DUAL NATURE OF MATTER

AND RADIATIONS
A metal has free electrons, but these electrons
cannot come out of the metal surface. It is because,
as an electron makes an attempt to come out of the
metal surface, the metal surface acquires positive
charge and the electron is pulled back into the
metal. Thus, free elections are held inside the
metal surface by the positive ions, it contains. In
order that an electron may come out of the metal
surface, it must possess sufficient energy to
overcome the attractive pull of the positive ions.
 The minimum amount of energy required to eject an electron out of a
metal surface is called work function of the metal. It is denoted by ω .
By supplying energy at least equal to work function, electron emission
can caused from a metal surface by the following processes:
1. Thermionic emission. It can be caused by supplying the minimum
required energy by heating the metal surface to a suitable temperature.
2. Field emission. It can be caused by applying an electric field to the
8
metal surface. If the electric field is sufficiently strong (= 10 V/m ), the
electrons get pulled out of the metal surface.
3. Photoelectric emission. It can be caused by supplying the minimum
required energy by illuminating the metal surface with light of suitable
frequency.
• Dual nature of Radiation

The various phenomena concerning radiation can be divided into three parts:
1. The phenomena such as interference, diffraction, polarization, etc in which
interaction radiation takes places with radiation itself. Such phenomena can be
explained on the basis of electromagnetic (wave) nature of radiation only.
2. The phenomena such as photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, etc in which
interaction of radiation takes place with matter. Such phenomena can be explained
on the basis quantum (particle) nature of radiation.
3. The phenomena such as rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction, etc in which
interaction of radiation takes place neither with itself, nor with matter. Such
phenomena can be explained on the basis of either of the two natures of the
radiation.
It may be pointed out that in a particular experiment, radiation has a particular
nature i.e. either it possesses wave nature or particle nature.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Hallwach discovered that an insulated zinc plate connected to a gold

leaf electroscope and charged negatively lost its charge, when a beam of
ultraviolet light was directed on the plate. In order to explain this
observation, Hallwach suggested that the metal surface loses negative
charge due to ejection of electrons from its surface by the ultraviolet
light. The effect was termed as photoelectric effect.
The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal surface, when
light of sufficiently high frequency falls upon it, is known as the
photoelectric effect. The electrons so emitted were called
photoelectrons. J. J. Thomson showed that the photoelectrons were not
different from the ordinary electrons.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

In 1900, Lenard studied the photoelectric effect experimentally the

experimental arrangement used to study the photoelectric effect.
The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass tube fitted with two
electrodes. The electrode E is called the emitter and the other
electrode C is called the collector or anode. A varying potential
difference can be applied across the two electrodes. The polarity of
the electrodes E and C can be reversed. Thus, the collector C can be
maintained at a positive or negative potential w.r.t. the emitter E. The
intensity and frequency of the light incident on the emitter can also
be varied .
When a suitable radiation is incident on the emitter, electrons are
ejected from its surface. If the collector is at a positive potential w.r.t.
the emitter, the electrons are attracted by it. It leads to the flow of
current, called photocurrent in the circuit, which is measured by a
micro ammeter (ìA ). The photocurrent can be increased or decreased
by varying the potential of the collector W.r.t. the emitter.
On the other hand, when the collector is maintained at a negative
potential w.r.t. the emitter, the electrons are repelled by it. The
electrons, which have sufficient kinetic energy, reach the collector
despite its negative polarity. The potential difference between the two
electrodes acts as the retarding potential. As the collector made more
and more negative, fewer and fewer electrons will reach the collector
and the photoelectric current recorded by the micro ammeter will
decrease. In case the retarding potential equals Vo, called the stopping
potential, no electron will reach the collector and the current will
become zero. In such a case, the work done by the stopping potential
is equal to the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons i.e.
 e Vo = ½ m v 2max
As e, the charge on electron, is constant,
Vo α ½ m v 2max
Thus, the stopping potential gives the estimate of the
maximum kinetic energy, with which the photoelectrons
may be emitted.
Laws of photoelectric emission.
1. The emission of photoelectrons takes place only when the
frequency of the incident radiation is above a certain critical value,
characteristic of that metal. The critical value of frequency is
known as the threshold frequency for the metal used to make the
emitter.
2.The emission of photoelectrons starts as soon as light
falls on metal surface. It has been found that the time
lag between the incidence of photon and the emission
of electron is less than 10-9 s.
3. The number of photoelectrons emitted (photoelectric
current) from a metal surface depends only on the intensity
of the incident light and is independent of its frequency.
4. The maximum kinetic energy with which
photoelectrons are emitted from a metal surface depends
only upon the frequency of the incident light and is
independent of its intensity.
FAILURE OF CLASSICAL WAVE THEORY
Attempts were made to explain the laws of photoelectric effect on the basis of
wave nature of radiation. However, it failed to explain the various features of the
photoelectric effect as discussed below :
According to wave model, when light is incident on a metal surface, it spreads
evenly all over the metal surface. The energy of the incident light is shared by
all the free electrons present at the surface of the metal. As a result, an electron
receives energy, which is too small to eject it out of the metal surface. However,
with the passage of time, energy goes on accumulating with an electron, till it
becomes just sufficient to eject it out. The calculations" show that it may take
days or even months for an electron to gather the required energy. However,
photoelectric effect is found be instantaneous. Thus, wave nature of radiation
cannot explain the instantaneous emission of photoelectrons.
According to wave model, no matter what the frequency of the
incident light is, even less energetic light should be able to
cause photoelectric emission in any metal, provided the metal
surface is kept exposed to the light for a sufficient time. In other
words, no threshold frequency exists for a metal surface.
However, it is contrary to the experimentally observed fact.
Thus, wave nature of radiation can not explain the existence of
threshold frequency for a metal surface.
According to wave model, the greater the intensity of incident
light, greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron
present at the surface of the metal. Therefore, kinetic energy of
the emitted electrons should increase with the increase in the
intensity of the incident light. However, kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons is found to increase with the increase of
frequency of the incident light and independent of the
intensity light. Thus, wave nature of radiation cannot explain
the fact that kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is
independent of the intensity light and depends on its
frequency.
Particle nature of light- photon.

Since wave nature of light could not offer any satisfactory explanation of photoelectric
effect, Einstein suggested that the light has got particle like behavior during its
interaction with matter.

According to him, the light consists of particles associated with a definite amount of
energy & momentum. These particles are called photons.

A photon is a packet of energy. It possesses energy given by E= hν

Where h= 6.62 x 10-34 Js is the Planck’s constant

c = νλ

: E= h ν=h c/λ

Electron Volt- It is the energy gained by an e- when it is accelerated through a potential

difference of one volt . 1 eV=1.6 x 10-19 J.
The particle nature of radiation:

1. In interaction with matter, the radiation behaves as particles called

photons.
2. The rest mass of photon is zero.
3. The photons are electrically neutral.
4. The photons are not deflected by Electric & Magnetic fields.
5. The photons travels with the speed of light.
6. A photon has energy E= h ν & momentum p= h ν/c= h/λ
7. The increase in intensity of the radiation imply an increase in the no. of
photons crossing a given area per sec.
EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION

To explain photoelectric effect, Einstein postulated that the energy

carried by a photon of radiation of frequency v is h v. According to
him, the emission of the electron was the result of the interaction of a
single photon with an electron, in which the photon is completely
absorbed by the electron.

The minimum amount of energy required to eject an electron out of the

metal surface is called the work function of the metal. It is denoted by
w.
Thus, when a photon of energy h v is absorbed by an electron,
an amount of at least equal to w (provided h v> w) is used up in
liberating the electron free and the difference h v - w becomes
available to the electron as its maximum kinetic energy
Thus,
1/2 m v 2max = hv-w

-1/2 m v 2 max + hv = w

Where w = hvo
The work function of the metal is a characteristic of the metal and does not depend upon
the nature of the incident radiation. It is sometimes also the threshold energy of the metal.

1/2 m v 2 max = hv - hvo

The above relation is called the Einstein's photoelectric equation.

1. For photoelectric emission to take place, the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
must be positive. From the equation, it follows that the photoelectrons will possess
positive kinetic energy only if h v > hvo or if v >vo It proves that for photoelectric
emission to take place, the frequency of the incident radiation must be greater than
threshold frequency for the metal. If the frequency of the incident radiation is the
threshold frequency for the metal, no photoelectric emission will take no matter how
intense the incident radiation may be or how long it falls on metal surface.
2. From the equation, it follows that the value of maximum kinetic energy of the

emitted photoelectrons depends linearly on the frequency. It proves that the

maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases, as the frequency
of the incident radiation is increased. Since the Einstein's equation does not
involve a factor representing intensity of the incident radiation, it proves that the
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is independent of the
intensity of the incident radiation.

3. According to Einstein, the photoelectric effect arises, when a single photon

is absorbed by a single electron i.e. it is a one photon-one electron phenomenon.
Therefore, number of photoelectrons ejected will be large, when intense radiation
is incident. It is because; intensity of radiation is proportional to number of
photons per unit area per unit time. Therefore, an intense radiation will contain a
large number of photons and likewise, the number of photoelectrons emitted will
also be large. It proves that the number of photoelectrons emitted depends on the
intensity of incident radiation. Further, there is no effect of frequency of the
incident radiation on the number of photoelectrons emitted. It is because; one
photon is capable of ejecting only one electron, provided v > vo'

4. According to Einstein, the basic process involved in photoelectric emission

is absorption of a photon of light by an electron. Therefore, as the photon is
absorbed, the emission of electron takes place instantaneously. It may be noted that
irrespective of the intensity of the incident radiation, photoelectric emission is
instantaneous.
 VERIFICATION OF EINSTEIN PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION

In an attempt to disprove the Einstein's photoelectric equation, RA. Millikan

performed a series of experiments. However, in 1912, instead of disproving, his
experiments rather proved the correctness of Einstein's photoelectric equation.
From the Einstein's photoelectric equation, we have

1/2 m v 2max = h v - h vo
If e is charge on electron and Vo is the stopping potential, then

1/2 m v 2max = e Vo
From the above two equations, we get
eVo = hv - hvo
Vo = hv/e - h vo /e
= hv/e - w/e
y = mx + c
m = tan θ =h/e
h = e x slope
Millikan plotted a graph between the frequency v (along X-axis) and the stopping
potential Vo (along Y-axis) over a wide range of frequencies. The graph was a straight
line. It has a slope h/e and makes an intercept – h vo/e on Y-axis
By measuring the slope of the graph and using the known value of e, Millikan
determined the value of h.
Millikan also determined the value of the work function of the metal used in the
experiment. By definition, when light of threshold frequency (vo) is incident,
photoelectrons just come out and no stopping potential is required. Therefore,
when v =vo Vo= 0
i.e. the intercept of the straight-line graph on v-axis gives the threshold frequency vo,
which when multiplied with h, gives the work function of the alkali metal.
The values of Planck's constant and work function of the metal determined by
Millikan were in close agreement with values obtained from other experiments. It
verified the correctness of Einstein's photoelectric equation.
 WAVE NATURE OF MATTER

DE-BROGLIE WAVES (MATTER NATURE)

Radiation behaves both as wave and particle. In 1924, Louis de-Broglie put
forward a bold hypothesis that matter should also possess dual nature.
The following observations led him to the duality hypothesis for matter:
1. The whole energy in this universe is in the form of matter and
electromagnetic radiation.
2. The nature loves symmetry. As the radiation has got dual nature, matter
should also possess dual nature.
Thus, according to de-Broglie, a wave is associated with every moving
particle.
These waves are called de-Broglie waves or matter waves.
According to the quantum theory of radiation, energy of a photon is given by
E=hv
Further, the energy of a relativistic particle is given by
E =mc2
E=pc
From the equations pc=hv
- p= hv/c
=h/λ
Therefore, the wavelength of the photon is given by λ =h/p =h/mv
This is called de-Broglie relation. It connects the momentum, which is characteristic
of the particle, with the wavelength, which is characteristic of the wave.
From the equation the following conclusions can be drawn:
(i) Lighter the particle, greater is its de-Broglie wavelength.
(ii) The faster the particle moves, the smaller is its de-Broglie wavelength
(iii) The de-Broglie wavelength of a particle is independent of the charge or nature of
the particle.
(iv) The matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature. The electromagnetic waves
are produced only in the accelerated charged particles.
DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF ELECTRON

Consider that an electron of mass m and charge e is accelerated through a Potential

difference V. If E is the energy acquired by the particle, then
E=eV
If v is the velocity of electron, then
E =1/2. m v 2
v= (2E/m)1/2
Now, de-Broglie wavelength of electron is given by
λ=h/mv=h/m (2E/m)1/2 = h/m (2mE)1/2

Substituting the value of E (= e V), we get

λ=h/ m (2eV/m)1/2
= h/ √2meV = 12.27/ √V X 10 -10 m = 12.27/ √V ( Angstrom )
Q) Photoelectrons are emitted from a metal surface when ultraviolet light of wavelength 300 nm is
incident on it. The minimum negative potential required to stop the emission of electrons is 0.54V.
Calculate: (i) the energy of the incident photons (ii) the work function of the metal Express all answer in
eV.