LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE (14TH - 15TH C.)

ca. 1300 Sir Orfeo

1368 Chaucer, Book of the Duchess

ca. 1373-93 Julian of Norwich, Book of Showing

ca. 1375-1400 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

1377-79 William Langland, Piers Plowman

ca.1385-87 Chaucer, Troilus and Criseyde

ca. 1387-99 Chaucer working on The Canterbury Tales

ca. 1390-92 John Gower, Confessio Amantis

ca. 1410-49 John Lydgate active

ca. 1420 Thomas Hoccleve, My Compleinte

ca. 1425 York Play of the Crucifixion

ca. 1432-38 Margery Kempe, The Book of Margery Kempe

ca. 1450-75 Wakefield mystery cycle, Second Shepherd's Play

ca. 1470 Sir Thomas Malory in prison working on Morte D'arthur

1485 Caxton publishes Morth Arthur, one of the first books in English to be printed

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 LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

THE HUNDRED YEAR’S WAR (1337-1453)

★ Ever since the Norman invasion, England had rights to lands in France, which meant a
constant source of conflict, especially concerning the succession to the French throne.

★ Philip VI confiscated Aquitaine in 1337. As a result, Edward claimed the throne of

France for himself (1340). He had a claim through his mother, Isabella of France.

★ At the beginning, the English won decisive battles (Crécy, 1346) and managed to
dominate France for decades (until the 1360s)

★ The French king (John II) was captured in 1356. The English received an enormous
ransom (money) for his return. France also ceded a large part of its northern territories
and shoreline to England. In exchange, Edward gave up his claim to the French throne.

★ The French gradually regained most of France after the deaths of Edward III (1377) and
his son Edward the Black Prince (1376).

★ By 1380, both sides were growing tired of the conflict. England and France were both
ruled by minors, and a truce was signed in 1389. The treaty was extended in 1396 for 28
years.

★ Henry V claimed the French throne, taking advantage of political instability in France.
He seized Harfleur (a port town on the northwest), and this campaign culminated in the
Battle of Agincourt (1415). This was a massive boost to his reputation which enabled him
to raise funds for the war.

★ The siege of Orleans (1428-29) was the turning point of the Hundred Years' War. The
French had a decisive victory, thanks to Joan of Arc.

★ The English were defeated several times and gradually lost most of their lands in France.
Charles VII is recognised as King of France.

★ Charles won the Battle of Formigny (1450): the English were driven out of Normandy.

★ By 1453, the coast of Calais was the only English possession left in France.

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 LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

THE AFTERMATH OF THE WAR

★ High war levies due to prolonged conflict against France.

★ Cost of war brings kings in conflict with Parliament.

★ Negative effects on the wool industry, England's primary economical stronghold.

★ At this period the devastation became more serious than ever. Disorder and misery were
aggravated.

THE WARS OF THE ROSES (1455-85)

★ Dynastic conflict between the houses of Lancaster & York, which resulted in a series of
civil wars lasting more than 30 years. Both families claimed royal rights by descent from
Edward III.

★ The wars were named for the emblems of the two houses, the white rose of York and the
red of Lancaster.

★ Hostilities between the two houses began in 1399 when Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of
Lancaster, deposed his unpopular cousin Richard II (forced to abdicate and died in
prison).

★ Bolingbroke's claim to the throne was relatively weaker compared to his Yorkist
relations.

★ Reigning until 1413 as Henry IV, he was forced to put down numerous rebellions to
maintain the throne.

★ Succeeded on his death by his son Henry V, known for his victory at Agincourt.

★ Henry V died young in 1422, leaving his infant son, Henry VI, as king.

★ For most of his minority, Henry was surrounded by unpopular advisors.

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 LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

★ Henry VI's lack of leadership encouraged noble feuds.

★ Richard, Duke of York (Henry's cousin), was appointed Protector of the Realm during
Henry's incapacity, but was excluded from the succession after the birth of Henry's son,
Edward (1454).

★ Henry re-established his authority in 1455, with the help of his wife Margaret of Anjou,
who banished Richard from court. Richard assembled a small army and marched on
London with the goal of removing Henry's advisors.

★ The nobility were divided between those who remained loyal to Henry VI (the
Lancastrians) and those who supported the Duke of York (the Yorkists).

★ Battle of St Albans (1455): Richard defeated royal forces, captured Henry VI, and
became Lord Protector again.

★ York's fall and death (1460): Richard's forces lost at the Battle of Wakefield, where he
and his allies died. His son, Edward, took up the Yorkist cause.

★ Edward IV's reign (1461): Edward won the decisive Battle of Towton, becoming king,
though the war continued.

★ Henry VI briefly regained the throne in 1470 but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of
Tewkesbury (1471). The Lancastrian heir was killed and Henry VI was murdered, ending
the Lancastrian royal line.

★ Richard Ill's rise (1483): After Edward IV's death, Richard seized the throne. Edward
IV's children were declared illegitimate, confined in the Tower and probably murdered.

★ Battle of Bosworth (1485): Henry Tudor defeated Richard III, ending the wars and
beginning the Tudor dynasty.

THE BLACK DEATH (OR THE BLACK PLAGUE)

★ Bubonic type, spread by flea bites: three waves in 1348, 1361 and 1369.

★ It wiped out about 30-40% of the population across Europe.

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 LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

★ 1348: The Black Death reached England.

★ Reduced English population by an estimated one third (two million people died).

CONSEQUENCES OF THE BLACK DEATH

★ Economic and social class structure begins to break apart.

★ Shortage of labour:

○ Increase of peasants' wages; peasants gain power & break free from serfdom

○ Ordinance and Statute of Labourers (1349/51) attempt to redress the situation

limiting wages & peasant mobility.

THE PEASANTS’ REVOLT (1381)

★ Originated in maldistribution of property and economical consequences of the Black

Death.

★ In 1381 attempts to collect oppressive new taxes provoked a rural uprising in Essex and
Kent that dealt a profound shock to the ruling class.

★ The participants demanded the abolition of serfdom and the redistribution of Church
wealth. They were for the most part tenant farmers, day laborers, apprentices, and rural
workers not attached to the big manors. A few of the lower clergy sided with the rebels
against their wealthy church superiors.

★ The movement was quickly suppressed, but not before sympathisers in London had
admitted the rebels through two city gates.

★ The insurgents burned down the palace of the Duke of Lancaster, and they immediately
beheaded the archbishop of Canterbury and the treasurer of England, who had taken
refuge in the Tower of London. The church had become the target of popular resentment
because it was among the greatest oppressive landowners and because of the wealth,
worldliness, and venality of many of the higher clergy.

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 LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

THE LOLLARDS

★ Lollardry: anti-clerical movement, strong among the middle classes.

★ Denounced interference of the Church in temporal affairs: corruption and privileges.

★ Opposed papacy, higher clergy and the religious orders.

★ Defended the sole authority of the Bible. Wycliffe produced an English translation
(c.1382).

★ Lollardry: considered to be the origin of Protestant Reformation.

★ The Lancastrian authorities (monarchy) responded severely to lollardry.

★ Henry IV signed a statute for the burning of heretics (De heretico comburendo, 1401):
beginning of religious persecution and censorship of religious works.

FRENCH (CONTINENTAL) INFLUENCE

★ Transformation of the English Language:

○ After the Norman Conquest of 1066, French became the language of the English
court, law, administration, and aristocracy. For several centuries, French and Latin
were dominant in written and official contexts.

■ Loan words: Thousands of French words entered the English language,

many of which are still in use today. These include terms related to
governance (e.g., parliament, justice), military (e.g., army, navy), law
(e.g., court, judge), and even everyday life (e.g., beef, mutton). This
blending of Old English and Norman French contributed significantly to
Middle English Literature.
★ Renovation of poetic forms: rhyme, stanzas, refrain.

○ French literature brought new stylistic techniques to English poetry, particularly

in terms of structure and form.

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 LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

■ Rhyme: French poets popularized rhyme schemes, which replaced the

traditional Old English alliteration. This shift from unrhymed to rhymed
verse altered English poetic conventions.

■ Stanzas and refrain: French poetry introduced more varied stanzaic forms
and the use of refrains (repeated lines at the end of each stanza), creating
more lyrical and rhythmic complexity. These structures became staples in
English verse, particularly in lyrical poetry.

★ New literary genres:

○ English poetry and song absorbed several new genres inspired by French
tradition:

■ Carol: originally a circle dance song, the carol evolved into a festive form,
often with a religious or joyous theme, that featured a regular refrain.

■ Reverdie: a type of poem celebrating the arrival of spring, often

symbolising rebirth and renewal.

■ Chanson d'aventure: a narrative song that often began with a knight

embarking on an adventure, meeting with an unexpected or fantastical
occurrence. This became a popular genre in Middle English romances and
ballads.

★ New poetic fashions:

○ The French aristocracy's taste for poetry and courtly behavior had a profound
impact on English literary culture.

■ Courtly Love (Fin'amor): this literary tradition idealized romantic love,

where knights performed noble deeds to win the affection of a distant and
often unattainable lady. Themes of chivalry, devotion, and emotional
suffering in love became central to the literature of the period. This
influence can be seen in major English works (mainly in romances), as
well as in the general culture of medieval court life.

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 LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

LANGUAGE(S)

★ English gradually became to be seen as a language that could compete with French and
Latin in elegance and seriousness.

★ Trilingual authors. John Gower (1330-1408) wrote in all three languages: Mirour de
l'Omme (French), Vox Clamantis (Latin), Confessio Amantis (English).

★ Chaucer (d. 1400) emulated French and Italian poetry in English and his works served to
enhance the prestige of English as a vehicle for literature.

★ The awareness of and pride in a uniquely English literature did not actually exist before
the late 14th century. Conflict with France during the Hundred Years' War resulted in a
keener sense on the part of the nobility of their English heritage and identity.

★ English began to displace French as the language for conducting business in Parliament
and much official correspondence. The high nobility continued to speak French by
preference, but they were certainly bilingual. They promoted and sponsored literature in
English.

BOOK PRODUCTION

★ Book production was expensive: books were reproduced by hand in manuscript. More
expensive books would be illuminated (decorated in colours).

★ In the Anglo-Saxon period monasteries were the main centres of book production and
storage.

★ From the Anglo-Norman period, books were also produced for (and sometimes by) noble
and gentry households.

★ From the early 14th century, particularly in London, commercial book-making

enterprises came into being. These were loose organisations of various artisans
(parchment-makers, scribes, illuminators, and binders), who usually lived in the same

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 LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

neighbourhoods. A bookseller (usually a member of one of these trades) would

coordinate the production of books for wealthy patrons.

★ Paper became increasingly common for less expensive manuscripts in the 15th century,
which made books affordable. Manuscripts used to be made of parchment (animal skin).

★ Most books were miscellaneous, containing texts of many kinds and (particularly in the
Anglo- Norman period) written in different languages.

★ Only a small proportion of medieval books survive; the majority were destroyed at the
time of the dissolution of the monasteries in the 1530s.

ORAL & WRITTEN LITERATURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES

★ Oral and written traditions coexisted:

○ During the Middle Ages, literature was both performed orally and recorded in
written form. Oral literature, such as songs, tales, and epic poems, was part of
daily life, while written literature allowed for the preservation of these stories for
future generations.

○ Bidirectional influence: oral and written literature influenced each other in

significant ways. Oral performances were often transcribed into written texts,
although they were frequently altered or adapted in the process. Conversely,
written texts were commonly performed aloud, ensuring that even the illiterate
could access them. This interplay meant that a story might evolve over time, as
oral versions influenced written ones and vice versa.

○ In medieval society oral literature was shared in many different contexts (easts,
markets, courts, and village gatherings), making it accessible to all social classes.
Storytellers, minstrels, and bards were vital figures in this oral tradition,
recounting tales of history, romance, and adventure to both noble and common
audiences.

○ Oral literature was fluid and dynamic, with variations in stories depending on the
audience or the performer. Epic poems like Beowulf or the Arthurian legends

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 LITERATURE IN ENGLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE

T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

were often passed down orally before being written, which explains the existence
of multiple versions and adaptations.

○ While written literature was initially more limited to the clergy, nobility and
educated elites, it was not as exclusive as often believed. In many cases, written
texts were read aloud to a larger audience, bridging the gap between the literate
and illiterate. Monasteries, for example, were centres of literacy where texts were
copied by hand, but they also served as places where literature was shared with
the broader community through sermons or readings.

■ Communal reading: unlike today, reading in the medieval period was often
a public or communal activity. Monks, priests, and literate members of
society would read aloud to others, allowing those who couldn't read to
access the written word. This practice also helped preserve the communal
spirit of oral tradition in a written culture.

AUTHORSHIP IN THE MIDDLE AGES

★ Collective creation and anonymity:

○ Much of medieval literature was created collaboratively, making the concept of

single authorship less common than it is today. Many works, especially in the oral
tradition, were shaped by multiple contributors over time, with stories being
passed from one storyteller to another, often altered or expanded along the way

○ Anonymous works: because of this collective process, most medieval literature

remains anonymous. Famous texts like Beowulf, Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight lack identifiable authors. These works were seen as part of a shared
cultural heritage, rather than the product of an individual's creativity.

★ The ultimate producer:

○ In some cases, even when a written work was produced by a scribe, monk, or
poet, the final version of the text might be the result of multiple hands. A
storyteller might recount a tale orally, and a scribe would record it, making

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T2 FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

LITERATURA INGLESA: EDAD MEDIA Y RENACIMIENTO

decisions about structure, language, and form in the process. Even when written,
the text might be performed or adapted orally, continuing to evolve.

○ Individual authorship: by the later Middle Ages, particularly with figures like
Geoffrey Chaucer (The Canterbury Tales) and Dante (The Divine Comedy), the
idea of individual authorship became more prominent. However, even in these
cases, authors often drew on collective traditions, earlier texts, and oral stories.

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