Lecture 5 Modern Physics

Lecture: 5
Modern Physics
Theory of Light
There are different theories on the nature of the light. The important theories are as
follows:
1. Newton's corpuscular particle theory:
Isaac Newton stated in his Hypothesis of Light on 1672 that light was composed of
corpuscles (tiny, light and elastic particles) which were emitted in all directions from
a source.
2. Huygens, Wave Theory:
Christiaan Huygens worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1679 and
published it in his treatise on light in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all
directions as a series of waves in a medium called the Luminiferous ether.
3. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory:
Maxwell concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation, he first stated
this result in 1862.
4. Planck's Quantum theory:

In 1900 Max Planck, attempting to explain black-body radiation, suggested that light
energy is a combination of "quanta“.
5. Dual nature of light:
It is established that light has both the nature of wave and particles.
Planck's Quantum theory:
Postulates of Planck's quantum theory:
1) Energy is not emitting continuously but discontinuously in the form of small
packets of energy known as quanta of energy (photon).
2) The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of

radiation i.e., E is directly proportional to ʋ, where ʋ is the frequency.
Photo-electric effect:
W Smith around 1885 found The photoelectric effect was discovered in
that resistance of a metallic 1887 by the German physicist Heinrich Rudolf
wire varies when sun ray is Hertz. When electromagnetic radiation is
incident on it. W Smith was incident on a metal surface then electrons
a telegraph operator. are emitted from that surface, this
phenomenon is known as Photoelectric
effect. The emitted electrons are known as
photoelectric electron and the current flow
due to the emission of these electrons is
known as photoelectric current.
Characteristics (laws) of photoelectric
emission:
1. Emission commences at the instant

the surface starts to be irradiated.
2.
➢ Constant frequency ʋ, and
➢ Constant accelerating potential V,
➢ Photoelectric current is
proportional to the intensity of the
radiation.
3.
➢ Emission occurs for/above
threshold frequency.
➢ The value of threshold frequency is
different for different metal.
➢ With the increase in frequency of
the incident radiation the energy of
the emitted electron increases.
Characteristics (laws) of photoelectric
emission:
4.
➢ For constant intensity and frequency , as
the accelerating potential is reduced
from zero to negative values the
photoelectric current starts to reduce.
➢ For -Vs the current is reduced to zero.
➢ Vs is known as the stopping potential.
➢ Vs is independent of the intensity of the
incident radiation.
5. Stopping potential varies linearly

with the frequency.
Failure of wave theory of light to explain Photoelectric effect:
(i) According to wave theory
Energy ∝ (Intensity)2
or, E ∝ I2
➢ Light of low frequency with sufficient intensity is much

effective than light of higher frequency with low
intensity. But it is contradictory to the experimental
result.
(ii) It is equally difficult to explain that there is no time lag
between the arrival of the radiation on the metal surface
and the emission of photoelectrons. 1m2
• Consider violet light incident on a sodium

surface. 1m
• Detectable photoelectric current will result

when 10-6 watt of electromagnetic energy is 1m
absorbed by 1 m2 of the surface. 1m
Fig. 1: Sodium cube
Now there are about 1019 atoms in a layer of sodium one atom thick and 1m2 in area.
Consider light absorbed by 10 uppermost layers of sodium atom.
Therefore, 10-6 watt is distributed by 1020 atoms.
Therefore, energy received per atom is 10-26 watt
= 10-26 J s-1
= 6.25 x 10-8 eV s-1
So it should be taken 1.6 x 107 sec to receive 1eV per atom.

= 185 days
If 2 eVis the work function of that metal, then almost 1 Year is required to emit
electrons from that surface. But, practically, it is an instantaneous event.
Einstein Photoelectric equation:

Energy of incident Photon = Energy required for getting the electron free from the
atom of metal surface + kinetic energy of the electron
or, hʋ = hʋo + ½ mv2
Determination of Planck's Constant:
The stopping potential for a particular metal were determined for different
frequencies. A graph is plotted with ʋ along x-axis and Vs along y-axis. The resulting
graph is a straight line.
Light-matter interaction:
The photoelectric effect is the emission of
electrons when electromagnetic radiation, such as
light, hits a material. Electrons emitted in this
manner are called photoelectrons.
Thomson scattering is the elastic scattering of

electromagnetic radiation by a free charged
particle. It is the low-energy limit of Compton
scattering; the particle's kinetic energy and photon
frequency do not change as a result of the
scattering. This limit is valid as long as the photon
energy is much smaller than the mass-energy of the
particle/electron: hʋ << mc2, i. e., the wavelength of
the light is much greater than the Compton
wavelength of the particle.
Compton scattering, discovered by Arthur Holly Compton, is the scattering of a

photon by a charged particle, usually an electron. It results in a decrease in energy
(increase in wavelength) of the photon. Part of the energy of the photon is transferred to
the recoiling electron.
Photodisintegration is a nuclear process in which an atomic nucleus absorbs
a high-energy gamma ray, enters an excited state, and immediately decays by
emitting a subatomic particle (such as, the neutron and proton, etc.). The
incoming gamma ray effectively knocks one or more neutrons, protons, or an
alpha particle out of the nucleus. The reactions are called (γ,n), (γ,p), and
(γ,α).
Photofission is a process in which a nucleus, after absorbing a gamma ray,

undergoes nuclear fission and splits into two or more fragments.
Pair production is the creation of a subatomic particle and its antiparticle
from a photon. Examples include creating an electron and a positron, a muon
and an antimuon, or a proton and an antiproton etc. Pair production often
refers specifically to a photon creating an electron–positron pair near a
nucleus. For pair production to occur, the incoming energy of the photon
must be above a threshold of at least the total rest mass energy of the two
particles, and the situation must conserve both energy and momentum.
However, all other quantum numbers (angular momentum, electric charge,
lepton number) are also conserved. Thus the created particles shall have
opposite values of each other. For instance, if one particle has electric charge
of +1 the other must have electric charge of −1.
The probability of pair production in photon–matter interactions increases
with photon energy and also increases approximately as the square of atomic
number of the nearby atom.
The energy of a photon can be converted into an electron–positron pair:
The photon's energy is converted to particle mass in accordance with

Einstein’s equation,
E = m ⋅ c2
Applications of photo-electric effect
Photo-electric cell:
Two types
(1) Vacuum tube
(2) Gas filled tube
C => Semi-cylindrical plate coated with
potassium or caesium known as emitter.
A => A wire of platinum or nickel fixed
along the axis of the cylinder known as
collector.
When photons are incident on the emitter
then photoelectric current is produced in
the circuit is detected by the
galvanometer.
If the tube is vacuum then current is very weak.
On the other hand, if the tube is filled by gas (usually Argon or Helium) then
photo-electron bombarded the gas molecules. In this way gas molecules are
ionized. As a result a large current is flow through the circuit.
Applications of the photoelectric cell
The photoelectric cell is used to automatic turn on and off the street bulbs.
The photoelectric cell is used to automatic traffic control.
The photoelectric cell is used in exposure meter. The exposure meter is used
along with a camera to know the correct time of exposure for having a good
photograph.
The photoelectric cell is used in lux-meter. It is used to determine the

intensity of light.
The photoelectric cell is used in a burglar alarm. This device is kept near to
door to protect form a thief.
Thank YOU

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Lecture: 5

4. Planck's Quantum theory:

2) The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of

1. Emission commences at the instant

5. Stopping potential varies linearly

➢ Light of low frequency with sufficient intensity is much

• Consider violet light incident on a sodium

• Detectable photoelectric current will result

absorbed by 1 m2 of the surface. 1m

Fig. 1: Sodium cube

So it should be taken 1.6 x 107 sec to receive 1eV per atom.

Einstein Photoelectric equation:

Thomson scattering is the elastic scattering of

Compton scattering, discovered by Arthur Holly Compton, is the scattering of a

Photofission is a process in which a nucleus, after absorbing a gamma ray,

The photon's energy is converted to particle mass in accordance with

The photoelectric cell is used to automatic traffic control.

The photoelectric cell is used in lux-meter. It is used to determine the

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