CHAPTER 4

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses results and findings of a research on Assessment of impacts of sand mining

on socioeconomic development on freshwater ecosystem in Rivers State. Data was collected

through individual interviews, questionnaire survey, field measurements and observations. The

researcher considered and sampled some areas like Rumuoparlie, Chocoho and Akpajo to

investigate the extent of the impact caused by sand miners on the environment. Four hundred and

seventy –seven (477) respondents were picked as a sample to take part in the questionnaire survey.

One hundred and fifty-nine (159) were from Rumuaparlie while one hundred and fifty nine (159)

were from Chococho villages and one hundred and fifty nine (159) were distributed to Akpajo.

Interviews were conducted on people who are directly and indirectly involved in sand mining.

Although, 380 questionnaires were retrieved in total for this research work.

This chapter examines the data collected from field work and using both quantitative and

qualitative data collections instruments. Castellan (2010) posited that data analysis is ongoing

inductive process where data are sorted, sifted through, read and re-read.

The purpose of gathering data is to enable the researcher answer the research questions and to help

achieve the research objectives.

4.2 Research Questions

1 What are the available freshwater ecosystem services in the study area?

2 What is the current state of the available freshwater ecosystem services in the study area?

3 What are the social impacts that sand mining have on the study area communities?
 4 What are the economic impact of sand mining on the freshwater ecosystem services in the

study area?

5 What environmental issues subsist in freshwater ecosystem where sand mining is practiced

and how does the government deal with them?

4.3 Administration and Retrieval of Questionnaires

Data used for this study was collected between July and August 2024. Three local government

area in Rivers state were sand mining occurs on daily basis were interview both by oral interview

and personal observations, also, questionnaires were designed and distributed for the victims of

fish farmers and landlords, youths, chairmen and those involved in sand mining. The

questionnaires was structured to capture respondents experience in sand mining. The areas focused

in the questionnaire are respondent’s bio data, sand mining experience socio economic wellbeing

and freshwater ecosystem hazard. This section also, deals with the number of distributed

questionnaire, the number retrieved and the numbers that were not retrieved.

According to Mkando (2003) said that research study is walks are walks with local guides and

analysts through an area, observing, asking, listening, discussing, learning about different zones,

soil, land uses, vegetation, crops, livestock, local technologies, introduced technologies, seeking

problems, solutions and opportunities and mapping and diagramming the zones, resources and

findings. Sand miners were interviewed mainly about financial implications and mining methods.

In addition, the sand loaders were requested to provide information about the amount of money

charged when selling the sand to consumers.

4.4 Analysis of Felid study
In order to answer the research questions earlier stated and to meet with specific objectives of the

study, the collected data from the field were organized and analysis, Data was analyzed with the

used from of descriptive statistics, Frequency tables were drawn and from these the data was

presented in bar chart. The questionnaire were open-ended and closed –ended and also rated with

5 points Likert scales and arranging in ascending order of 1,2,3,4,5 respectively. Strong agree is

rated as the highest and assigned a value of five while strongly disagree rated the least with a value

of 1.

4.5 Data Analysis to Research Questions Responses

This section presented data of analysis on how the respondents provided answers to the research

questions within the three (3) Local Government where the respondents experienced various

injurious affections on the environment. This section will deal with gender, age, educational status,

marital status, property and experience of the effects of Oil Spillage and, livelihoods.

Table 4.1 Educational Qualification of Respondents

Category Frequency Percentage

Gender

Females 40 7.89%

Males 340 89.47%

Age

15- 30 220 57.89%

35 -40 80 21.05%

50-65 80 21.05%
 Duration of Stay in the Region

10-15 110 28.95%

18-20 70 18.42%

22-50 200 52.63%

Jobs Types

Fishing farming 50 13.16%

farmers 80 21.05%

Sand miners 180 47.37%

Business /workers 70 18.42%

Educational Background

Primary 20 5.26%

Secondary 250 65.79%

BSC 110 28.95%

Source: Field survey, 2024

 GENDER DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICIPANTS

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Male Female

Male Female

Figure 4.1a: Male and Female Participation in Sand Mining

EDUCATION LEVEL

30

25

20

15

10

0
Primary Secondary Graduate

Primary Secondary Graduate

Figure 4.1b. Distribution of Respondent’s Educational Background

Source: Field survey on Educational status 2024.
Figure 4.1a shows 240 males and 40 females were considered for data analysis. The sample size

for the questionnaire survey was 477 but only 280 respondents were considered for the analysis of

results because 30 questionnaires were discarded since 7 were incomplete 60 respondents

misplaced their copies. Of the 380 who formed the final sample, 89.47% were males and 7.89%

were females. More males were willing and interested in taking part in the research because sand

mining is a male dominated activity. Very few women are involved in sand and gravel extraction

and rarely visit the areas so are not aware of what exactly happens at mining sites.

In Figure 4.1b 110 educational status of respondents that 28.95% of the respondents are graduates

with both B.Sc/OND, while secondary school 250 of respondent 28.95% had went to secondary

school, and of 10.71% respondent had primary school completed. This means the respondents are

relatively literate. It could be agreed that the rate of unemployment and economic hardship in the

local government is the parent reason for this for sand mining by the youths who aggressive by

government and the oil producing companies. According to Jafaru (2013), poverty situation among

the population is considered as both a cause and impact of environmental degradation anywhere

in where there is avenue for sand mining, which also affects the sand resources. He stated that, the

intensive use of sand causes has in turn leads to an impact of the farmer’s earning and others which

depend on the freshwater ecosystem. Some scholars, therefore, did not disclose about the in depth

of causal impact analysis of sand mining apart from others who do not benefit from the sand mning.
 GENDER STATUS

Male Female

Figure 4.2: Distribution of Respondent’s Gender

Source: Field survey

Figure 4.2. Revealed that of 7.89% of the respondents were females, while 89.47% of the

respondents were males. This shows that majority of the respondents were male.

In many societies, there is a division of labour based on gender. Traditionally, men meet

instrumental needs while women meet expressive needs. Those job specifications that require the

performance of instrumental needs are predominantly performed by males. Some of those jobs

require physical exertion of energy. It is common for men to take up jobs that require them to show

their masculinity. On the other hand, women are mostly found in jobs that require them to meet

expressive needs According Livesey,( 2014) mostly sand miners are based on gender,as it for male

occupation. Also Budu,( 2019 it is not a job for a woman. The physical demand is too much. There

is no female sand digger and m it is encouraging for a woman do the job.

 Respondents

22 - 50 years

18 - 20 years

10 - 15 years

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

10 - 15 years 18 - 20 years 22 - 50 years

Figure 4.3: Distribution of Respondent’s Duration of Stay

Source: Field survey,2024

Figure 4.3 revealed that people who has stayed for 10-15ys are respondent of 28.95% while 18-

20yrs respondent are 18.42% and 22-50yrs are respondent 52.63%.

 RESPONDENT’S JOB TYPE

Fish Farmers Farmers Sand Miners Business Workers

Figure 4 4: Distribution of Respondent’s Job Type

Source: Field survey 2024, Distribution of Respondent’s Job Type

Figure 4.4 revealed that respondent of 13.16% are fish farmers, while farmers are 21.05%, 47.37%

are sand miners and 18.42% are business and workers.

Saviour, (2012) revealed that sand mining is also creation of employment for families at mining

sites in the society (Lawal (2011) noted that since 2001 that thousands of sand miners had been

employed in Nigeria’s Niger State alone, according to statistics provided by Mine Safety and

Health Administration. Mwangi, (2007) supported this positive impact of sand mining in Kenya

when he highlighted that there is creation of employment to locals above eighteen years as manual

loaders at mining sites. In Botswana, Mbaiwa, (2008) realized that the same impact of employment

creation to youth, both citizens and non-citizens seasonally at mining and construction sites to load

tipper trucks. While in Zimbabwe, Lupande, (2012) noted creation of employment for youth who

are licensed to mine sand and some to load the trucks as a positive impact of mining.
 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF QUESTIONNAIRE

80
60
40
20
0
50 - 65
21 - 25
35 - 40 Percentage
15 - 30
31 - 50

Percentage

Figure 4.5: Distribution of respondents by age

Source. Field survey, 2024

Figure 4.5 shows the modal age group, 50-65 years. This is because respondents in this age group

were readily available and willing to take part in the study since they are affected most when sand

mining in or near their agricultural land and their freshwater ecosystem. The median age group is

35-40 years. The medium age group respondent are 15-30 The data shows that there were fewer

respondents for each age group between 31 and 50 years because they were not present in villages

at the time of study and most reside in towns where they work. The 21-25 age group had a high

frequency and consisted of young literate adults who could understand the questions and are aware

of environmental issues.
 Table 4.2: Responses from respondent on the current state after sand mining in the study
area.

S/N Factors SA A U D SD No. No. Mean SD

5 4 3 2 1 of R of R -x

1. Drinking Water 70 46 83 39 142 1003 380 2.64 2.08

(18.42) (12.11) (21.84) (10.26) (37.37) - - - -

2. Food Security 159 186 - - - 1539 380 4.05 3.51

(41.84) (48.95) - - - - -

3. Water Purification 222 138 - - 20 1682 380 4.43 3.99

4. Flood Regulation 190 180 10 - - 1700 380 4.47 3.9

Source: Field Survey, 2024

From the above, the mean value of 3.0 is used as criterion to Accepted or reject the item statement

of the questionnaire. Any item statement which is less than the criterion means is rejected as an

impact factors in measuring the socioeconomic of sand mining on freshwater ecosystem. Items

statement which is above mean is Accepted as an impact.

 Table 4.3: Assessment of Water-Related Environmental Services

S/N Items Mean SD CM Result Ranking

1. Drinking water provides clean water 2.64 2.08 3.0 Reject 4th

for human consumption

2. Food Security 4.05 3.51 3.0 Accepted 1st

3. Water purification and natural 4.43 3.10 Accepted 3rd

Process, maintain water quality

4. Filtering water pollutant and 4.43 3.9 Accepted 2nd

sediment flood regulate river, lakes

and wetland

Source: Field Survey, 2024

From table 4.3 Drinking water supply: lake, River and wetland does not provide clean water for

drinking, is Accepted to be reject as a negative impact, because the mean value of drinking water

supply is 2.64 % which is less than the criterion mean value of 3.0

Food security from table 4.3 freshwater ecosystems services support fisheries, agricultural and

livestock production is Accepted as positive on the socio-economic Impact of sand mining on

freshwater ecosystem services of the study area this is because mean 3.51 is higher than criterion

mean 3.0

Water purification: natural process maintains water quality by filtering out pollutant and sediment,

from table 4.3 above is Accepted because is 3.10 higher than the criterion mean value which is

3.0.

Flood regulate: Rivers, lakes and wetland regulate water flow from Table 4.3 above show that it

is Accepted because the mean which is 4.43 is higher than the criterion mean 3.0.
 RESEARCH QUESTION 2

What is the Current State of the available Water Freshwater Ecosystems Service?

Table 4.4: Responds from Respondent on the Current State of the Available Freshwater

Ecosystem Service

S/N Factors SA A U D SD Total no. of Total no. of Mean SD

responds respondents
5 4 3 2 1 x
1. Habitant destruction 230 150 - - - 1750 380 4.61 4.08
(60.52) (39.47) - - - - - - -
2. Changes in water 200 180 - - - 1720 380 4.53 15.10
flow (56.05) (26.84) - (5.26) - - - - -
3. Water Quality 159 186 - - - 1539 380 4.05 12.34
(41.82) (48.95)
4. Loss of Biodiversity 161 183 - 6 30 1579 380 4.16 3.63
(42.37) (48.16) (1.58) - - - - - -
5. Decrease in water 213 215 - 20 45 1558 380 4.1 12.71
storage (56.05) (26.84) - 5.86 (11.84) - - - -
6. Sand mining has 165 215 - - - 1685 380 4.43 15.19
increase flooding (43.42) (56.58) - - - - - -
and erosion
7. Sand mining has 131 193 10 6 40 1509 380 3.97 11.79
caused negative
impact
8. Reducing 141 156 28 - 52 1465 380 3.86 11.03
recreational and (37.11) (41.05) (7.37) - (13.68)
cultural value
9. Fishery 180 200 - - - 1700 380 4.47 11.51
Source: Field Survey, 2024
 Table 4.5: Impact of Sand Mining on Environmental and Ecological Factors

S/N Item Mean SD CM Results

1. Habitant destruction: Sand mining has caused removal 4.61 4.08 0.3 Accepted

of sand sediment and has alter riverbank and floods

2. Sand mining has caused changes in water flow and 4.53 15.10 0.3 Accepted

sediment transport

3. Water quality: sand mining has caused degradation of 4.05 12.34 0.3 Accepted

water

4. Loss of biodiversity 4.16 3.63 0.3 Accepted

5. Decreases water storage 4.1 3.63 0.3 Accepted

6. Sand mining has increase flooding and erosion 4.43 15.19 0.3 Accepted

7. Sand mining has caused negative impact on fisheries and 3.97 11.79 0.3 Accepted

other aquatic lives, also affecting foods security and

most livelihoods.

8. Reduce recreational and cultural values 3.86 11.08 0.3 Accepted

9. Reduce recreational and cultural values. 3.86 11.08 0.3 Accepted

Source: Field Survey, 2024

From the above table 4.5, The mean value of 3.0 is used as a criterion to Accepted or reject the

impact of sand mining on socioeconomic to freshwater ecosystem services. Any item statement

which is less than criterion 3.0 is rejected, while any criterion means that is higher than 3.0 is

accepted, however, the research observes that the above table shows sand mining activities has

caused penury to those that wholly, depends on freshwater ecosystem as livelihoods.

Figure 4.6a: The impact of sand mining on freshwater ecosystems service
Source: Researcher Sand Mining Environment chochocho2024

Figure 4.6b: The impact of sand mining on freshwater ecosystems service

Source: Researcher 2024
Figure 4.6c: The impact of sand mining on freshwater ecosystems service
Source: Researcher 2024
 RESEARCH QUESTION 3

What is the Social Impact of Sand Mining?

Table 4.6: Perceived Social and Economic Impacts of Sand Mining

S/N Factors SA A U D SD Total no. of Total no. of Mean SD

responds respondents
5 4 3 2 1 x

1. Loss of livelihood 230 150 - - - 1750 380 4.61 16.64

(60.53) (39.47) - - - - 100 - -

2. Displacement of 280 100 - - - 1800 380 4.74 1754

communities (73.68) (26.32) - - - 100 - -

3. Health Impact 200 115 - - - 1589 380 4.18 1754

(52.63) (30.26) - - - - - - -

4. Social Conflict 265 1150 - - - 1785 380 4.69 17.31

(35.79) (13.16) - - - - - - -

5. Food Insecurity 173 187 - 35 20 1738 380 4.57 16.31

6. Human Right 190 187 - 30 20 1828 380 4.81 18.33

Source: Field Survey, 2024

 Table 4.7: Shows the respondents from respondent on the social Impact of sand mining in

the study area

S/N Item Mean SD CM Results

1. Loss of livelihood 4.61 16.64 3.0 Accepted

2. Displacement of communities: Sand mining can lead to 4.74 16.64 3.0 Accepted

displacement of community people living the sites as

Their homes are threatened.

3. Health Impact: sand mining can increase the risk of 4.18 17.54 3.0 Accepted

water borne disease and others health issues

4. Social conflict: sand mining can lead to Social conflict 4.69 17.31 3.0 Accepted

between mining companies

5. Local communities and government agencies. 4.57 16.31 3.0 Accepted

6. Food insecurity: sand mining can reduce Fish 4.47 17.32 3.0 Accepted

population affecting food security and nutrition.

7. Human rights: Sand mining can lead to human right 4.81 18.33 3.0 Accepted

violation.

Source: Field Survey

Results Statement:

From the above, the mean value of 3.0 is used as criterion to Accepted or reject the item statement

of the questionnaire. Any item statement which is less than the criterion means is rejected as an

impact factors in measuring the socioeconomic of sand mining on freshwater ecosystem. Items

statement which is above mean is accepted as an impact.

Increase poverty: from the above table 4.7 above poverty is accepted as a social impact of

communities where sand mining takes place. This is because the mean value of human rights is

4.81 higher than the mean value 3.0.

Displacement of communities:

From the table 4.7 above social conflict is accepted. This is because the mean value of

displacement of communities is 4.74 which is higher than the criterion mean value of 3.

Social conflict:

From the above table 4.7 above 4.4 shows that social impact on communities is accepted because

the mean value of social conflict is 4.69 which is higher than the mean value 3.0

From the above table the means value is 3.0 is used as a criterion to Accepted or rejects the items,

The results shows from above table that sand mining has a higher social impact during sand

miming activities in the communities

 RESEARCH QUESTION 4

What is the Economic Impact on Sand Mining in the study area

Table 4.8:

S/N Factors SA A U D SD Total no. of Total no. of Mean SD

responds respondents
5 4 3 2 1 x

1. Job Creation 280 100 - - - 1800 380 4.74 17.73

(73.68) (26.32) - - - - 100 -

2. Increased Government

Revenue

3. Infrastructure

Source: Field Survey, 2024

 Table: 4.9: Responses from Respondent of the Economic Impact of Sand Mining in
Freshwater Ecosystem Service

S/N Item Mean SD CM Results

1. Job creation and employment: sand mining creates 4.47 17.73 3.0 Accepted
jobs and stimulate local economic in the economic.
2. Increase government revenue for local and national 4.79 18.15 3.0 Accepted
government through taxes and permit.
3. Infrastructure development: Sand mining help to 5 2.4 3.0 Accepted
develop infrastructure Such as road, bridge, housing etc.
Source: Field Survey, 2024

Results and statement

Increase government revenue for local and government through taxes and permits: from table 4.9

above increase government revenue for local and government through taxes and permits is

Accepted as an impact in the economic impact of sand mining in communities. This is because the

mean value 4.79 is higher than the criterion mean 3.0

Job creation and employment: sand mining creates jobs and stimulate local and national

government through taxes and permit: from table 4.9 above job creation and employment is

Accepted because the mean is 4.47 higher than the mean value 3.0

Discussion and statement

From the above, the mean value of 3 is used a criterion to Accept or reject the impact statement of

the questionnaire. Any impact items statement whose mean is less than the criterion mean value is

rejected as an impact factor in measuring the impacts of sand mining on the issue subsist in

freshwater ecosystem where sand mining is practiced and how government should do with them.

In answering the related question on the environment issues subsist in freshwater ecosystem where

sand mining is practiced and how does government deal with the table below.
 RESEARCH QUESTION 5:

What environmental issues subsist in freshwater ecosystem service where sand mining

practiced and to deal with them.

Table 4.10: Show Responds of Respondent of the Issues that Subsist in Freshwater

Ecosystem

S/N Item Mean SD CM Results

1. The practice of sand mining Change water changes water 3.17 6.88 3.0 Rejected

flow Temperature.

2. Damage to aquatic vegetation and wetland 4.46 15.43 3.0 Accepted

3. Government can deal with the issues through monitoring 4.72 17.56 3.0 Accepted

and enforcement of regulation

4. Public engagement and educating local the impact of 4.08 12.57 3.0 Accepted

sand mining

Source: Field Survey, 2024

Results and statement:

Government can deal with the issues through monitoring and enforcement regulation: From table

4.10 above shows that is accepted as an impact: This is because the mean value 4.72 is higher than

the criterion mean 3.0

Sand mining causes water pollution and damage to aquatic vegetation and wetland.: From table

4.10 above job creation and employment is accepted because the mean is 4.47 higher than the

mean value 3.0

 CHAPTER 5

INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDING

5.1 Interpretation of Finding

This chapter five focused on the interpretations and discussion of the result findings. This result

obtained from the analyses of the questionnaires and interview and personal observation.

Responses are discussed here under.

5.2 Discussion of Findings

This study was centered on the assessment of the impact of socioeconomic on sand mining on

freshwater ecosystem service of River State of Nigeria. From the analysis of field data were based

on the research question sets for achieving the aims of the study. The results obtained from the

analysis of field data are discussed and interpreted below.

5.3 Summary

Sand mining is an economic activity engaged in by people as a source of livelihood. There was

extensive sand extraction in the area. Most of the sites from which sand was extracted were not

licensed. The unlicensed mining sites extracted sand manually, while the licensed mining sites

used machines for their operations. The process of sand extraction inherently involves the

interaction between the social environment and the physical environment. In this interaction, the

extraction of sand mining has leads to land degradation. The exploitation of the natural resource

through the extraction of sand from land surfaces and riverbeds leaves the land denuded. As sand

is been mine land is degraded, the interplay of social forces competing for scarce resources often

comes into conflict. Sometimes, the conflict can be violent; at other times, it might be non-violent.

The conflict usually involves different stakeholders at various levels of interaction. Several people
earn their livelihood from sand mining activities. This occurs at the different levels of the value

chain in the sand mining process, farming, fishing and other activities that are related to land and

the environment. Hence, whatever affects the land or the environment also affects them. Social

relations are concerned with the exchanges, connections and associations between members of the

society. The social relations in any society embody contacts that necessarily take place as people

share common resources, space and exchange value to eke out a living. In the course of

interactions, bonds, pacts and alliances are built; strengthened and sometimes strained to the extent

of being severed. People exchange ideas and material objects as they interact within the confines

of proximate geographical space.

5.3.1 What are the Available Freshwater Ecosystem Services in the study area?

From the table 4.2 it is observing the available freshwater ecosystems service in the communities

where sand mining happens, the rivers, lakes provides clean water for human consumption, it

provides food security as livelihood, purification of natural water and finally regulate flood from

the wetland. According to Kumar et al (2024), rivers acts as a natural filter, purifying water for

human consumption. Gupta et al (2019), said river line ecosystem usually provides crucial

services, including water filtration habitat provision and food support. Ecosystem service were

essential or maintain healthy freshwater ecosystems. Sand mining can disrupt these services

leading to environmental degradation. Riverine ecosystems support diverse species, promoting

biodiversity. Mishra et al. (2018)

Responds from one of the village chief complaints that since sand mining started taken place, that

their rivers are no longer safe for aquatic lives to stay and that most of the community people move

far to seek for aquatics lives.

5.3.2 What is the current state of the available freshwater ecosystem services in the study

area?

From Table 4.4 indicate that the factors of the current available freshwater ecosystems service

have an impact on habitant destruction, which remove sand and sediment can alter riverbed bank

and flood plain. According to Rai et al, (2019) observed that ever since sand mining exist, the

freshwater ecosystem no longer provides freshwater ecosystem service, it has caused habitat

destruction,

Table 4.4 and 4.5 Sand mining has caused changes in the water flow and sediment transport, it has

disrupted natural sediment process causing erosion deposit and changes in the water flow.

According to Kumar et al; (2020) sand mining has reduce water filtration. Table 4.3 and 4.4

explained that the impact of sand mining currently has affects water quality and degradation of

freshwater ecosystem services. Meme et al; (2014), revealed that the high-level turbidity degrades

water quality and reduces light penetration within the River, which affects the photosynthesis rates

and the primary production rate of the River. It also affects fish population in the River. These

particles do rely on high turbidity water, which can directly affect aquatic ecosystem or relay to

other diseases. Table 4.4 and table 4.5 revealed that sand mining has led to loss biodiversity and

decrease population decline, local extinction and changes in communities.

Angry residents on Son says there was occupants get into their boats and chasing away the

dredgers. One time, some of the sand miners attacked a villager, leading to a bloody fight. Local

residents then immediately took up the matter with the local government, but eventually, they

decided against pressing charges.

“People don’t want to break the law, but they’re so angry that they had to run out and chase away

those miners,” said an old man a 65-year-old farmer who lives on near the shore said he has had

to move out the house five times due to erosion and has lost two thirds of his farming land. “People

here are not afraid,” he said.

Figure 1, source: Feid Survey 2024.

Figure 5.1 field survey 2024

Fig. 5.1 and fig 5.2. (1) Polluted water due to sand harvesting, standing as the only source of

useable water for indoor and outdoor household purposes by habitants of the locality; (2)

transportation of fine particles by water due to sand mining in the study area.

According to the interviewee’s response from the field survey, there was no doubt that sand mining

activities have got adverse impact on the environment. Although some were not ready in the first

place to respond to the questionnaire, they never hesitated to voice out their perceptions and the
realities being faced by them when the subject of environmental impact. River bed degradation

(channel incision), increased in dust particles which brings about changes in air quality when

uncovered tipper trucks are transporting sand, destruction of nearby forest covers and as well as

dry season farms and fisheries ponds destruction were the chief among the environmental impacts

according to the interviewees. A particular complain which was made by people and was also

observed personally as a participant observer was erosional valleys which joins the stream channel.

This results from caterpillars making its way to into the stream bed as well as trucks. Fig. 5.3below

shows a picture of an excavated way by caterpillar, which according a fisher farmer, sand miners

claimed to have closed it up.

Source: Field survey 2024.

Figure 5.3 Abandoned mine site showing destroyed fish ponds in Chokocho mining site. Source:

Researcher’s field work (2024).

Table 4.4 and 4.5 revealed that sand mining has causes negative impact on fisheries affecting food

security and most livelihood.

Riverbeds widen and deepen after removing river sand, affecting aquatic life biodiversity while

sand removal destroys ecosystems,, pollution of water bodies, vegetation losses, loss of

biodiversity, erosion, changes in water table, high frequency noises and air contamination. Arthur

et al; (2008) observed that sand mining has potential negative impacts on the in-stream and riparian

habitats and therefore alters the ecological characteristics which include the water quality and

quantity as well as physical characteristics of the river. Bindusri et al;(2020) noted that riverbed,

riverbanks are affected, as mining of sand and clearing of vegetation occurs during sand mining.
Bindursim et al; (2020) disturbed habitat and changes in water quality in a river negatively also

influence the ecosystemAccording to Rinaldi et al.;(2005), mining and dredging operations have

the tendency to lessen

downstream water quality and may adversely affect aquatic life. Rabie et al.;(1994) reported that

sandmining processes have the capability to interrupt and or alter natural balance within an

ecosystem. water quality is essential for preventing infections and sustaining life processes. Hardly

any

water source without impurities and these may arise as a result of discharging wastewater effluent

intowater body. Naturally, impurities may come in contact with aquatic ecosystem through surface

run-off,

precipitation and from man-made source.Ashraf et al. (2011) reported that In-channel or Near-

channel sand-and-gravel mining can affect the quantity of sediment, and this may bring about

significant change in the water course. Their report further indicated that reductions of sediment

owing to In channel mining can adversely impact benthic organisms and that debris deposited by

running water is a function of geological structure. The report asserted that a good knowledge of

the nature of response of the water channel being mined to mining disruptions is required to be

able to be able to checkmate the negative effects of sand mining.

 Figure 5.3
source: Abandon Site Researcher Survey 2024

Figure 5.4
Source: Researcher Survey Fish Pond Abandon (2024)
Table 4.3 and 4.4 revealed that sand mining has reduced recreational and cultural values Wetlands

is a valuable resource in recreation of community members who embark in water sports, but with

the emergence sand miners in the neighborhood all these are destroyed and distorted.

Table 4.3 and 4.4 sand mining has decrease value of recreational opportunities, loss of eco-tourism

revenue. According to kumar (2020),recreational and cultural value has increases costs for water

treatment and purification. Table 4.3 and table 4.4 sand mining has affected fisheries and has

significant economic cost, including lost ecosystem services, tourism and fisheries. These costs

highlights the need for sustainable management and conservation of riverine ecosystem.

According to Orrin et al; (2007) who asserted that excessive disturbance in the river ecosystem

has led to loss of fishes, biodiversity and recreational potentials in most river environments.

One of the responds who refused to accept the questionnaire says before sand activities that the

river banks are used for recreational and cultural values on feastival periods. That he ssem no other

way to stop sand mining.

5.3.3 What are the social impact of sand mining area of the study?

Table 4.5 and 4.6 revealed that sand mining has led to the loss of livelihood, nature provides what

humans need for their lives. As is known, rural communities are often identified as people mostly

depend on fisheries and other freshwater ecosystem service, namely people whose economic

activities are centered on agriculture. Like the one in the study area most of the residents work as

fish farmers. According to Pitchaiah (2017), study on sand mining conducted by communities

found that the activities had damaged the river waterways, eroded the river edge, destructed soil

structure and underwater habitats. They depend on their lives in the field of marine and agriculture.

According to Aromoloran (2012), also observed the degradation of freshwater ecosystem service
in the communities, as a result of river sand mining. The activities of the sand miners disturb the

free flow of the water with the consequential effects that fishes become out of reach of the

fishermen who rely on the river for their livelihood. Table 4.5 and 4.6 revealed displacement of

communities, sand mining can lead to displacement of communities, people living near the sites

as their home are threaten. One of the most serious negative impacts of mining is the physical

displacement of thousands of people for undertaking mining operations in

their residence areas. This is a big challenge for human rights and poses enormous social risk.

As reported by Downig (2011), due to mining activities, there are loss of value of properties which

forces entire communities to shift elsewhere is not only limited to losing their homes, but also their

land, and livelihoods. Singh et al; (2015) revealed that resettlement of displaced communities is

mostly in areas without adequate resources and areas close to mining operations full of pollution

and contamination. Forced resettlement can be particularly disastrous for indigenous communities

who have strong cultural and spiritual ties to the lands and forest of their ancestors and who may

find it difficult to survive when these are broken. Table 4.4 and 4.6 revealed that health impact

caused by sand mining can increased the risk of water borne diseases, and other health issues. Land

degradation resulting from sand mining affects the physical and mental health of community

members. According Adekola (2017), people living in an area where sand mining inhale smokes

and dust particles in the air tend, to be exposed to certain illnesses associated with dust, such as

respiratory complications. In addition, the pits caused by sand mining has been left to its own,

giving rise to the collection of all kinds of contaminants, especially malaria mosquito. Musah and

Barkarson (2009),study Consequently, the health of local communities is alarmingly affected.

They found that sand and gravel mining is a growing concern for the people whose property is

near the river basically due to the fact that river erosion in the region has become a man-made

disaster (Khan and Sugie, 2015), in their study, it was also shown that the business and sale of

sand has caused a significant damage to the roads and the conflict between local residents.

Table 4.5 and 4.6 revealed that sand mining can to increase poverty, Poverty is a condition where

a person or community group in a certain area, which cannot fulfill their basic needs following the

rules of certain values and norms that apply in society. According to Nugroho, (2018), many people

especially in sand mining area are living in a circle of poverty, in fact, the older people who depend

on the freshwater ecosystem lived in poor and almost poor conditions. Djumena (2018 ),Factors

that cause poverty include the first, low levels of education, resulting in a lack of ability to develop

themselves. Second, the limited employment due to lack of mastered skills resulted in the lack of

access and networks owned. Solutions for the community to become independent and free from

poverty, the community uses natural resources around them to meet their needs. sand mining have

caused the erosion of soil, the loss of the arable lands, the destruction of life diversity, and the

increase of poverty among people Erskine et al;( 2000). Although people are generally familiar

with the importance of the sand in construction, they may not be aware of its negative effects on

life diversity, and food security.

Responds: one of the older man said that is not sand mining does not creates jobs for the

communities but is not favorable for older men who depends on the ecosystem services.

Table 4.5 and 4.6 revealed that sand mining in rural area causes conflicts, naturally resources are

very important to communities. Half of the world’s population is directly dependent on local

natural resources, in every human society, conflict is ever present where sand mining activities
places. According to Coser (1957), says potential conflict happens in every social system. Conflict

may not necessarily be destructive. It can be advantageous for groups and societies if properly

managed. Conflict is a natural feature.

Responds 1: one of the miners who can cannot write says: We had a union before whose major

aim was to help control our goods. At the moment, we do not have a union because of some reason.

If there is disagreement, the elderly ones among us would look into the issue and adjudicate with

the aim of ensuring that peace reigns. Our boys, maybe because they do hard work, are very

aggressive. This work is not easy, when our people sand miners are angry, added to the physically

demanding work that they do, they can stab you with a knife or pieces of a broken bottle.

Responds 2: We see these sand miners all the time inside the river. We relate well with them as

we are all trying to make ends meet. Sometimes, the sound of their boats engine disturbs our

fishing, but we have to bear it as they are not doing on purpose to disrupt our work. They are also

doing their legitimate job, earning a living. We don’t quarrel with them as we have mutual respect

for one another. Sometimes, we help ourselves in case of emergency (Male/ Fisherman / August,

2024). Table 4.5 and 4.6 revealed that sand mining led to migration and urbanization, table 4.5 and

4.6 also revealed that sand mining causes loss of ecosystem including hydro sequestration, these

contaminants may include heavy metals from equipment corrosion and hydrocarbons from fuel

spills or leaks. Ojha and Chaudhary, (2017), stated that the contaminants into water bodies poses

risks to both human health and ecosystem integrity. Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and

arsenic can accumulate in aquatic organisms and bio magnify through the food chain, potentially

reaching harmful levels for human consumption. Hydrocarbons can have toxic effects on aquatic

life, impairing growth, reproduction, and immune functions. In summary, the discharge of

sediment-laden water and pollutants from sand mining operations can have significant
environmental impacts on rivers, lakes, and coastal ecosystems. These impacts include reduced

water quality, habitat degradation, biodiversity loss, and risks to human health.

Figure 5.5
source: Researcher survey abandon homes. (2024)

To identify the economic impact of sand mining on the freshwater ecosystem services in the

study area.

Table 4,6 and 4.7invesstigate that sand mining creates job and employment and also stimulate local

economic in the communities. Sand mining activities have impacted, in one way or another, on the

economic and environmental aspects of man in mining areas. However, many people resort to the

trade of sand so as to earn a living. Since sand mining has economic gains, most community and

traditional leaders sell community lands within their domains to miners. Onwuka, (2013), said that

sand mining is done because people derive their livelihoods from sand mining to ensure their

survival from the natural resources available and accessible to them.

Ikhsan et al;(2019) suggest poverty and unemployment to be the main driving forces of sand

mining. When asked about the importance of sand mining in their communities the respondents

from one responder reported that Sand mining serves as income generator for our community, we

managed to build a community hall and there are people who earn living through the income

generated through this industry so we cannot allow anyone to dictate to us that we should stop it

especially these people from nature.

According to Madyise (2013), affirms that sand like diamonds are natural resources highly

demanded in construction industries which effects on the surrounding communities and the

environment at large. The importance of sand also comprehends job creation. Sand mining

activities have impacted, in one way or another, on the economic, social and environmental aspects

of man in mining areas. However, many people resort to the trade of sand so as to earn a living.

Since sand mining has economic gains, most community and traditional leaders sell community

lands within their domains to miners. This is done because people derive their livelihoods from

sand mining to ensure their survival from the natural resources. On the other hand, Mattamana et

al;(2013), contend that sand mining has become an industry giving job opportunities for them.

This study intended to identify the role played by natural resources in rural livelihoods. The study

also exposes the impacts of sand mining on the livelihoods. It is important to note that there is lack

of evidence on socioeconomic impacts from mining sites to the communities, therefore this study

seeks to close that gap. Sands of people. It also provides direct employment sources available and

accessible to them. Table 4.6 and 6.6 explained that in sand mining activities, it increases

governmental revenue for local and national government through taxes and permits.

Since sand mining in rural areas has become more of a livelihood and an economic concern, the

activity has been a source of revenue to both government and groups. In order to establish the
involvement of community and government in sand mining activity in the state the charges paid

by the sand mining entrepreneurs were investigated and analysis as indicated in table 4.5 and 4.6

show that sand mining increase revenue to both governments and the community leaders. Three

tiers of government in Nigeria that are involved in land and water resources collect money from

sand miners. The federal government represented by the National Inland Waterways Agency

(NIWA),the State government represented State Inland Waterways Agency (SIWA) and the Local

Government Area collect money from these sand miners regularly. According to Ikhsan et

al;(2009), in their study in discovered that sand mining activity also gave an additional income to

local governments through taxation. Therefore, it means that exploitation of materials provides

rural areas with considerable opportunities for local economic development.

According to the committee of one the miners explain that the secretary is always on site starting

from from morning till night.no trucks are allowed to enter the site unless there is a special

arrangement. Each truck driver pays a fees depending on the size of the truck; for example, 1tonne

truck is charged 90,000.The money is paid to the secretary before loading and he is always on the

site. Apparently the secretary uses the house which is near the sea and is about 100 to 150 m away

from the high water mark. Therefore, the truck drivers need to drive closer to the house to pay the

loading fee. When driving next to the house they damage the environment by loosening the soil

and promoting soil erosion. When the trucks get stuck on a certain road the drivers decide to start

a new route and their direction is towards the house that the secretary uses and that brings the

effect towards the sea. At the mining site the money collected each day by the secretary has to go

to the headman’s house to determine the amount collected; the registration numbers of the trucks

that have loaded sand on that particular day and the amounts are also recorded and handed over to

the headman. The collected money is banked in the local post bank. The money collected is used
to pay the three executive members on a monthly basis, and it is also used to pay those who are

hired on contract basis whether to maintain the road, separate vegetation from the sand or even

hire a machines to assist in opening a new road on site.tabale 4.5 and 4.6 study revealed that

infrastructure development on sand mining help to develop infrastructure such as roads, bridges

and housings and others. According to OECD (2019) revealed that sand is a key ingredient for

modern societies. It is used in concrete, bricks and glass production, and the construction of

buildings therefore consume large amounts of this material.Sand is essential in aiding

development, building cities and infrastructure and ultimately developing economies and societies

and contributes to local livelihoods

What are the environmental issues subsist in freshwater ecosystem service where sand

mining as practical and how does the government deal with it

Table 4.6 and 4.7 revealed that the practice of sand mining changes water flow and temperature.

Sand mining has severe environmental consequences. It can cause erosion and sedimentation,

which can alter the flow of rivers and affect the habitats of aquatic organisms. Sand mining can

also reduce water quality and quantity, which can affect agriculture, fishing, and other industries

that rely on water resources Nwachukwu (2021), stated that sand mining can cause the loss of

biodiversity, as it can destroy habitats and disrupt ecosystems.

Table 4.6 and 4.7 compulsorily state that government can deal with the issues through monitoring

and enforcement regulation. Regulatory gaps contribute to the poor governance on sand mining

operations. According to Chen, (2017) also noted that although a strict management plan for sand

mining must be enacted but the miners neglect the law abiding on sand mining. Beiser (2015),
state that Illegal mining of Sand and the lack of governance, in a big way is causing land

degradation and threatened its rivers.

Respond: one of the respondent said that there are governmental regulation but the government

itself takes brides. Table 4.6 and 4.7 public engagement and educating local the impact of sand

mining.

When asked about the importance of sand mining in their communities the respondents from

chococho reported that: • Sand mining serves as income generator for our community, we managed

to build a community hall and there are people who earn living through the income generated

through this industry so we cannot allow anyone to dictate to us that we should stop it especially

these people from nature Respondents from Akpajo also declared that: • This activity is our “Gold

mine” because this is where we make money as there are no jobs anymore in our community. We

manage to build churches for our community and we also contribute towards funeral arrangements

for our people through the money that we collect from this industry. According to Madyise (2013),

clearly underpin the fact that sand mining is indeed an income generator for the communities.
 CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion

The study aimed at analyzing the impact of socioeconomic on sand mining on freshwater

ecosystems service. To achieve this study, a questionnaire survey was administered to sand miners,

youths, stakeholders, chairmen in Chococho, Rumuaaparlie and Chococcho and landlords who

have residential buildings in the selected locations. The questionnaire sought to know the impact

of sand mining on freshwater ecosystems.

The demand for uncontrolled extraction of sand for use in construction, developmental activities

and for financial gains is growing at an overwhelming rate. This has resulted in multiple

environmental impacts including destruction of the ecosystems, distortion of livelihood chains and

loss of biodiversity in coastal communities. The study revealed six major impacts including soil

erosion, land depression, land alteration, loss of vegetation, noise pollution and destruction of

roads due to continuous sand mining in coastal communities. Irrespective of its economic

importance, it is concluded that socially and environmentally, sand mining activity is causing more

harm than good. Therefore, stakeholders should seek constant interface between themselves and

the miners to keep abreast with activities and interventions where necessary and to ensure that all

concerned are fairly treated. Coastal communities that host sand mining activities should

encourage the establishment local monitoring teams to ensure the mining activities are performed

in a sustainable manner. Government is also encouraged to establish environmental laws to oversee

the activities of sand mining to prevent destruction of the ecosystem.

6.2 Recommendation

Sand mining activities have already caused serious social and environmental impacts in the

surrounding communities. These problems include conflicts, litigations, land and river bed

degradation, loss of productive farmlands, destruction of landscape and freshwater ecosystem. To

address the impacts of sand mining, the following measures are suggested: Environmental agencies

which have the responsibilities of prescribing standards and guidelines to prevent all forms of

environmental damage including sand mining should develop and strengthen binding and

enforceable standards and specifications for the effective regulation of the sand mining a small

scale mining industry. This should be done in consultation and harmonization with all land owners,

tipper truck drivers and sand miners various municipalities. The various Municipalities should

ensure formulation, monitoring and enforcement of bye laws which may involve development and

implementation of reclamation plans and bonds. Sensitization and awareness creation should be

integrated in this component to ensure that

The economic impact felt by the miner's family is first, sand mining changes the income of the

miner's family because previously the miners were fishermen and farmers who worked on a

seasonal basis after switching professions to sand mining were able to provide more stable income

even though income was uncertain. Secondly, sand mining activities can improve the welfare of

the miner's family even though they experience not too significant increase. This can be seen from

the condition of the sand mining houses that are getting better and more permanent after working

as sand miners. Also, it can be seen from a large number of sand miners' debts when they are more

farm laborers compared to the amount of debt after mining less sand. So it can be said that the

welfare of the family of sand miners experienced an insignificant increase.