6.8 19.06
4 PIE 0.5 3.8 0.76 2.81 0.4 7.78 7.7
5 PIA 0.5 3.1 0.76 2.5 0.8 7.16 11.28
6 PID 0.4 4.5 0.76 2.27 0.64 8.17 13.53

Table 4b. Table showing the range of exchangeable bases according to United States
Department of Agriculture for agricultuaral purpose.

Classification Calcium(Ca) Magnesium(Mg) Potassium(K) Sodium(Na)

Low <5.0 <1.5 <0.2 <0.1

Medium 5.0-10.0 1.5-3.0 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.2

High >10.0 >3.0 >0.5 >0.2

43
4.7 Possible Industrial Application

The granulometry result plotted on the Winkler diagram show that P1A can be applicable in the
manufacture of solid bricks while the three other analysed samples S1A, S1D, P1D are
favourable for the manufacture of roof filler slabs.

Figure 10: Winkler diagtram showing the particle size distribution and possible industrial
application

44
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION

This study investigated the particle size distribution, liquid and plastic limits, and cation
exchange capacity (CEC) with exchange bases in cmol/kg of different clay samples collected
from Isan Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria with the primary aim of determining the textural
characteristics, geotechnical properties and possible industrial application of the samples.

The particle size distribution of the samples indicated that the dominant particle size fraction
varied among the samples as follow, gravel (P1A -1% P1D -2% S1A 8% S1D 1%), sand (P1A -
54% P1D -32% S1A 30% S1D 35%), Silt (P1A -28% P1D -45% S1A 36% S1D 41%) and clay
(P1A -17% P1D -21% S1A 26% S1D 23%) providing insights into their textural classification.

The Atterberg limits, which include the liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL), were determined
through standard tests. These tests allowed for the calculation of the plasticity index (PI) for each
sample, a plot of plastic index against liquid limit after Cassangrande,1948 was plotted for the
four samples. From the result, it is noticed that samples P1D and P1A have medium plasticity
while S1D and S1A have low and high plasticity respectively.

The cation exchange capacity (CEC) results of six analyzed samples varies from 7.7 to 24.89
(cmolc/kg). Compared to USDA, the six samples have low exchange values of Ca (0.4-0.8),
while the values of Mg(2.9-4.6), Na(0.76), K(2.27-3.13) fall within high exchange values for the
respective cations. The CEC values in the samples except P1E are higher than the individual
corresponding ECEC (effective cation exchange capacity) values which indicates acidity or low
pH, This indicates that they fall within acidic range, and may suggest the replacement of cations
like Ca2+, Na+, K+ and Mg2+ with others like H+ and Al3+.

The granulometry result plotted on the Winkler diagram show that P1A can be applicable in the
manufacture of solid bricks while the three other analysed samples S1A, S1D, P1D are
favourable for the manufacture of roof filler slabs.

45
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