Solid waste management

Solid waste refers here to all non-liquid wastes. In general this does not include excreta,
Although sometimes nappies and the faces of young children may be mixed with solid
Waste. Solid waste can create significant health problems and a very
unpleasant living
Environment if not disposed of safely and appropriately. If not correctly disposed of, waste
May provide breeding sites for insect-vectors, pests, snakes and vermin (rats) that increase the likelihood of disease
transmission. It may also pollute water sources and the environment

Associated risks

1.Disease transmission

Decomposing organic waste attracts animals, vermin and flies. Flies may play a major role in The transmission of faucal-
oral diseases, particularly where domestic waste contains farces(often those of children). Rodents may increase the
transmission of diseases such as Leptospirosis and salmonella, and attract snakes to waste heaps. Solid waste may also
provide breeding sites for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes of the Aedes genusLay eggs in water stored in discarded items such as
tins and drums; these are responsible for The spread of dengue and yellow fevers. Such conditions may also attract
mosquitoes of theAnopheles genus, which transmit malaria. Mosquitoes of the Culex genus breed in stagnantWater with
high organic content and transmit microfilariases (Médecins Sans Frontières,1994), appropriate conditions are likely to
arise where leachate from waste enters pooling Water.In times of famine or food scarcity, members of the affected
population may be attracted to
Waste heaps to scavenge for food; this is likely to increase the risk of gastro-enteritis,Dysentery and other illnesses.

2. Pollution

Poor management of the collection and disposal of solid waste may lead to leachate pollution Of surface water or
groundwater. This may cause significant problems if the waste containsToxic substances, or if nearby water sources are
used for water supplies.Where large quantities of dry waste are stored in hot climates this may create a fire hazard.
Related hazards include smoke pollution and fire threat to buildings and people.

3.Effect on morale

The effect of living in an unhygienic and untidy environment may lead people to becomeDemoralized and less motivated
to improve conditions around them. Waste attracts moreWaste and leads to less hygienic behaviour in general.

Sources and types of solid waste

1 Sources of solid waste

In most emergency situations the main sources of solid waste are:
! Medical centres
!Food stores
! Feeding centres
! Food distribution points
! Slaughter areas
! Warehouses
! Agency premises
! Markets
! Domestic areas
Appropriate solid waste management strategies may vary for institutional, communal andDomestic sources, depending
on types and volumes of waste. Waste from medical centres
Poses specific health hazards and for this reason is considered separately in Chapter 8.

2.Type and quantity of waste

The type and quantity of waste generated in emergency situations varies greatly. The main
Factors affecting these are:
the geographical region (developed or less-developed country or region);
! socio-cultural practices and material levels among affected population;
! seasonal variations (affecting types of food available);
! the stage of emergency (volume and composition of waste may change over time); and
the packaging of food rations.
In general, the volume of waste generated is likely to be small and largely degradable where
The population is of rural origin and the food rations supplied are unpackaged dry foodstuffs.
Displaced urban populations are more likely to generate larger volumes of non-degradable
Waste, especially where packaged food rations are provided.
Guideline values suggest that each person is likely to produce 0.5-1.0 litres of refuse per day With an organic content of
25 to 35 per cent and a moisture content between 10 and 60 per
Cent (Adams, 1999). However, this is likely to vary greatly and estimates should be madeLocally.Different categories of
solid waste include:
Organic waste: Waste from preparation of food, market places, etc.
Combustibles: Paper, wood, dried leaves, packaging for relief items, etc. (high Organic and low moisture content)
Non-combustibles: Metal, tin cans, bottles, stones, etc.
Ashes/dust: Residue from fires used for cooking
Bulky waste: Tree branches, tyres, etc.
Dead animals: Carcasses of domestic animals and livestock
Hazardous waste: Oil, battery acid, medical waste
Construction waste: Roofing, rubble, broken concrete, etc.

Children and solid waste in a refuge camp, Tanzania

4. Initial steps
In order to establish effective solid waste management in the affected area
the following
Process should be used:
Initial steps in solid waste management
Identify the sources of waste
Identify the types of waste
Determine the potential health hazards from waste
Determine the volume of waste generated
Identify safe collection method
Identify safe transportation method/s
Identify safe disposal method

5 Key components of solid waste management

Solid waste management can be divided into five key components:

Generation
! Storage
! Collection
! Transportation
! Disposal

Generation
Generation of solid waste is the stage at which materials become valueless to
the owner and Since they have no use for them and require them no longer,
they wish to get rid of them.Items which may be valueless to one individual
may not necessarily be valueless to another.For example, waste items such
as tins and cans may be highly sought after by young children.

Storage
Storage is a system for keeping materials after they have been discarded and
prior to Collection and final disposal. Where on-site disposal systems are
implemented, such as Where people discard items directly into family pits,
storage may not be necessary. In Emergency situations, especially in the early
stages, it is likely that the affected population Will discard domestic waste in
poorly defined heaps close to dwelling areas. If this is the case, improved
disposal or storage facilities should be provided fairly quickly and these
Should be located where people are able to use them easily. Improved storage
facilities

Include:
! Small containers: household containers, plastic bins, etc.
! Large containers: communal bins, oil drums, etc.
! Shallow pits
! Communal depots: walled or fenced-in areas
In determining the size, quantity and distribution of storage facilities the
number of users,Type of waste and maximum walking distance must be
considered. The frequency of Emptying must also be determined, and it
should be ensured that all facilities are reasonably
Safe from theft or vandalism.

Collection

Collection simply refers to how waste is collected for transportation to the

final disposal site.Any collection system should be carefully planned to
ensure that storage facilities do not Become overloaded. Collection intervals
and volumes of collected waste must be estimatedCarefully.

Transportation

This is the stage when solid waste is transported to the final disposal site
There are various modes of transport which may be adopted and the chosen
method Depends upon local availability and the volume of waste to be
transported. Types of Transportation can be divided into three categories:
Study
! Human-powered: open hand-cart, 8thhand-cart with bins, wheelbarrow,
tricycle
! Animal-powered: donkey-drawn cart
! Motorised: tractor and trailer, standard truck, tipper-truc

Disposal

The final stage of solid waste management is safe disposal where associated
risks are
Minimised. There are four main methods for the disposal of solid waste:
! Land application: burial or landfilling
! Composting
! Burning or incineration
! Recycling (resource recovery)
The most common of these is undoubtedly land application, although all four
are commonly Applied in emergency situations.

6. on- site disposal

The technology choices outlined below are general guidelines for disposal and
storage of Waste on-site, these may be adapted for the particular site and
situation in question.

Communal pit disposal

Perhaps the simplest solid waste management system is where consumers
dispose of waste Directly into a communal pit. The size of this pit will depend
on the number of people it Serves. The long-term recommended objective is
six cubic metres per fifty people. The pit Should be fenced off to prevent small
children falling in and should generally not be more
Than 100m from the dwellings to be served. Ideally, waste should be covered
at least weekly With a thin layer of soil to minimise flies and other pests.
Communal pit
Advantages: It is rapid to implement; and requires little operation and
maintenance.
Constraints: The distance to communal pit may cause indiscriminate
disposal; and waste Workers required to manage pits.

7. Communal disposal without bins

For some public institutions, such as markets or distribution centres, solid
waste management systems without bins can be implemented, whereby
users dispose of waste directly onto The ground. This can only work if cleaners
are employed to regularly sweep around market
Stalls, gather waste together and transport it to a designated off-site disposal
site. This is Likely to be appropriate for vegetable waste but slaughterhouse
waste should be disposed of In liquid-tight containers and buried separately.
Advantages: System rapid to implement; there is minimal reliance on actions
of users; and it May be in line with traditional/usual practice.
Constraints: Requires efficient and effective management; and full-time
waste workers Must be employed.

Transportation options
Where bins or collection containers require emptying, transportation to the
final disposal Point is required. As described, waste transportation methods
may be human-powered, Animal-powered or motorised.

Human-powered
Wheelbarrows are ideal for the transportation of waste around small sites
such as markets but Are rarely appropriate where waste must be transported
considerable distances off-site. Handcarts provide a better solution for longer
distances since these can carry significantly More waste and can be pushed
by more than one person. Carts may be open or can be fitted
With several containers or bins.

Animal-powered
Animal-powered transportation means such as a horse or donkey with cart
are likely to be Appropriate where they are commonly used locally. This may
be ideal for transportation to Middle distance sites

Motorised
Where the distance to the final disposal site is great, or where the volume of
waste to be Transported is high, the use of a motorised vehicle may be the
only appropriate option.
Options include tractor and trailer, a standard truck, or a tipper-truck, the final
choice Depending largely on availability and speed of procurement.
For large volumes of waste it may sometimes be appropriate to have a two-
stage transportation system requiring a transfer station. For example, waste is
transported by handcart to a Transfer station where it is loaded into a truck to
be taken to an off-site disposal site several Kilometres away

8.Off-site disposal options

The technology choices outlined below are general options for the final
disposal of waste off-Site

Landfilling
Once solid waste is transported off-site it is normally taken to a landfill site.
Here the waste is Placed in a large excavation (pit or trench) in the ground,
which is back-filled with excavated Soil each day waste is tipped. Ideally,
about 0.5m of soil should cover the deposited refuse atThe end of each day to
prevent animals from digging up the waste and flies from breeding
The location of landfill sites should be decided upon through consultation
with the local Authorities and the affected population. Sites should preferably
be fenced, and at least one Kilometre downwind of the nearest dwellings.

Advantages: A sanitary disposal method if managed effectively.

Constraints: A reasonably large area is required.

Composting

Simple composting of vegetables and other organic waste can be applied in

many situations. Where people have their own gardens or vegetable plots,
organic waste can be dug into the Soil to add humus and fibre. This makes the
waste perfectly safe and also assists the growing
Process. This should be encouraged wherever possible, particularly in the
later stages of an

Emergency programme.

Properly managed composting requires careful monitoring of decomposing

waste to control
Moisture and chemical levels and promote microbial activity. This is designed
to produce
Compost which is safe to handle and which acts as a good fertiliser. Such
systems require
Considerable knowledge and experience and are best managed centrally. In
general, they are
Unlikely to be appropriate in emergencies.
Advantages: Composting is environmentally friendly; and beneficial for crops.
Constraints: Intensive management and experienced personnel are required
for large-scale Operations.
Recycling

Complex recycling systems are unlikely to be appropriate but the recycling of

some waste Items may be possible on occasions. Plastic bags, containers,
tins and glass will often be Automatically recycled since they are likely to be
scarce commodities in many situations. In Most developing country contexts
there exists a strong tradition of recycling leading to lower
Volumes of waste than in many more developed societies.

Advantages: Recycling is environmentally friendly.

Constraints: There is limited potential in most emergency situations; and it is
expensive to Set up

Intervention levels
In different emergency scenarios.
Protective measuresIn order to minimise disease transmission there are
several protective measures that can be Undertaken. These concern
equipment for staff and the siting and management of disposal
Sites.
Staff
It is important that workers employed to collect and transport solid waste are
provided with Appropriate clothing and equipment. Gloves, boots and overalls
should be provided wherever Possible. Where waste is burned, or is very
dusty, workers should have protective masks.
Water and soap should be available for hand and face washing, and changing
facilities should Be provided where appropriate.

Siting of disposal sites

The location of all disposal sites should be determined through consultation
with key Stakeholders including local government officials, representatives of
local and displaced Populations, and other agencies working in the area.
Appropriate siting should minimise the Effects of odour, smoke, water
pollution, insect vectors and animal On-site disposal is generally preferred
since this requires no transportation and staff needs
Are low. This is appropriate where volumes of waste are relatively small,
plenty of space is Available and waste is largely organic or recyclable.
If the volumes of waste generated are large, or space within the site is severely
limited, it may Be necessary to dispose of waste off-site. Where off-site
disposal is to be used the following Measures should be taken in selecting and
developing an appropriate site:

! Locate sites at least 500m (ideally 1 kilometre) downwind of nearest

settlement.

! Locate sites downhill from groundwater sources.

! Locate sites at least 50m from surface water sources.

! Provide a drainage ditch downhill of landfill site on sloping land.

! Fence and secure access to site.

Careful assessment should be made to determine who owns the proposed

site and to ensure

That apparently unused areas are not in fact someone’s farm or back yard.