TOPIC 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMMUNICATION

Human beings are naturally social hence desire to interrelate with one another; they desire
inclusion. Thus, communication is a basic tool for existence; the ability to communicate is
crucial in all walks of life. Besides the specialized knowledge, all professionals require
communication skills for various levels of interaction. These skills are essential in a developing
multicultural society as it may be complex needing a lot of intercultural understanding.

Communication defined
The root of the word communication is derived from the Latin word communicare(v) which
means to share or to make common (Weekley)

It is an active process of exchanging information between individuals using a common system of

symbols, signs and behaviour (Wilkinson, 1984). It happens at intrapersonal level (internal
monologue or reflection), interpersonal level, group, public and mass level through different
channels of communication with others within and without a profession. Most communication
skills form what is called social skills.

Communication is multidimensional and comprises all four language skills of speaking,

listening, reading and writing. The skills serve to:
 Facilitate learning in universities where academic autonomy is mandatory
 Make a learner self-reliant and an effective communicator in academic circles like
retrieving required information from any source material for use in writing academic
papers, Familiarizing with strategies of reading and processing all types of texts with
varying levels of difficulties, Familiarizing with effective writing strategies in order to
present mature written works and improve standards of writing assignments, term papers
reports and research proposals, Familiarize with oral presentation and functional writing
techniques.
 To make learners face future career challenges as competent professionals (cognitive,
psychomotor and social skills)

Comprehensively, communication can be seen as the process which involves transmission of

information, signals, ideas or messages through appropriate media from one point to another for
the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish a specific goal. In all the above definitions
we note that for one to say there is communication, there has to be a dynamic sequence of events,
interaction between a number of communicators and some shared meaning.

Purposes of communication
Communication plays a powerful role in nation building and development and contributes
significantly to bringing social changes. We communicate in order to:
 Understand subject content, their environment, job related processes as well as
themselves and others. Deep level or critical level understanding is vital in academic
pursuits and in the professions where complex issues and processes need to be
understood in order to offer quality services and solve problems creatively.
 Persuade and influence. In all aspects of our life, we want to be able to persuade others of
our views and be able to influence them by using spoken word, written communication
and non-verbally.

1|Page
  Communication is key in our ability to fulfil social needs. It allows us to initiate, develop,
build and maintain meaningful human relationships with others at personal level, in
networking and working successfully in teams by fostering a sense of belonging,
companionship, social support and acceptance.
 Exchange information, create awareness and give opportunity to people to actively
participate in active life.
 Educate, transfer skills and knowledge e.g. in school setup
 For decision making
 Get tasks completed.

In an organization communication does the following

 Improves organization’s efficiency
 Effect change and improve employee’s performance
 Increase profitability
 Keep stakeholders and employees involved in affairs of organization
 Maintain beneficial relationships and understanding
 Transmit, build corporate culture and create satisfied clients
 Attain institutional goals

The process of communication

Elements/ present in human communication
A communication process refers to a series of actions/steps followed in order to successfully
communicate. The elements are interrelated and they work together to facilitate effective
communication. There are 7 elements in the communication process which work as vehicles for
sharing information, ideas and attitudes with someone. The elements are:

i) Source/ sender/ encoder/speaker/communicator: Communication starts with the source, that

is the person who initiates the communication process; imagines, creates and sends a message/
shares new information. May be a writer, speaker, individual or group of people for example, a
writer begins with an idea and transforms it into a book. Must know what they want to
communicate, why and expected outcome.

ii) Message/ symbol/information- It is the background step to the process of communication;

which by forming the subject matter of communication necessitates the start of a communication
process. It is therefore, the coded verbal or non-verbal idea of the sender/ the stimulus,
information or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience. Simply put,
messages are the content of what you want to communicate. The message might be a factor, an
idea, a request, a suggestion, an order or grievance. They may be informal and spontaneous, such
as small talk, or formal, intentional, and planned, such as a commencement address

iii) Encoding: The message always remains in the mind of the source in the form of an idea, but
when the source gives physical shape/form to it by transmitting it into words, symbols, graphs,
pictures or format that can be shared with others as a message. The process of conceptualizing
the message/formulating a message/ giving physical shape to one’s idea is called encoding.
Selecting the right words, associated symbols in verbal communication or gestures, tones and

2|Page
sounds in nonverbal communication are ways of encoding a thought so that it is possible to
decode it.
Know your audience (language, culture), provide all the information required, use best channel
to avoid miscommunication.

iv) Channel/medium/means: One crucial wheel of this cycle is the medium which refers to the
transmission method/channel/ vehicle/ through which a message travels from communicator to a
receiver/ i.e., an oral/verbal communication could be made through TV, face to face
conversations, telephone, email, radio; written through newspaper, memo, magazines. Success or
failure of the communication process depends on choosing the right channel because overall goal
of communication process is to present an individual/ group with information and have them
understand it. Message determines the channel to use i.e. complex technical jargon on telephone
is prone to fail.

v) Receiver/recipient/ decoder/listener/addressee/audience: Technically a communication is

complete only when it comes to the knowledge of the intended person that is the person who
receives the message and decodes/interprets it in ways intended and unintended by source. Must
possess same orientation as communicator. i.e., have ability to listen, read, and think otherwise
he won’t be able to decode the message in manner desired by sender, therefore is the most
important link in communication process.

v) Decoding: Is the process of converting or interpreting the encoded data / interpreting it with a
view to getting the meaning of the message as per the intentions of the sender however at times
message may be decoded in ways unintended by source. It is at this stage that communication is
philosophically defined as the transmission of understanding i.e. listen carefully, read, ask for
clarifications

vi) Feedback/feedback loop: To complete the communication process, sending feedback to

communication by the recipient to the sender is imperative. Feedback implies the reaction/the
response/ acknowledgement of receiver to the communicator’s message, verbal, nonverbal;
intentional, unintentional. Shows if communication has succeeded or failed and if otherwise
helps to improve communication skills.

vii) Context: We communicate based on who we are with, their culture, your relationship, what
sort of events are occurring around us, our opinions and beliefs, where we are. Context then
involves the circumstances, environment that form the setting of a communication event and
influences the meaning of a message. Can be relational/social, cultural, historical e.t.c.

Basic principles of effective communication

They are aspects that have to be taken into account when relaying any communication. These
guidelines guarantee that a message is properly/effectively communicated to the audience or
receiver. They involve clearly defined procedures by which two or more people exchange
knowledge, opinions and other types of information in a formal organization or commercial
setting. Key principles and concepts that underlie effective communication include the following
characteristics of a competent communicator:

3|Page
  Clarity: Effective communicators clearly spell out the idea or their message to be
communicated to avoid misunderstandings. They use language and symbols that are
easily understood by their audience while avoiding jargon or technical terms. Their
wording should be in a way that the receiver understands the same thing the sender
intended to convey, there should be no ambiguity. Simplify your message by clearly
stating the main points directly.

 Precision/ conciseness (succinctness): A great communicator always conveys a message

with the fewest words possible. Waffling at length about a topic may sometimes lose
your audience, so keep it short to the point. Even if you are the most intriguing and
participatory public speaker, it is important to keep your presentation short and to the
point. This is because the attention span of the audience is short, it wanes. You have to
get their attention fast and keep their attention by moving through your presentation
smoothly and effectively. If your presentation is long, break it into parts, avoid repetition,
avoid trite and wordy expressions and organize your message well.

 Completeness: Completeness of facts is absolutely necessary, incomplete

communication irritates the reader and may lead to wrong actions. Therefore, include all
important details.

 Ethical consideration: Communication involves questions of ethical principles like

honesty, respect for others’ rights and privacy and fairness which are integral to
communication. Ethical communicators consider the impact of their words and actions on
others. They communicate honestly, use expressions that show respect(courtesy), choose
non- discriminatory expressions and avoid misleading information

 Cultural sensitivity: What proves effective in one culture may seem ineffective in
another. Therefore, recognizing and respecting cultural differences and adapting
communication accordingly is a good principle for effective communicators. Effective
communicators recognize and respect cultural differences in communication styles and
norms.

 Adaptability: Effective communicators are flexible and need to adjust their style, tone,
message and approach based on the needs, situation and preferences of their audience.
Communication is not a one-time event but an ongoing process that is dynamic and
constantly changing. A good communicator is aware of their body language and need to
align their words with their actions that is modify message according to audience.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
They are frameworks that help us understand the basic elements involved in communication that
is how information is transmitted, received and interpreted between individuals or groups. Using
simplified pictures, they provide a simple explanation of the process of communication).

Linear model of communication

It is a foundational model often used to understand the basic elements involved in
communication. Comes from the works of Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1948/1949). It

4|Page
mirrored the functioning of telephone and radio broadcast technologies where the audience
cannot respond. Similar linear transmission models include Aristotle's, (300 BC)
Lasswell's(1948) and Berlo's model.(1960)
 It presents communication in a one-way (one direction) process.
 The main elements in these models are: sender, message, channel and receiver.
 A sender intentionally conveys a message to a receiver through a channel.
 The reception of the message is the endpoint of this process.
 Assumes receiver passively accepts the message without any active interpretation or
response
 One way communication doesn’t account for feedback or interaction between sender and
receiver.
 Linear model introduces noise- any interference /disturbance that can hinder the effective
transmission / reception of the message. Avoiding or adapting to these types of noise is
an important challenge for communicators.

N O I S E
SENDER͢ —MESSAGE—CHANNEL—RECEIVER

Limitations of linear models

 One way communication doesn’t account for feedback or interaction between sender and
receiver.
 Since there is no feedback loop, the sender may not know whether the message reached
its intended destination or not.
 The model assumes the receiver passively accepts the message without any active
interpretation or response.
 Due to their linear nature, they are often too simple to capture the dynamic aspects of
various forms of communication like interpersonal communication because they don’t
fully capture the intricacies of real-world communication.
 It doesn’t consider the context in which communication occurs which can significantly
influence meaning. To address these limitations more complex models emerged.

Interactional model of communication

Developed by Wilbur Osgood Schramm (1954), it views communication as a two-way process
where common sets of signs are shared and feedback is given.

It also places greater emphasis on the role of the receiver in interpreting and responding to
messages thus adds encoding and decoding to the process of communication. Similar models
Westley and Maclean model (1957)
Key elements in the interactive model
 Speaker and receiver: It recognizes that communication is a two-way process where
individuals engage in the role of either source or receiver
 Encoding and decoding: An active speaker encodes a message and an active receiver
plays a crucial role in decoding; interpreting and understanding the message.
 Feedback: Emphasizes communication is a cycle where speaker sends a message,
audience receives and processes it then provides feedback which the speaker uses to
adjust the message delivery.

5|Page
  Noise: Interference can still occur affecting the clarity of the message
 Components: Sender, receiver, context, noise, message, channel, feedback, and
outcomes.

Limitations
 Places communicator as sender or receiver with no overlap thus encoding and decoding
distinct for sender and receiver
 Can’t handle situation where multiple sources are interacting at the same time

Transactional- model of communication

 Barnlund's model is an influential early transaction model. Others include Dance Helica
(1967) and Eugene White’s models(1960)
 Views communication as a transaction meaning it is a cooperative process in which
communicators co-create the process of communication by interacting and influencing its
outcomes.
 Communicators act as both sender and receiver simultaneously in both directions
 The role of sender is given little weight.
 Communicators create social realities within the contexts of their cultural, relational and
social surroundings /communication is influenced by context, environment and individual
experiences.
 Emphasizes the continuous exchange of messages and feedback.
 Involves encoding and decoding of nonverbal information as well as real time feedback
 Examples face to face conversation where both parties are actively engaged and
responding in real time.
 Components: Communicators, message, channel. Feedback, noise, context and
environment.

Key elements of transactional model

 Dynamic process: Communication involves two parties who are simultaneously senders
and receivers of messages.
 Feedback: Due to its interactive nature, messages are exchanged back and forth allowing
participants to encode, decode, clarify, modify or respond to each other’s communication
by providing real time feedback.
 Field of experience (Shared meaning): Participants strive to create shared meaning
through their interactions. For meaning to occur, we must have some shared experiences
with our audience; this makes it challenging to speak effectively to audiences with very
different experiences from our own. Our goal as public speakers is to build upon shared
fields of experience so that we can help audience members interpret our message.

The idea that meanings are co-created between people is based on a concept called the “field of
experience.” According to West and Turner, a field of experience involves “how a person’s
culture, experiences, and heredity influence his or her ability to communicate with another”
(West & Turner, 2010). Our education, race, gender, ethnicity, religion, personality, beliefs,
actions, attitudes, languages, social status, past experiences, and customs are all aspects of our
field of experience, which we bring to every interaction.

6|Page
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a multidimensional and complex phenomenon and scholars have developed
various perspectives to study and understand it. These perspectives provide different lenses
through which communication can be analyzed. As such they can be categorized based on
different criteria; signals /channels of communication used to communicate, number of
participants involved, and contexts at which these communications occur. Within the domain of
human interaction there are various levels of communication.

Levels of communication based on channel

 Verbal communication encompasses various forms of oral expression(speech) like
spoken word which involves the use of words, sentences and conversation to convey
thoughts, information and emotions. The spoken word can be delivered in face- to face
conversations, phone calls, presentations, and speeches.

Advantages
 Because of the real time communication, there is immediate clarification and
feedback
 Due to spontaneous feedback, decisions can be made faster
 Are the best in establishing personal connections, personal touch and trust
because can convey emotions, sincerity and personal warmth
 Best used for group communication like meetings, storytelling, public speaking
presentations and crucial conversations.
 Ensures clarity, precision, high level understanding and transparency of the
message.
 Best for language and cultural exchange
 Best in problem resolution
 Appropriate for private and confidential information
 Written/textual communication involves use of symbols, letters or written language to
share information. For example, use of newspapers, e-mails, letters, and may be printed
on paper, handwritten or appear on screen.

7|Page
Advantages
 Good for complicated vital information
 Are asynchronous (occurring at different times i.e. sender can write message and
receiver read it at any time unlike a conversation carried on real time. So reader
can read at own pace.
 Best for conveying information that can be read by many people as it is a one-to-
many communications as opposed to a one-to-one verbal conversation
 Can be constructed for long distance communication
 Permanent means of communication which can be used for future reference
 Legal defenses can depend on written records as evidence
 They exhibit more authority than oral

Disadvantages
 Time consuming
 Expensive
 No strict secrecy
 No scope for immediate response/clarification/feedback
 Not good for emergency
 People may fail to read them
 Requires lots of skill and competence

 Visual communication involves the use pictures, graphs or charts

 Non-verbal communication
According to McConnel (2003), nonverbal communication is behaviour other than spoken or
written communication that creates or represents meaning. Refers to a dynamic, continuous
process of generating meaning using non-verbal elements/ signals/codes rather than words
understood by senders and receivers. The non-verbal cues help to enhance or modify the
meaning of spoken words. These signals include facial expressions, eye contact (oculesics),
gestures displayed through body language(kinesics), touch (haptics), tone and pitch of the
voice(paralinguistics) and the physical distance between the communicators (proxemics).

Mehrabian. A. 1981 notes that 7% of a receiver’s comprehension of a message is based on

paralanguage (tone, pace and volume of speech) and 55% is based on non- verbal cues. To be
effective communicators we need to align our body language, appearance and tone with the
words we are trying to convey. Like when people lie they blink more frequently, shift their
weight and shrug.

A simple rule of thumb is that simplicity, directness and warmth convey sincerity. And sincerity
is key to effective communication. A firm handshake, given with a warm dry hand is a great way
to establish trust. While a weak, clammy handshake conveys a lack of trustworthiness. Gnawing
one’s lips shows uncertainty. A direct smile conveys confidence.

8|Page
Functions of nonverbal communication
 A core function of non-verbal communication is the establishment and maintenance of
interpersonal relationships through impression management and self-disclosure.
 These non-verbal signals can give clues and additional information and meaning over and
above spoken (verbal) communication. For instance, you can use frowns, silence, avoid
eye contact or staring to convey displeasure or anger. These commonly understood codes
are learnt implicitly from one’s socio-cultural and lingual surroundings.
 Communicates attitudes and emotions
 Self-presentation of one’s personality
 Presents rituals like greetings

VERBAL NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION
VOCAL A vocal element of verbal A vocal element of non-verbal
communication is spoken words communication is paralanguage
eg come here which is vocalized but not verbal
part of spoken message like pace,
volume, pitch and tone

NON-VOCAL Non vocal elements of verbal Non vocal elements of non-

communication include use of verbal communication include
unspoken symbols to convey body language like gestures,
meaning like sign language and facial expressions and eye
they are not considered non contact
verbal

Forms of non-verbal communication

Kinesics
Comes from root word kinesis which means movement and refers to movement of hand, arm,
body and face movements.

a) Facial expressions
Are responsible for a huge proportion of non-verbal communication. Like consider what
information would be conveyed with a smile, frown. The look on someone’s face is the first
thing we see even before we hear anything. While non-verbal communication and behaviour may
vary dramatically between cultures, facial expression for happiness, sadness, anger and fear
remain similar across the world.

b) Gestures
Common gestures include nodding, waving, pointing and using fingers to indicate numerical
amounts put on our lips. Drawing thumb across the throat to imply slitting one’s throat but in
Swaziland means I love you.

9|Page
c)Appearance
Our choice of colour, clothing, hairstyles and other factors affecting appearance are considered a
means of non-verbal communication. Research on colour psychology has demonstrated that
different colours can evoke different moods. That is why we dress in different colours in
different occasions. Black for funerals to evoke sad, gloomy mood. White for wedding, etc.

Appearance can alter convey professionalism, confidence, individual personality, judgements

and interpretations that affect first impressions. This is the reason why job seekers dress
appropriately for interviews with potential employers. Culture influences how we view /judge
appearances like slimness in western cultures tends to be valued but most African cultures relate
full-figure bodies to better health, wealth and social status.

d) Body language and posture

How you are seated or standing constitutes a set of signals that may communicate your attitude
and how one is experiencing the environment. A person who folds his arms and legs is said to be
defensive. Hence, we can convey a great deal of information like arm crossing, leg crossing,
holding both cheeks hands spread out indicate different feelings and attitudes. Leaning forward
shows interest, straight posture confidence.

e) Proxemics
Refer to need for personal space which an important type of non-verbal communication. The
amount of distance we need and space we perceive belonging to us is influenced by several
factors including social norms, cultural expectations, situational factors, personality
characteristics and level of familiarity. Close proxemics is for intimacy, comfort, closeness or
aggressiveness which makes us to have a feeling of hostility, discomfort or intimidation while
distance dictates professionalism. If we back of to the distance we find comfortable we may be
perceived as being cold, unfriendly and distrustful

f) Haptics
This is communication through touch. How often people can touch one another while conversing
is culturally defined pattern. Touch can be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy
and emotions. Women for instance use touch to convey care, concern and nurturance. Men on
the other hand are more likely to use touch to assert power or control over others.

People differ in their willingness to touch and to be touched, some may give non-verbal signals
to indicate they don’t want to touched and others are described as touchable. By exploring
people’s reaction to touching and being touched we will be able to understand that there are
many taboos associated with this form of communication. Continuing to hold one’s hand long
after the formal greetings are over may make one offended or feel embarrassed.

g) Eye contact and eye gaze

The eyes play an important role in non-verbal communication and such things are looking,
staring and blinking. Staring at someone may communicate a range of emotions including
interest, attraction or hostility. People utilize eye gaze to determine if someone is being honest.

10 | P a g e
Con men avoid eye contact, sales people, counselors understand that eye contact is a powerful
way of communicating understanding and acceptance, and speakers know eye contact is
important in keeping the audience interested in a subject. Normal steady eye contact (oculesics)
is often taken as a sign of honesty, confidence, attentiveness, sincerity or assertiveness.

h) Paralinguistics
Refers to vocal communication that is separate from language and includes factors such as tone
of voice, loudness, pace and pitch. e.g., a statement said in a loud pitch might be interpreted as
approval or enthusiasm while a low pitch may be interpreted as conveying disapproval,
uncertainty or lack of interest.

Advantages of nonverbal communication (over verbal)

 Enhances understanding: Nonverbal cues can help clarify and reinforce the spoken
message making it easier for the audience to understand the speaker. They give additional
meaning/information over verbal communication. Natural and purposeful gestures, facial
expressions often reinforce, complement and enhance verbal communication by
providing additional meaning e.g. a smile or nod can affirm understanding or agreement.
A smile while saying something positive strengthens/complements the message. Pauses,
changes in tone help to regulate the flow of the presentation guiding the audience through
the content effectively and allowing them to absorb content.
 Builds credibility, authority and trust: Confident body language like an upright
posture, meaningful eye contact and purposeful gestures reveal the speaker’s level of
confidence and poise, authority over create a connection between speaker and audience
thus making the speaker appear more competent, credible and trustworthy. A friendly
tone of voice, relaxed posture helps build rapport with the audience making the speaker
more relatable and likeable
 Authentic indicators of emotions and attitudes: They express emotions more
effectively than words. E.g. passionate tone, expressive gestures or enthusiastic body
language can convey excitement with a softer tone, slower movement expressing
seriousness or empathy. The verbal comes from the mind, non-verbal heart hence they
are accurate pointers of one’s emotions. The involuntary or subconscious nature of non-
verbal communication makes it less easy to fake which makes it more honest and
credible. While communicating a message, the verbal carries the linguistic meaning while
the non-verbal conveys the actual emotions underlain in the meaning.
 Provides feedback: Nonverbal cues from the audience like nodding, smiling, looking
confused provide the speaker with immediate feedback on how the message is being
received allowing them to adjust their delivery accordingly.
 Engages audience: Dynamic nonverbal expressions can retain audience’s attention and
make the presentation more relatable, engaging and lively. For instance, making eye
contact with different parts of the audience creates a sense of connection and engagement
making them feel involved, enhancing their interest and focus. Facial expressions like
smiling shows enthusiasm or serious face for serious topics emotionally engages the
audience making the speech more compelling.
 Can facilitate communication in even noisy environments where verbal communication
might be challenging.
 You can communicate with someone who can’t hear.

11 | P a g e
  Can help bridge language barriers since can be understood across different cultures.
Universal gestures and expressions can convey messages even when verbal language is
not shared.

Forms of communication based on style and purpose

 Intrapersonal communication
Intrapersonal communication often referred to as “self-talk” is the process of communicating
with oneself usually involving internal thoughts through situations, self- reflection on our own
experiences and inner dialogue.

It is a communication triggered by internal or external stimulus within an individual’s own mind

and can be essential for decision making, goal setting, self-reflection, problem solving and self-
awareness.

Real life examples include communicating within ourselves how to utilize our time studying
throughout the week, reminding ourselves not to be shy or calming ourselves whenever we are
making a presentation, agitated, setting goals, speaking aloud, writing one’s thoughts.

 Interpersonal /Dyadic communication

In the context of communication interpersonal communication refers to a form of interaction or
conversation that involves exchanging of messages, information and meaning (sending and
receiving of messages) verbally or non- verbally between two participants whose lives mutually
influence one another.

These people are interdependent and have some knowledge of each other e.g. son and dad,
employer and employee, teacher student. Couples, bosses, family members and employees all
engage in interpersonal communication.

It is a fundamental aspect of interpersonal communication and is characterized by exchange of

information, ideas, emotions and feedback on a one-to-one interaction between two people or via
mediated channels.

The objective of strong interpersonal communication skills is to build meaningful positive

relationships, influence attitudes and behaviour of others, express personal needs, express
emotions, exchange ideas, collaborate effectively, resolve conflicts, sharing understanding
between individuals and navigating a wide range of social situations effectively.

Interpersonal communication plays a vital role in personal, social and professional aspects of life
fostering understanding and connection between people. Elements of interpersonal
communication are just like they are in the communication process; communicator, message,
noise, feedback, context, channel.

Among the axioms of interpersonal communication is that messages can be verbal symbols or
non-verbal cues.

Small group communication perspective involves exchanging of information ideas and

emotions within a small group of individuals ranging from 3 to 12 in order to achieve a shared
12 | P a g e
goal. Small groups communication often has specific objectives like decision making,
brainstorming, sharing information or achieving a common task.

Characteristics
 Can take place in work settings, social gatherings, education discussions and problem-
solving sessions.
 Participants are interdependent as each other’s contributions affect group’s outcome.
 Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication
 Group communication is often task-focused meaning that members of the group work
together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group.
Challenges
 Having many communicators usually leads to more complicated interactions since
members also communicate with and relate with each other interpersonally and may have
preexisting relationships.
 Other challenges relate to task-oriented interactions such as deciding who will complete
each part of a larger project

Public communication/ public speaking perspective is a form of communication where an

individual addresses a large audience or group of people like in public speeches, seminars,
conferences, debates.

The purpose can vary widely and speakers develop their message by organizing and delivering
orally with the aid of visual aids like charts, images to enhance understanding and engagement.
Among the purposes are to inform, persuade, urge to take action or influence decisions
motivate, entertain.

It is the most consistently intentional, formal and goal oriented and speaker can receive verbal
and non-verbal feedback.

 Mass communication
Mass communication involves sending a single message quickly through various print or
electronic media to a large often anonymous diverse audience that does not necessarily live near
the source. Mass communication focuses on transmitting information to numerous receivers/
many recipients at a time but broadly understood it is the process of extensive circulation of
information within regions and across the globe.

Mass communication is practiced through various channels known as mediums which include
print media like newspapers, books, billboards and magazines; electronic media/digital platforms
like websites, blogs, social media, radio, TV, podcasts.

The technology required to send mass communication messages distinguishes it from the other
forms of communication. In this modern era, TV, websites, blogs and social media networking
platforms are mass communication channels that you engage in regularly as means of human
communication. Mass media has proved to be an efficient and significant force of human
communication in modern society today because of the following: Global connectivity, faster

13 | P a g e
dissemination of information, immediate feedback, social awareness, their influence and
persuasion and educating/informing the public

Factors to consider when choosing a communication media/channel

 Cost of media
 Reliability of media
 Receiver’s age, education background and cultural orientation
 Relationship of sender with the receiver
 Level of confidentiality of message
 Urgency of message
 Availability of media

Organizational flow of communication

 Vertical- can be upward (from juniors to seniors) as in from employees to supervisors to
convey their problems, share their views, raise any dissatisfaction) or downward (from
seniors to juniors such as from the CEO to all employees to give instructions and
highlight areas of attention). Leads to a more committed and loyal workforce
 Horizontal/lateral- Information flows across staff of similar positions such as across
departments, managers same levels or any people of same hierarchy. It facilitates
cooperation, and coordination of tasks.
 Diagonal- Information flows between people who work in different levels or departments
in an organization such as teams or task forces
 Grapevine- Unofficial communication as rumour, falsehoods, gossip exaggerations or
distortion of messages occasioned by improper communication

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Barriers to effective listening in the listening process are the situational thoughts and actions that
interfere with or get in the way of a message being received. They are aspects that prevent
meaning from being met. It can occur at any stage of the communication process.

These barriers can result from within ourselves (psychological) in the communication situation
or environment or they can be learned from our social or cultural associations and influences
(like reactions to stereotypical labels or ethnocentric rituals). Broadly they are categorized as:

i. Physical and environmental barriers Include distractions in natural environment like

background noise, poor outdated equipment, poor acoustics(echo), too much distance between
source and receiver, hot stuffy room and poor lighting, interruptions, malfunctioning of
mechanical devices being used, poor lighting, uncomfortable seating arrangement can all make it
difficult to engage fully in the communication process. They make it challenging to hear or focus
on the message being conveyed resulting in misunderstanding.

Noise
Is any unwanted signal/factor which interferes with your receiving a message by corrupting the
parameters of the message signal. Noise may prevent a message from getting from the source to
the receiver thereby altering it. It is most likely to be entered at the channel or the receiver. Noise
comes in both auditory and visual forms. There are five types of noise:

14 | P a g e
  Physical/environmental noise is interference that is external to both speaker and listener
and may occur at channel of communication. It interferes with the physical transmission
of the signal or message and would include the screeching of cars, hum of a computer,
loud music, thunderstorms and pop-ups.

 Physiological noise Created by barriers within the sender or listener and includes visual
impairment, hearing loss, articulation problems and memory loss.

 Psychological noise refers to mental interference in the speaker or listener and includes a
communicator who is hungry, sick, tired or on medication, preconceived ideas,
wandering thoughts, biases and prejudices, close mindedness and extreme emotions, you
are likely to run into psychological noise when you talk to a person who is close minded
or refuses to listen to anything they don’t already believe.

 Semantic noise is interference that occurs when the speaker and listener have different
meaning systems; that is there is confusion over the meaning of words. It would include
language or dialectical differences, colloquialism, grammatical errors, the use of
professional jargon or overly complex terms and ambiguous or overly abstract or
technical terms whose meanings can be easily misinterpreted.

 Cultural noise: Arises when either the sender or receiver misinterprets the cultural
expectations, values, attitudes, etiquette on non-verbal cues of the other.

ii. Physiological barriers: Physical conditions or limitations that can impact the effective
exchange of information between individuals. Rooted in physiological factors such a sensory
impairments and neurological conditions which directly affect a person’s ability to send or
receive messages. They include visual impairment, hearing impairment, language disorders and
speech impairments. They can affect both verbal and non- verbal communication.
iii. Semantic barriers: Are caused when communicators don’t understand the same meaning
from same words. Are concerned with problems and obstructions in the process of encoding and
decoding of a message into words or expressions. Such barriers result in faulty translations,
different interpretations. Occur when individuals assign different meanings to words,
phrases or symbols used in a message. The barriers impede understanding and lead to
misinterpretations, miscommunication or incomplete comprehension.
Semantic barriers include:
Badly expressed messages: Because of obscurity of language there is always a possibility of
wrong interpretation of the messages. This barrier is created because of the wrong choice of
words in civil words the wrong sequence of sentences and frequent repetitions. This is called
linguistic chaos.
The basketball team was exhausted completely after the game vs The basketball team was
completely exhausted after the game

15 | P a g e
Symbols or words with different meanings: A symbol or word can have different meanings. If the
receiver misunderstands the communication, it becomes meaningless.
What is the value of computer education these days? Significance/worth/benefit
What is the value of this mobile phone? Cost/monetary worth
They internalize their parents’ rules and values. Moral principles/ethics/standards
She had come to value her privacy. Appreciate/hold in high esteem

Faulty translation: If there is carelessness in this process faulty translation can be a barrier in
the communication process
Language barrier Caused by language differences between two communicators or when one
person has a poor understanding of the spoken language. This can be due to ambiguous or
unclear communication, technical jargon, lack of a shared knowledge and understanding,
different language dialects or fluency levels, regional accents, technical terms, specialized
language, limited vocabulary, misinterpretation of idioms and figurative language, different
writing scripts and systems, regional slang etc. They slow exchange of information and cultural
understanding.
v. Psychological barriers are based on thoughts rather than feelings. Mental and emotional
obstacles that interfere with the smooth flow of communication like emotional states of hunger,
stress, fatigue, sickness; preconceived notions, biases, stereotypes can lead to prejudging and
criticizing the speaker by their voice, appearance, accent. These can lead to misunderstandings
and miscommunications as one can’t verify these assumptions.

vii. Cultural barriers Variances in cultural norms, communication styles and values can lead to
misinterpretations and cross-cultural communication problems especially in diverse settings.
Gestures, body language and even appropriate level of formality can differ significantly between
cultures leading to misunderstandings or offense. This may arise when individuals from different
cultural backgrounds assign different meanings to non-verbal cues, gestures and tones

viii. Information overload is when we feel that too much information is coming to us and we
feel overwhelmed and fear that we may not be able to retain any information at all. Also, when
messages contain concepts that are new or not familiar then chances of overload increase greatly.

ix. Limited feedback/ feedback mismatch: Communication is a two-way process and without
feedback, it is difficult to ensure understanding. If sender and receiver have different
interpretations of feedback, don’t seek or provide feedback can lead to miscommunication.

xi. Organizational structures: Poorly structured communication can prevent accurate

interpretation i.e. hierarchical levels of authority and their respective spans of control can foster
or hinder communication. Many levels of authority render communication bureaucratic and
ineffective.

16 | P a g e