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The physics of ice cream

Chris Clarke
Unilever R & D Colworth, Sharnbrook, Bedford MK44 1LQ, UK
E-mail: chris.j.clarke@unilever.com

Abstract
Almost everybody likes ice cream, so it can provide an excellent vehicle for
discussing and demonstrating a variety of physical phenomena, such as
Newton’s law of cooling, Boyle’s law and the relationship between
microstructure and macroscopic properties (e.g. Young’s modulus).
Furthermore, a demonstration of freezing point depression can be used to
make ice cream in the classroom!
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

The main ingredients of ice cream are water, stabilize the emulsion with a surfactant. There
milk protein, fat, sugar, flavour (e.g. strawberries, are two types of surfactant in ice cream: milk
vanilla or chocolate) and a substantial amount proteins (e.g. casein) and emulsifiers (e.g. mono-
of air. But simply mixing these and placing diglycerides or lecithin from egg yolks or soy
them in your freezer does not produce good ice beans). Next, the mix is cooled down to about
cream. How the ingredients are put together is 5 ◦ C, below the melting point of the fat, which
crucial. We can see why this is so by looking at begins to crystallize. This is known as ageing.
ice cream at a microscopic level, i.e. on length So now we have created one component of the
scales of 1 µm to 1 mm. Figure 1 is a scanning microstructure—the fat droplets. The reason why
electron micrograph of ice cream, which reveals a we need small, partly crystalline fat droplets will
complex microstructure of ice crystals (about 30% become apparent in the next stage of manufacture,
by volume) and air bubbles (50%) held together by when the mix is converted into ice cream by
a viscous sugar solution (15%). Close inspection aerating and freezing it.
of the air bubbles shows some tiny features on It is reputed that Mongolian horsemen on
their surface—these are fat droplets (5%). The journeys across the Gobi desert in winter were the
texture that you experience when you eat ice first to make ice cream by simultaneous aeration
cream depends on the size of the ice crystals and freezing. Their provisions of cream stored in
and air bubbles; for example, large ice crystals animal intestines were vigorously shaken as they
make the ice cream icy and gritty. To make good galloped, and frozen at the same time by the sub-
quality ice cream, it is necessary to create a fine zero temperatures. Ice cream is no longer made
microstructure. And to do this, you need to know by this method, but is based on the same principle
about lots of different aspects of physics. of simultaneous aeration and freezing.
So how do you form the microstructure? In an The first ice cream-making machines ap-
ice cream factory, the ingredients are first blended peared in the 19th century. They consisted of a bar-
in the correct quantities and this mix is pasteurized rel in which the ingredients were placed. A mix-
to kill any harmful micro-organisms. Next, the ture of ice and salt was packed around the outside
mix is homogenized, which breaks the fat globules or bottom of the barrel, and the mix was churned
down into an emulsion of small droplets (< 1 µm). by turning a handle. The freezers you find in an
To keep the fat droplets small it is necessary to ice cream factory today are remarkably similar in

248 PHYSICS EDUCATION 38 (3) 0031-9120/03/030248+06$30.00 © 2003 IOP Publishing Ltd

 The physics of ice cream

Ice crystals Air bubbles Sugar solution

Figure 1. A scanning electron micrograph of ice cream (courtesy of M Kirkland, Unilever R & D Colworth). The
scale bar is 100 µm. Ice crystals, air bubbles and sugar solution are marked. The fat droplets are too small to be
seen at this magnification.

by the rotating scraper blades. The small ice crys-

tals are dispersed into the mix, and its temperature
drops.
The main difference between the Victorian
and modern ice cream freezer is the refrigerant.
Before the invention of mechanical refrigeration,
the best refrigerant available was a mixture of ice
and salt (sodium chloride). To understand what
happens when crushed ice (at 0 ◦ C) and salt are
mixed, we use the freezing point curve (figure 3).
Adding a solute to water lowers its freezing point
(this is known as freezing point depression). So
when the ice and salt are mixed, the mixture is
above its equilibrium freezing point, and some of
the ice melts. This is the reason why salt is put on
icy roads in winter. However, in order to change
from a solid to a liquid, the ice must take in its latent
heat of fusion. If the ice and salt are insulated
from the surroundings, this heat can only come
from the ice and salt itself, which causes a drop in
Figure 2. The modern ice cream freezer. the temperature. The latent heat of fusion of ice
(3.3 × 105 J kg−1 ) is much larger than the specific
principle. They consist of a refrigerated barrel, heat capacity (4.2 × 103 J kg−1 K−1 ), so melting a
with a rotating dasher inside, which is equipped small amount of ice can cause a significant drop in
with scraper blades (figure 2). Ice cream mix (at the temperature. If you mix the correct proportions
approximately 5 ◦ C) is pumped into the barrel. The of salt and ice, you can reach temperatures as low
barrel wall is cooled, so that when the mix touches as −21.1 ◦ C at a salt concentration of 23.3% (this
it, ice forms instantly, and is rapidly scraped off is the eutectic point). At this point, the salt solution

May 2003 PHYSICS EDUCATION 249

C Clarke

Amount of ice
Saltwater
NaCl crystals
Temperature
Temperature (°C)

+ saltwater
0

Ice +
saltwater
–21.1 Viscosity
Ice +
NaCl crystals

0 23.3 100
Inlet Outlet
Weight % NaCl Distance along barrel

Figure 3. The phase diagram for salt–water mixtures. Figure 4. The temperature, ice content and viscosity
of ice cream as it passes through the freezer.
becomes saturated (i.e. no more can be dissolved)
so that the freezing point cannot be depressed any increases as the volume fraction (φ) of solid (in
further. this case, ice) increases. Einstein proposed the
Newton’s law of cooling states that the equation that describes this:
temperature difference between the refrigerant (Tr )
and the mix (Tic ) determines the rate at which it η = η0 (1 + 2.5φ).
cools down:
This approximation works for small solid volume
dTic fractions (another term is needed to account
∝ (Tr − Tic ).
dt correctly for higher volume fractions). The result
of the increase of the viscosity means that the
Thus the colder the refrigerant, the faster the mix becomes harder to beat—and the power
ice cream is cooled down. Whilst the coldest needed to rotate the dasher is greater. This
refrigerant available to the Victorians was about extra energy is dissipated in the ice cream as
−20 ◦ C, today ice cream factories typically use heat. Eventually, when the temperature of the
liquid ammonia at −30 ◦ C, and ice cream making ice cream reaches about −5 ◦ C, the energy input
is much faster. In fact, Newton’s law of cooling through the dasher equals the energy removed
explains why the world record for the fastest ice as heat by the refrigerant, and it is not possible
cream ever made used liquid nitrogen at −196 ◦ C to cool the ice cream any further: the process
[1]. becomes self-limiting. At −5 ◦ C, the ice
At the same time that the ice cream is frozen, cream is too soft for further processing, such as
air is injected, forming large bubbles, which are covering it in chocolate, and the microstructure
broken down into many smaller ones by the beating is unstable. Therefore the ice cream is extruded
of the dasher (figure 2). The fat droplets and milk from the freezer and cooled rapidly (‘hardened’)
proteins adsorb to the surface of the air bubbles and by blowing air at about −40 ◦ C over it in an
help to stabilize them, in the same way that the milk enclosed chamber. After hardening, the ice cream
protein and emulsifiers stabilize the fat droplets. is packaged, and is transported from the factory
Since the fat droplets are partially crystalline, to the shop. Having successfully created the
they form a strong, rigid coating, which prevents microstructure of ice crystals, fat droplets and air
collapse of the air bubbles. bubbles in the freezer, the next challenge is to
As the ice cream passes through the freezer, its preserve it through the distribution system so that
temperature drops, and more ice is formed. This it reaches the consumer in perfect condition.
is shown in figure 4. Ice cream is very sensitive to temperature: if
The viscosity of the ice cream also increases, it warms up too much, it will melt. However,
for two reasons. Firstly, the viscosity of the liquid even at temperatures below the melting point,
(η0 ) increases as it gets colder. Secondly, the its quality can deteriorate due to changes
viscosity of a suspension of solid particles (η) in the microstructure. The microstructure

250 PHYSICS EDUCATION May 2003

 The physics of ice cream

1.0

0.9

Pressure (atm)
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Figure 6. The variation of pressure with altitude.

(a)
tub of ice cream in your freezer for a long time.
Every time you take it out to eat some, it warms
up so that some of the ice melts. Large ice crystals
become smaller, and small ones may disappear
completely. When you put the ice cream back in
your freezer, it cools down again, and the ice that
had melted refreezes. However, it can only freeze
on the crystals that have survived. The effect is that
the total number of crystals is reduced, and their
mean size increases, while the volume fraction of
the ice is unchanged (see figure 5). If this happens
a number of times, the ice crystals become very
(b) large (
100 µm) and are detectable in the mouth,
producing an icy, gritty texture. This process is
known as Ostwald ripening.
But ice cream is not only sensitive to
temperature—because it is a foam, it is sensitive
to pressure too. For most of us, the variations
in atmospheric pressure that the ice cream
experiences between being made in the ice cream
factory and being consumed are small. But what
would happen if you wanted to eat ice cream on
top of a very high mountain? Figure 6 shows how
atmospheric pressure changes with altitude.
Typically, about half of the volume of ice
(c)
cream is made of air (if there were no air, the ice
Figure 5. Ice crystals recrystallizing (courtesy of cream would be far too hard to get a spoon into), so
M Izzard, Unilever R & D Colworth). (a) Ice crystals a 1 litre tub of ice cream contains about 0.5 litres of
at −10 ◦ C. (b) Warmed up to −7 ◦ C: the smallest
air. Imagine what would happen if we took a tub of
crystals melt. (c) Then cooled back down to −10 ◦ C:
the ice reforms on the surviving crystals, which ice cream up to the top of a mountain 3000 m high.
become larger. Figure 6 shows that the pressure at 3000 m above
sea level is about 0.65 atmospheres. Boyle’s law
tells us how the pressure and volume are related
was kinetically stabilized at the end of the
(assuming that the temperature is constant):
manufacturing by storing it at a low temperature.
However, it is thermodynamically unstable: the P1 V1 = P2 V2 .
dispersed ice crystals and air bubbles can lower
their energy by forming fewer, larger particles. Here P1 is 1.0 atmosphere, V1 is 0.50 litres and
This might be familiar if you have ever kept a large P2 is 0.65 atmospheres. Therefore, Boyle’s law

May 2003 PHYSICS EDUCATION 251

C Clarke

Making ice cream at home or in the classroom.

You can easily make some ice cream at home or in the classroom, using ice and salt as the
refrigerant. You will need:
Ingredients (This recipe makes a good portion for one person.)
• 1/2 cup (125 ml) milk
• 1/2 cup (125 ml) whipping cream
• 1 tablespoon (15 ml) sugar
• 1/2 teaspoon (2 ml) vanilla (or other flavouring, e.g. crushed fruit. You can also use
chocolate/strawberry flavoured milk instead of normal milk for flavour).
Equipment
• 8 cups (2 l) crushed ice
• 8 tablespoons (120 ml) salt
• 1 large Zip lock bag (large enough to contain all the ice comfortably)
• 1 small Zip lock bag (to contain the mix)
• a hand towel or gloves to keep fingers from freezing.
Method
Mix the ingredients together in the small Zip lock bag and seal tightly (very important!), only
allowing a small amount of air to remain in the bag—too much can force the bag open during
shaking. Put half of the ice in the large bag and sprinkle half of the salt on it. Then put the bag
containing the mix on top of the ice. Finally, add the rest of the ice, sprinkle salt on top and seal
the bag, making sure to remove all the air. The ice and salt should get very cold (if you have a
suitable thermometer you can follow the temperature), so wrap the bag in a towel (or use gloves)
and shake vigorously for several minutes. A more exciting, but riskier, alternative is to wrap the
bags up in newspaper; tape well with parcel tape to form a ball. You then throw this around for
several minutes—preferably outside. You can minimize the risk of salt and ice leaking into the
ice cream by double-bagging the mix.

How does it work?

The temperature of the ice/salt mixture can get down to as low as about −20 ◦ C. This freezes the
mixture into ice cream, while shaking stops the ice crystals becoming too large and mixes in some
air (so that the ice cream is not too hard).

tells us that V2 is 0.77 litres! This could lead to a volume is smaller. A very neat solution would be
number of problems. Obviously 0.5 litres of ice, to create a microstructure in which the air structure
sugar and fat and 0.77 litres of air cannot fit in is continuous (like a sponge) rather than in discrete
a 1 litre tub. Thus the lid of the tub could get bubbles, so that it could flow in and out as the
blown off. There are also consequences for the pressure changes. However, this is technically
structure of the ice cream. The air bubbles will very challenging!
expand as the external pressure decreases. The Having preserved the microstructure through
rest of the ice cream may be able to expand with the distribution system, the ice cream finally
them to some extent, but there will come a point reaches the consumer in perfect condition. This
when the expansion ruptures the air bubbles. As is not the end of the physics, however. The
they burst, the air can escape from the ice cream, microstructure of the ice cream determines its
resulting in collapse of the whole structure, and an texture—for example whether it is hard, soft or
unappetizing mess for the consumer! One possible chewy when you eat it. Ice cream scientists
solution is to put in less air, so that the change in need to understand the relationship between

252 PHYSICS EDUCATION May 2003

 The physics of ice cream
9

8
F/2 F/2
7 16.6%
6 28.5%

Force (N)
5 37.5%
4 50.0%
3

0
δ 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Displacement (mm)
F/2 F/2
Figure 8. Force–displacement curves from the
four-point bend test for ice cream samples with air
Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the four-point bend volume fractions from 16.6% to 50.0%.
test.
eat some ice cream, think of Newton, Einstein,
microstructure and texture, and the way that we Ostwald, Boyle and Young—and all the physics
do this is to ask how soft and how chewy it is— that has gone into making and eating it!
i.e. to measure its mechanical properties, such as
the Young’s modulus. To do this, we often use an Received 14 February 2003
PII: S0031-9120(03)59581-8
experiment called a four-point bend test.
Four bars hold a standard size block of ice
cream as shown in figure 7. The top two are fixed, Reference
while the bottom two are slowly moved upwards. [1] Guinness World Records 2002 Guinness Book of
The force (F ) required to move them is measured Records 2002 p 266
and plotted against the resulting displacement (δ).
Figure 8 shows a series of such curves for four Further information
ice cream samples that contain a range of different An excellent website on ice cream can be found at:
volume fractions of air from 16.6% to 50.0%. www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/icecream.html
All the curves have the same shape, but the
initial slope, the maximum force and displacement
increase as the volume fraction of air is reduced.
The initial slope is directly related to the Young’s
modulus (through the dimensions of the sample). Chris Clarke is a research scientist who
studies colloidal and crystallization
It is clear that reducing the air content makes the ice phenomena in ice cream at Unilever
cream much harder. Other mechanical properties R & D Colworth. He is currently writing
can be related to textures—for example, the work a book entitled The Science of Ice Cream
which will be published by the Royal
of fracture (i.e. the area under the curve in figure 8) Society of Chemistry in 2004 (see
relates to the ‘chewiness’. So the next time you www.rsc.org for details).

May 2003 PHYSICS EDUCATION 253