FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND ARTS .

COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES.

LECTURER: RHODA WAKUKHA.

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DEFINITION.

Communication comes from a Latin word communicare, which means “to make common” or
“to share”. What is communication? Communication is the process of transmitting/conveying
information, ideas, attitudes, or emotions from one person to another through a medium.
Communication is considered a process because it is an activity, an exchange, or a set of
behaviours—not an unchanging product. It is an activity in which you participate.
Communication has as its central objective the transmission of meaning. The process of
communication is successful only when the receiver understands an idea as the sender intended
it. Both parties must agree not only on the information transmitted but also on the meaning of
that information. In order to transfer an idea, we must use symbols (words, signs, pictures,
sounds) which stand for the idea. The symbols must be understood by the person or persons with
whom we intend to communicate. Both must assign the same meaning to the symbols used;
otherwise, there is miscommunication. For communication to be complete there has to be
feedback. Communication is not discrete, static or solitary. It exists in time and changes
constantly.

 Judy Pearson (2008) defines communication as the process of using messages to generate
meaning.
 Theodorson (1969) defines communication as the transmission of information, ideas,
attitudes, or emotions from one person or group to another or others primarily through
symbols.
 Osgood et al. (1957) there is communication wherever one system or source influences
another, by manipulation of alternative symbols transmitted over the channel.
 Gerber (1957) defines communication as social interaction through messages.

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION.

If someone achieves the desired level of objective through communication, we can say that it is
effective communication. For example, if your communication gets the proper response from the
receiver, it means that you effectively conveyed the message.

N.B: How can one achieve effective communication?

i. By encouraging creative and critical thinking.

ii. Consider the audience’s information needs.
iii. Consider the audience’s technical background.
iv. Consider the audience’s cultural background and sex/gender.
v. Consider the audience’s knowledge of the subject.

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STAGES OF COMMUNICATION

1. The sender conceptualizes and encodes the message.

2. The sender chooses the channel and sends the message to the receiver.

3. The receiver receives and decodes the message.

4. The receiver chooses the channel and sends the feedback.

ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION.

1. Context-tells us the reason(s) for communication. It refers to the interrelated conditions

of communication which includes physical, environment, people, etc.
2. Source/sender-the originator of the information/message, which may be in oral or written
form.
3. Message-it is the idea, thought, or feeling that the source/sender wants to communicate.
The message may be verbal (oral/spoken) or non-verbal (body movements/gestures or
symbols). The message should be clear and precise.
4. Encoding- Once the source has decided on a message to communicate, he must encode or
convert that idea, thought, or feeling into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will be most
effectively understood by the receiver. This encoding process can be extremely creative
because there are unlimited ways for the source to convert the idea or feeling into words
and behaviours. It could be conscious or unconscious. For example, yawning could
denote hunger or fatigue.
5. Medium-the channel through which the source/sender’s message reaches to the receiver.
It varies from situation to situation. For example, let’s say the Government of Kenya
wants to convey its message to Kenyan citizens. The government will select an effective
medium which may be:
 T.V
 Radio
 Newspapers, etc.
6. Receiver-the person/ party to whom the message is being sent to/ the recipient of the
message. The receiver can be your reader (in case of press, letters etc.) or listener (in case
of TV, radio, etc.)
7. Decoding- the process of making sense out of the message received. The receiver must
decipher the language and behaviours sent by the source so they will have meaning. After
the receiver decodes the message, the receiver (now the source) can encode a return
message and send it back to the other person.
8. Feedback-the response/reaction of the receiver after receiving the message. The sender
needs feedback to check whether the message effectively reached or not.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION.

I. Communication is a process.

Communication is not discrete, static, or solitary. As a process, it exists in time and changes
constantly. Communication starts with a source and ends when feedback is generated. It is
cyclic.

II. Communication is symbolic.

It refers to the nature of the message. Symbols may be objects, written signs, images or sounds.
Symbols may be facial expressions or body movements.

III. Communication is contextual.

Information/symbol shared may be interpreted based on the context.

IV. Communication is purposive.

Communication is done for a purpose for example, to gather information, to gain new
friends/maintain the existing friends, etc.

V. Communication involves two parties/ communication is two way.

Communication involves both the sender and the receiver.

PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION.

1. Decision making-we communicate to express our ideas, opinions, or feelings.

2. To inform-we communicate simply to pass or receive information.
3. For survival- communication is needed for everyday life. We communicate to satisfy our
personal needs which may be non-physical such as emotions, feelings, etc. For instance,
we communicate to get comfort in times of sorrow to share feelings about others and
ourselves.
4. Building positive interpersonal relation. Communication plays a foundational role in the
development of any healthy interpersonal relationship. It can strengthen a mutual sense of
commitment; it also helps to bridge the gap between people who have misunderstandings.
Indeed, communication plays a critical role in all phases of interpersonal relations, from
creating a relationship to maintenance of relationships.
5. Communication helps in team building and team-work. Owing to advances in
information technology, companies downsize and decentralize, and work is increasingly
carried out by teams. Team members must be able to work together to identify problems,
analyze alternatives, and recommend solutions. They must be able to communicate their
ideas persuasively to others. Ability to work well in teams, to manage your subordinates

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 and your relationships with seniors, customers and colleagues, depends on your
communication skill.
6. Power-we communicate to exert or gain power. It includes having control over the source
of communication e.g. propaganda.
7. Persuasion-we communicate to persuade others. For instance, an advertisement tries to
change the opinions or attitudes of customers about a product or a service
8. Co-operation-we communicate in order to work or get along with other people. The need
to form social groups comes from the need to co-operate.

ESSENTIALS/PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION .

Communication is effective only when both the sender and the receiver are focused on the act of
communication. While the sender must sharpen and improve skills of speaking and writing, the
receiver must improve skills of listening and reading. The qualities of communication which the
sender must achieve are called the C's of Communication because most of them begin with the
letter C. Cs of good communication include:

1. Correctness.

A letter must be correct in every aspect:

(i) In spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and use of language. Incorrect language spoils the
message, distracts the receiver's attention, and creates a poor impression of the sender; it may
also convey a wrong meaning. All spellings must be checked; spelling of names must be checked
with extra care. Most people are offended if their name is wrongly spelt or pronounced. There
must be consistency in the use of numbers, units of measure, technical terms, abbreviations,
hyphens, grammar, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. American and English spelling
vary. Hyphenation and punctuation and capitalization do not have absolutely fixed rules.
Whatever you decide on, be consistent throughout the document.

(ii) In appearance and form of layout. Poor and untidy appearance, with typing mistakes
corrected in ink, uneven spacing or carelessness in the layout, creates a poor impression of the
company's efficiency in handling its work. Appearance depends on placing the parts of layout
correctly on the letterhead, even spacing between letters, words, lines and parts of layout, and
having proper margins on all sides. Similarly, shabby appearance of the speaker and lack of
attention to body language creates a bad impression.

(iii) In the information conveyed correct and accurate. Communicating wrong or incomplete
information is the most harmful thing; it leads to waste of time in making corrections and will
lead to loss of goodwill and loss of business. All dates and days, time, numbers and facts must be
in agreement. Nothing is more confusing than mismatched information

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(iv) In tone, formality and style must be appropriate to the occasion, the content and the
relationship between the sender and the receiver. An overdone apology sounds childish or
undignified; a grudging or patronizing agreement to grant a request sounds unpleasant.

2. Clarity.

The message must be clear at the first reading so it that takes very little time to follow and
understand. Clearly written or spoken messages avoid misunderstanding and save time. Write
and speak to express, not to impress. Clarity depends upon five factors:

(i) Simple, common everyday words which everyone can understand. Never send the reader
to the dictionary. Technical terms should be avoided unless absolutely needed and if you
are communicating within the profession.
(ii) (ii) Short and simple sentences. Long sentences confuse the reader, and often confuse the
writer also. Phrases and clauses should not be added on to a sentence. Each bit of
important information should be given in a separate sentence.
(iii) (iii) Proper punctuation and pauses. It helps to provide pauses and stops and to break up
groups of words into sensible units. Besides the full stop, there are other, shorter pauses
like the semicolon and the comma which help to break up a sentence into readable units.

3. Consistency.

Consistency should be in the use of numbers, units of measure, technical terms, abbreviations,
grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization and dates. British or American spellings vary.
Hyphenation, punctuation and capitalization do not have absolutely fixed rules. Whatever you
decide on, be consistent throughout the document.

4. Coherence.

Coherence is logical sequence of ideas. Making a clear plan for a presentation or a letter ensures
that the ideas are in logical order; coherence, that is, logical connection of ideas makes any
composition easy to understand. Consistency in numbering also helps in achieving coherence.

5. Concreteness.

Communication involves giving definite and concrete details with figures and names. Vague
phrases like "in due course" or "at your earliest convenience" are not so useful as definite time
phrases like in two weeks or within three weeks, soon, good, any time. Use words and
expressions which communicate exact and definite information. It is better to use concrete words
with a definite meaning, or to give concrete examples and description. Words like good, bad, far,
near, make sense only when you indicate the level of efficiency or quality and say at what speed.

6. Conciseness.

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Conciseness means expressing much in a few words; in business communication it means
keeping to the point, using as few words as possible without sacrificing clarity or courtesy. It
does not necessarily mean being brief; it means making every word count. Conciseness can be
achieved by:

(i) Leaving out unnecessary modifiers; for example, "new innovation;" (can there be an
old innovation?) or ''very unique" (unique means only "one of its kind"). Other
examples are: "advance plans", "actual experience", "cylindrical in shape", "three
cubic meters in volume."
(ii) (ii) Reducing unimportant ideas to phrases or single words like, in the form of - as in
many cases - often exhibits the ability to - can in the event of - if
(iii) (iii) Making sure that only the necessary and relevant details are included. Using
more words than necessary confuses the idea. Conciseness and clarity are closely
related; giving clear and definite details often reduces the length of a sentence.
Readers are thankful for precise and clear messages. Irrelevant ideas and going out of
point confuses the listener.
9. Courtesy.

Courtesy is consideration for other people's feelings. It is seen in an individual's behaviour with
others. A well-mannered and courteous person shows consideration and thought for others. In a
letter, the style, the manner and the choice of words reflect the courtesy of the writer. Some
simple rules for courtesy are:

(i) Use the courtesy words please, thank you, excuse me and sorry as the situation requires.
(ii) (ii) Express appropriate feeling according to the situation. For example, sympathy when
someone suffers, good wishes when someone begins something new, and congratulation
when someone achieves something.
(iii) (iii) Make the other person feel comfortable. This is an important factor of courtesy.
Care and consideration for the reader is reflected in the letter. The opening sentence
itself shows the courtesy of the writer:
• We appreciate your promptness in sending the goods.
• Thank you for sending your quotation so promptly.
• We are sorry to learn that you were inconvenienced.

Requests must also be made courteously:

• We would appreciate it very much if you could send your cheque within three days of
receiving our bill.

• Will you please look into the matter at once?

(iv) Be attentive and prompt in responding. Every message, written or oral should be answered
within twenty-four hours. If it is a letter of complaint, the response should be immediate; a

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courteous company makes a phone call or sends a fax message immediately on receiving a
complaint or hearing about a problem. Everyone appreciates prompt attention.

(v) Let the tone, the choice of words and the style of the message reflect your consideration for
the feelings and needs of the receiver. This is particularly important if the message to be
'conveyed is likely to be unpleasant for the reader. A courteous letter has the best chance of
getting a favourable response. Seeing the situation as the reader sees it, and taking care of his/
her needs, is courtesy. You must have an awareness of how the words sound to the receiver.

8. Completeness.

The message communicated should be complete with all necessary details and information given
to enable proper understanding and response by the receiver.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATI0N

Commination is not always successful. Several things can prevent the message from reaching '
the intended recipient or from "having the desired effect on the recipient.

1. Physical barriers.

Obstacles that prevent a message from reaching the intended recipient may be outside and
beyond the control of the persons concerned. Some can be controlled by the management; some
cannot be controlled because they are in the environment.

(a) Defects in the medium.

Defects in the devices used for transmitting messages are external, and usually not within the
control of the parties engaged in communication. The telephone, the postal system, the
courier service, or electronic media may fail. Messages can get delayed, distorted and even
lost while being transmitted. A partial failure of the mechanical equipment is more harmful
than a total failure because a partial failure may carry an incomplete or distorted message. A
fax message can be wrongly delivered as a wrong number can get dialed on the telephone.
The printout may not be clear at all. It is advisable to call up and check that the fax has been
received.

(b) Noise.
Noise is any disturbance which occurs in the transmission process. In face-to face
communication which is carried by air vibration, the air may be disturbed by noise such
as traffic, factory work, or people talking. In a factory, oral communication is very
difficult because of the noise of the machines. Organizations that can afford sound-proof
rooms can overcome this barrier to some extent.
(c) Information overload.

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 When there is too much information, some of it is blocked in transit and may not reach
the intended audience. Advertising and sales information is an example of overload; so
much communication about products floats through so many media that a good deal of it-
does not reach the potential buyer.

2. Semantic and Language barriers.

Semantic means pertaining to or arising from the different meanings of words or other
symbols. First of all, many words have multiple meanings. Just refer to the dictionary and
see how many meanings you can find for some commonly used words like "charge",
"spring", "check", "suit", "and “ring". The meaning that comes to your mind first depends
on your occupation ("charge" may mean electrical charge to a engineering student, but
fee/rent to a commerce student).
Words like "minute" and "wind" are pronounced in two different ways to mean two
entirely different things. Some words like "present", "transfer", "record" are used as verb
and as noun with a difference in stress in speaking, but no difference in spelling. A
person may be present at a function and receive a present (stress on pre-), and present
(stress on -sent) some thoughts on the budget. Similar sounding words like "access" and
"excess", "flour" and "flower", "cite", "site" and "sight" can cause misunderstanding in
speech. Many people confuse "week" and "weak," "steal' and "steel" in writing.
Emotional and cultural attitudes towards something can evoke different responses in
people; for example, "dog" will evoke responses according to a person's past experience
with the animal as well as cultural attitudes towards the animal.
Phrases can be tricky; 'a red and a blue carpet' signifies two carpets: one red and one blue.
'A red and blue carpet' is one carpet in two colours. Sentences can convey entirely
different meanings depending on how they are spoken. Consider the sentence, "What can
I do for you?" It means something different with every shift of emphasis from one word
to another in oral communication.
Technical terms can also be a barrier to communication when used with an audience who
are not members of that profession. Often, these words have other meanings in ordinary
language, and are differently understood by people who do not belong to that
occupational group. Consider the new meanings given to ordinary words by computer
technology such as "mouse".
More importantly, semantic barriers arise because words mean different things to
different persons. It is said, "Meaning is in people, not in words." Age, profession,
education, cultural background and many other factors influence the meaning we give to
words. A dialect, for example, would identify a person geographically and identically
certain slang would reveal the cultural or group orientation of the persons speaking it.
The same are the barriers, if spoken in situations and with people, who may not be able to
relate to them.
3. Organizational barriers.

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 Editing and filtering: A great deal of loss of information occurs as a message moves from
senior management to lower levels. Each person through whom it passes edits it, filters it,
and simplifies it for the understanding and needs of the next person who is to receive it.

Loss or distortion of information as it moves downward may be caused by

misinterpretation, lack of understanding, and neglect of messages by some of the
members of the organization. Loss of information also occurs as messages move from
subordinates to higher levels of authority. Messages are filtered at every level. There may
be deliberate suppression of information out of self-interest and jealousy; a supervisor
may suppress or change a good suggestion from a subordinate so as to take the credit
personally; a senior officer may prevent information about discontent in the department
from reaching the manager because it reflects on his/her human relations skills.

Deliberate withholding of information from peers who are perceived as rivals becomes a
barrier in horizontal communication. A common barrier to horizontal communication is
organizational politics; one manager may withhold information from another since
possession of information usually has benefits and advantages.

Over-dependence on written communication: Too much dependence on written

communication is one of the reasons for communication gaps. Circulars, bulletins,
notices and even letters are not always read carefully. Many employees are unable to read
and understand long messages. Even better educated persons at higher levels do not
always give proper attention to all written communication. Oral communication has to be
used to supplement written communication when the message is important.

4. Cultural barriers.
When we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the
behaviour patterns of the group. These are the behaviours that the group accepts as signs
of belonging. The group rewards such behaviour through acts of recognition, approval,
and inclusion. In groups which are happy to accept you and where you are happy to
conform, there is a mutuality of interests and a high level of win-win contact. Where,
however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a high level of game-playing
replaces good communication.

5. Gender barriers.
There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a woman
which may create misunderstanding between genders. Global studies suggest that a
woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks between
7,000 and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak earlier than boys and at the age of three, have
a vocabulary twice that of boys. The reason for this lies in the wiring of a man's and
woman's brains. When a man talks, his speech is located in the left side of the brain but in
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 no specific area. When a woman talks, the speech is located in both hemispheres and in
two specific locations. Scientifically speaking, a man talks in a linear, logical and
compartmentalized way, which are the features of left-brain thinking; whereas a woman
talks more freely, mixing logic and emotion, features of both sides of the brain. It also
explains why women talk for much longer than men each day.

6. Socio-Psychological barriers.

People have personal feelings, desires, fears and hopes, likes and dislikes, attitudes, views
and opinions. They form a sort of emotional filter around the mind, and influence the way we
respond to messages that we receive and to new experiences. Factors like the time, the place
and the circumstances of a particular communication also influence our understanding and
response. Problems of understanding, interpretation and response to communication arise
partly from our socially-learnt attributes and partly from our personal attributes. These are
called socio-psychological barriers:

(a) Self-centered attitudes.

We tend to see and hear everything in the light of our own interests and needs and desires.
We pay attention to messages which are useful to us, and often do not pay enough attention
to those messages which do not interest us.

(b) Group identification.

Our values and opinions are influenced, in some matters, by the group to which we belong,
like family, the larger family of relatives, people of our locality or city, our religion or
language group, gender, age group, nationality, economic group and so on. We tend to reject
an idea which goes against the interests of the group.

(c) Self-Image.

Our idea about what we are, what we look like and what impression we make. It is quite
difficult to accept any idea which goes against it.

(d) Selective perception.

We see, read or hear selectively according to our own needs, interests and experience may
not perceive some of the aspects and information content of the message.

(e) Filtering.

Filtering is the process of reducing the details or aspects of a message. Each person who
passes on a message reduces or colours a message according to his/her understanding of the
situation.

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(f) Status block.

A "boss" who is conscious of status finds it difficult to receive any suggestions from
subordinates as they feel that they know everything about how to run the business. They do
not agree that a junior may have some good ideas and many good ideas are wasted only
because they come· from junior employees who are considered to be too young and
inexperienced. Social distance sometimes makes workers too shy or frightened to speak to
their senior bosses.

(g) Resistance to Change.

Some people strongly resist new ideas which are against their established opinions or
traditions or social customs. They may avoid new ideas because they feel insecure or afraid
of changes in methods or situations.

(h) Closed-mindedness.

Limited intellectual background, limited reading and narrow interests can cause a person's
mind to be narrow and limits the ability to take in new ideas. Young employees with bright
ideas and fresh approach feel frustrated by the closed mind of the senior people in an
organization.

(i) Poor communication skills.

Lack of skill in writing and in speaking prevents a person from framing the message
properly. Oral communication can be handicapped by a number of problems; nervousness in
facing an audience may affect a person's clarity in speaking. Even excitement about an
achievement or a new idea may make a person's speech incoherent. Lack of skill in reading
and in listening is also common.

(j) State of health.

Pain or fever certainly makes a person disinclined to engage in communication; but even if
the general state of health is poor, communicating ability is reduced. The mind is not
sufficiently alert; there will be gaps in attention while reading or listening; there is lack of
energy to think clearly and to find the right words. Perception is low when the state of health
is poor. Emotions, which play an important part in successful communication, are easily
disturbed.

(k) Experiential barriers.

The difficulty in understanding matters not personally experienced. Our past experience may
also negatively influence our perception and understanding related to those experiences.

(l) Perceptual barriers.

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The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. The
selectivity/exposure filters that are developed on the basis of experience or lack of it play
their part. A bad experience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in
the shape of avoiding it and if that is not possible by altering the behaviours i.e., response
types in different ways. Similarly, retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the
tendency to forget those things that are painful.

(m) Emotional barriers.

It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of
others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to
others. "Don't speak until you're spoken to"; "Children should be seen and not heard". As a
result, many people hold back from communicating their thoughts and feelings to others
because they feel vulnerable. While some caution may be wise in certain relationships,
excessive fear of what others might think of us can stunt our development into effective
communicators and our ability to form meaningful relationships. Emotions influence both
our speech and our listening. In many cases emotions may stop us from saying many things
and in other instance may make us say things that we never wanted to say.

(n) Hidden agendas.

Hidden agendas serve two functions:

(i) Individual’s strategy for poor self-esteem. This is mostly in cases where the
personality is a submissive one. In such cases the communication can turn sly and
manipulative as one does not have the courage to communicate openly. This is
particularly the case as one is always apprehensive of others differing point of view
and is fearful of annoying the other person, not being confident of handling a
communication situation if there was one requiring assertive handling.
(ii) (ii) Promote ulterior motives and needs. If a person is known to promote one’s
ulterior motives and needs either by being aggressive or by being covertly
submissive; sooner or later it would become a major communication barrier. It
generally creates a win-lose situation and does not work in establishing trust, which is
a basic premise for effective and purposeful communication.

(o) Stereotypes.

Stereotypes are mental images and expectations. Stereotypes provide a shortcut to form an
opinion of someone. We tend to get opinionated sooner or later and it becomes difficult to
change opinions. Opinions give us a base to relate to others. Humans are very diverse by
nature whereas stereotyping them in categories with specific characteristics is very common
and therefore it also becomes one of the most common barriers to communication.

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 (p) Defensiveness.

If we feel threatened by a message, we become defensive and respond in such ways that
reduce understanding. This is a particularly harmful barrier in handling complaints and
grievances and in resolving conflicts.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS.

(i) Persons in positions of authority, as well as subordinates, can be helped to overcome

these barriers by training in effective communication. Periodical review and re-
organization of communication networks is also needed to ensure that information
reaches people in time.
(ii) Health centres. Many organizations provide medical aid, gymnasiums and recreation
for the staff in an effort to keep down stress levels. Regulations like compulsory
vacation after a certain number of months/years are also meant to ensure that
employees avoid stress and fatigue.
(iii) You have to cultivate all the communication skills including getting feedback and
non-verbal communication.
(iv) The Management should ensure the channels must be kept in good working
condition; the intercoms, notice-boards, information on meetings must be kept up-to-
date. Many companies which can afford it maintain soundproof rooms for meetings
and take steps to reduce the noise level in the office.
(v) Semantic and language barriers can be overcome only by being careful with the use
of language, and by using words which have clear meaning, by using short and simple
sentences, and also by using visual aid whenever possible. Whenever possible,
feedback must be got and given to ensure that there is common understanding of a
message.
(vi) Personal barriers can be overcome only "by making a conscious effort, and by
training for better communication.
(vii) To reduce cultural barriers, it is better not to assume similarity with those from other
cultures until you are sure. It is safer to assume difference till you are sure of
similarity. Depend on description rather than evaluation or interpretation; persons
from different cultures evaluate and interpret differently.

CLASSIFICATION/LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION ORGANISATIONAL

COMMUNICATION.

We define organizational communication as the ways in which groups of people both maintain
structure and order through their symbolic interactions and allow individual actors the freedom
to accomplish their goals. This definition recognizes that communication is the primary tool to
influence organizations and gain access to organizational resources.

(a) Internal vs. external communication.

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 Internal communication occurs within the organization while external communication is
between an organization and other organizations, customers or individuals who are
external to the particular organization. Internal communication networks are patterns of
relationships through which information flows in an organization. Stohl (1995) describes
communication networks as capturing “the tapestry of relationships—the complex web of
affiliations among individuals and organizations as they are woven through the
collaborative threads of communication” (p. 18). Communication networks emerge in
organizations based on formal and informal communication (Stohl & Stohl, 2005).
External communication must pass through the registry section which keeps record of
such communication. It involves communication with individuals and organizations
outside our organization.
(b) Formal vs. informal communication.
Formal communication consists of messages that follow prescribed channels of
communication throughout the organization. The most common way of depicting formal
communication networks is with organizational charts Organizational charts provide
clear guidelines as to who is responsible for a given task and which employees are
responsible for others’ performance. Organizational charts demonstrate that
communication can flow in several directions: downward, upward, and horizontally.
1. Downward communication occurs whenever superiors initiate messages to
subordinates. Ideally, downward communication should include such things as job
instructions, job rationale, policy and procedures, performance feedback, and
motivational appeals. When abused, it can lead to dictatorship.
2. Messages flowing from subordinates to superiors are labelled upward communication.
Obviously, effective decision making depends on timely, accurate, and complete
information traveling upward from subordinates.
3. Messages between members of an organization with equal power are labelled
horizontal communication. Horizontal communication is important to organizational
success when used to coordinate tasks, solve problems, share information, and resolve
conflict. Horizontal communication receives much more attention in participatory
organizational structures in which employees have more opportunity to formally
participate in decision making (such as quality circles or autonomous work teams).

Informal/grapevine communication has no definite route of communication for sharing

information. Information converges a long way by passing from one person to another
leaving no indication from which point it started. This is similar to the vines of grapes.
This kind of communication is in the form of:
(a) Office gossip involving telling a number of persons in one’s group.
(b) Single standard office stories to a trusted colleague who in turn tells another trusted
colleague, and so on.

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 (c) Probability- an employee may also become indifferent about whom he should pass the
information to. He/she may pass the information to anybody around him who may be
interested to listen.
(d) Cluster- in this case the person who has the information passes it to selected
individuals who also pass it on to selected individuals. In every organization, some
people have good liaison with other persons.

Informal communication is generally considered to be any interaction that does not generally
follow the formal structure of the organization but emerges out of natural social interaction
among organization members. Whereas formal communication consists of messages the
organization recognizes as official, informal messages do not follow official lines. The concept
of emergent organizational networks represents the informal, naturally occurring patterns of
communication relationships in organizations (Susskind, Schwartz, Richards, & Johnson, 2005).

Moreover, effective workplace communicators understand the nature of both formal and
informal communication.

Managers who take time to develop and listen to sources of informal information are better
equipped to understand employees’ attitudes and concerns. When entering an organization, such
as when you start your first job, asking other employees about communication practices is smart
because you not only discover formal procedures but also make contact for informal sources of
information.

(c) Intrapersonal vs. interpersonal communication.

Intrapersonal Communication Intrapersonal communication is the communication that
occurs within your own mind. Intrapersonal communication occurs, when you evaluate or
examine the interaction that occurs between yourself and others, but it is not limited to
such situations. This form of communication occurs before and during other forms of
communication as well. For instance, you might argue with yourself during a
conversation in which someone asks you to do something you don’t really want to do:
Before you accept or decline, you mull over the alternatives in your mind. Intrapersonal
communication also includes such activities as solving problems internally, resolving
internal conflict, planning for the future, and evaluating yourself and your relationships
with others.
Interpersonal Communications Interpersonal communication is the process of using
messages to generate meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows
mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening. Like intrapersonal communication,
interpersonal communication occurs for a variety of reasons: to solve problems, to
resolve conflicts, to share information, to improve perceptions of one self, or to fulfill
social needs, such as the need to belong or to be loved. Through our interpersonal
communication, we are able to establish relationships with others that include friendships
and romantic relationships. Dyadic and small-group communications are two subsets of

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 interpersonal communication. Dyadic communication is simply two-person
communication, such as interviews with an employer or a teacher; talks with a parent,
spouse, or child; and interactions among strangers, acquaintances, and friends. Small-
group communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning in a small
group of people (Brilhart & Galanes, 1998). Small-group communication occurs in
families, work groups, support groups, religious groups, and study groups.

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Channel is the medium that carries the message from the source to the target audience. All
channels can be classified as written, face to face to face, electronic and non-verbal.

Choice of Communication Medium.

You need to consider several aspects in choosing a medium for a particular message. The main
aspects are:

a) The type of audience you want to reach.

b) The speed with which the message should be conveyed: The pressure of time and the distance
between the sender and the receiver influence the choice of the medium. Some media are faster
and can travel distances rapidly, like the telephone, the fax and the email; these media also have
the advantage of being person to person.

c) Need for confidentiality of the message is an important consideration. The choice will
certainly be influenced by requirement of secrecy; all media do not ensure the same secrecy of
the message. Messages like warning memo, report on a customer's credit standing, demand for
overdue payment, and so on, are confidential. They cannot be sent by media like telegram or
telex or fax even if they are urgent.

d) Need for accuracy in transmission is not the same for all messages. If the content to be
transmitted is mainly data, you make the choice for accuracy and speed in transmitting.

e) Need for reliability of the medium is an important factor. Sending a message by hand delivery
is more reliable than ordinary mail; registered post is more reliable than ordinary mail.

f) Cost of the medium and its relative importance and urgency.

g) Availability of a particular medium to the sender and to the receiver is obviously an affecting
factor. You can use only those media which both you and the intended receiver can access. You
may have a fax machine but if the receiver does not have one and has no arrangements for
receiving a fax message, you cannot use that medium.

h) Feedback capacity of the medium: For some messages, you need immediate feedback; you
have to use a medium which will enable you to get it at once, like the telephone.

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i) Availability of hard copy for record.

j) Formality of the medium must be suitable to content of the message. A letter of congratulation
is more formal and has a different effect from conveying the same message orally.

k) Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor. Many messages in an organization
have an emotional content, which influences the choice considerably; the emotional content is
not carried equally by all media.

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