EHB 211E

Basics of Electrical Circuits

Asst. Prof. Sheida Faraji

First-Order Circuits
Week 11 (18th Dec 2023)

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by C. Alexander and M. Sadiku, Seventh Edition (McGraw-Hill Education)
Introduction
• Study two types of simple circuits:
❑ Circuit: a resistor and capacitor RC circuit
❑ Circuit: a resistor and inductor RL circuit
• Analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying Kirchhoff’s law (KCL & KVL)
• Applying Kirchhoff’s law to pure resistive circuits: Algebraic equations
• Applying Kirchhoff’s law to RC & RL circuits: Differential equations
• Differential equations from RC & RL circuits are of the first-order circuit. Hence,
the circuits are known as first-order circuits.
• First-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.
• Two ways to excite these circuits:
❑ Initial conditions of the storage elements (source-free circuit). No independent element and
energy initially stored in the capacitive and inductive element. They may have dependent
sources.
❑ Exciting first-order circuits by independent sources.
The Source-Free RC Circuit
• Source-free RC circuit: dc source is suddenly disconnected.
• Energy already stored in the capacitor and released to the resistors.
• Objective: determine the circuit response
• Voltage across capacitor 𝑣(𝑡)
• Capacitor is initially charged. Assume 𝑡 = 0, the initial voltage is 𝑣 0 = 𝑉0
• Energy stored in the capacitor:
1 2
A source-free RC circuit
𝑤 0 = 𝐶 𝑉0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 Initial energy stored
2
• Apply KCL to the top node: 𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝑑𝑣 𝑣
• By definition: 𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 and 𝑖𝑅 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 First-order
𝐶 + =0 ⇒ + =0 differential equation
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
The Source-Free RC Circuit
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 1 Integrate both sides
+ =0 =− ⇒ =− 𝑑𝑡 of the equation
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑣 𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑣 1 𝑡 A is the constant of
න =− න 𝑑𝑡 𝑙𝑛𝑣 = − +𝐴
𝑣 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 the integral part

Constant
𝑡 𝑡
−𝑅𝐶 +𝐴
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑣 = − +𝐴 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑒𝐴
𝑅𝐶

• Let’s call 𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑉0 because at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 0 = 𝑒 0 𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑉0

𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒
The Source-Free RC Circuit
𝑡
− Voltage response of RC circuit is
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
exponential decay of the initial voltage

• When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 (voltage across capacitor is initial voltage).

∞
−𝑅𝐶
• When 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑒 approaches zero and 𝑣 𝑡 = 0 (discharging over a certain
period of time).
• The response is due to initial voltage not due to some external voltage or current
source. Hence, it is called natural response of the circuit.
• Natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior of the circuit itself, with no
external sources of excitation.
The Source-Free RC Circuit
• Rapid decrease of voltage can be expressed in terms of the time constant 𝜏, unit
is second.
• Time constant 𝜏 of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay to a
factor of 1/e or 36.8 percent of its initial value.

−
𝜏 𝜏
−𝑅𝐶 𝜏
At 𝑡 = 𝜏, 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑉0 𝑒 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −1 ⇒ = 1 ⇒ 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐶

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 Time constant of capacitor

𝑡
−𝜏
Voltage response
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 of the RC circuit
The Source-Free RC Circuit
• Table shows how the value of 𝑣 𝑡 /𝑉0 changes when time t increases
• After 5𝜏, 𝑣 𝑡 is less than 1% of 𝑉0 . It takes approximately 5𝜏 for the circuit reach
its final state or steady state (Capacitor is fully discharged after 5𝜏).
• Smaller the time constant (𝜏), more rapidly voltage decreases, i.e., faster response.
The Source-Free RC Circuit
• Using Ohm’s law, the current 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) is expressed as:
𝑣 𝑡 𝑉0 −𝑡
𝑖𝑅 𝑡 = = 𝑒 𝜏
𝑅 𝑅
• Power dissipated in the resistor:
−𝜏
𝑡 𝑉0 −𝑡 𝑉0 2 −2𝑡
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖𝑅 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑒 𝜏 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝜏
𝑅 𝑅
• Energy absorbed by the resistor:
𝑤 Take derivative of both
𝑝 = ⇒ 𝑤 = 𝑝𝑡 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑝𝑑𝑡 Integrate both sides
𝑡 sides of the equation
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑉0 2 −2𝑡 𝜏 𝑉0 2 −2𝑡 , 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
න 𝑑𝑤 = න 𝑝𝑑𝑡 𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = න 𝑝(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = න 𝑒 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 𝜏
0 0 𝑅 2𝑅 0
2𝑡
−𝜏
𝑅𝐶 𝑉0 2 2𝑡 𝑡 1 2𝑡 • When 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑒 approaches 0
=− 𝑒− 𝜏 = 𝐶 𝑉0 2 1 −𝑒 −𝜏
2𝑅 0 2 1 2
𝑤𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑉0
2
Example 1
For the circuit shown below, let 𝑣𝐶 0 = 15 𝑉. Find 𝑣𝐶 , 𝑣𝑥 , and 𝑖𝑥 for 𝑡 > 0.
Solution
Example 2
The switch in the circuit shown below has been closed for a long time, and it is
opened at 𝑡 = 0. Find 𝑣 𝑡 for 𝑡 > 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the
capacitor.
Solution
For 𝑡 < 0 the switch is closed; the
capacitor is an open circuit to dc

Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot

change instantaneously, the voltage across the
capacitor at 𝑡 = 0− is the same at 𝑡 = 0 or
𝑣𝑐 0 = 𝑉0 = 15

For 𝑡 > 0 the switch is opened:

The Source-Free RL Circuit
• Goal: determine circuit response in RL circuit.
• When 𝑡 = 0, there must be initial current in RL circuit (current excites the circuit)

When 𝑡 = 0, inductor current

𝑖(0) = 𝐼0 equal to initial current.
• Initial energy in the inductor:
1
𝑤(0) = 𝐿 𝐼0 2
2
The Source-Free RL Circuit
𝑑𝑖
• Apply KVL to the circuit: 𝑣𝐿 + 𝑣𝑅 = 0 , 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑖 𝑅 Integrate
𝐿 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0 + 𝑖=0 =− 𝑖 = − 𝑑𝑡 both sides
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑖 𝐿
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑅 𝑅
න = − න 𝑑𝑡 𝑙𝑛𝑖 = − 𝑡
𝐼0 𝑖 0 𝐿 𝐼0 𝐿 0

𝑅 𝑖 𝑅𝑡
𝑙𝑛𝑖 − 𝑙𝑛𝐼0 = − 𝑡 + 0 ln( ) = −
𝐿 𝐼0 𝐿
𝑖 𝑅𝑡 𝑖 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑡 Natural response of RL
− −
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 =− ⇒ =𝑒 𝐿 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿 circuit is exponential
𝐼0 𝐿 𝐼0 decay of the initial current
𝐿 𝑡
−𝜏
𝜏= Time constant of inductor 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒
𝑅
The Source-Free RL Circuit
• When 𝑡 < 0, inductor is charged.
• When 𝑡 = 0, inductor excites the circuit by releasing the stored energy.
∞
−𝜏
• Inductor has an exponential decay due to 𝑒 term.
• Similar to capacitor, at time 𝑡 = 𝜏, current through the circuit is 36.8% smaller
than initial value.
𝑡
−𝜏
𝜏
−𝜏 𝐼0
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 ⇒𝑖 𝜏 = 𝐼0 𝑒 = 1 = 0.368𝐼0
e
𝑡
−𝜏
𝑣𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅 ⇒ 𝑣𝑅 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒
• Power dissipated in the resistor:
2𝑡
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑅 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑝 = 𝐼0 2 𝑅𝑒 − 𝜏
The Source-Free RL Circuit
• Energy absorbed by the resistor:
𝑤 Take derivate of both
𝑝 = ⇒ 𝑤 = 𝑝𝑡 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑝𝑑𝑡 Integrate both sides
𝑡 sides of this equation
𝑡 𝑡 2𝑡 𝜏 2𝑡 𝐿
න 𝑑𝑤 = න 𝑝𝑑𝑡 𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = න 𝑝(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = න 𝐼0 2 𝑅𝑒 − 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 2
= − 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 −𝜏 , 𝜏=
0 0 2 𝑅

𝑡 1 2𝑡
1𝐿 2 −
2𝑡
2 −𝜏
𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = − 𝐼0 𝑅 𝑒 𝜏 𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝐼0 1 −𝑒
2𝑅 0 2

• Energy initially stored in the inductor is eventually dissipated by the resistor.

2𝑡
−𝜏 1 2 Same as 𝑤𝐿 (0) which is the initial
• When 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑒 →0 𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝐼0
2 energy stored in the inductor.
Example 3
Assuming that 𝑖 0 = 10 A, calculate 𝑖 𝑡 and 𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) in the circuit shown below.
Solution
• Method 1: apply KVL
Solution
• Method 2: Find equivalent resistance.
• Since the circuit has only dependent source, insert a test voltage source of 1 V at
the inductor terminals a-b and find 𝑅𝑇ℎ .
• Keep it in mind that we cannot turn off dependent circuit when applying
Thevenin theorem.
𝑣0 1
• To find 𝑅𝑇ℎ , we need to find 𝑖0 as 𝑅𝑇ℎ = =
𝑖0 𝑖0
• Apply KVL both loops:
Example 4
The switch in the circuit shown below has been closed for a long time. At 𝑡 = 0, the
switch is opened. Calculate 𝑖(𝑡) for 𝑡 > 0.
Solution
For 𝑡 < 0, the switch is closed. This means
that inductor is short circuit to dc condition.
Solution
For 𝑡 > 0, the switch is opened, and voltage
source is disconnected. This means we have
a source-free RL circuit as shown below.
To find 𝑖(𝑡), we need to use following equation:
𝑡
−𝜏
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖(0)𝑒

To find 𝑖 𝑡 , determine time constant 𝜏

Example 5
In the circuit shown below, find 𝑖0 , 𝑣0 and 𝑖 for all time, assuming that the switch
was open for a long time.
Solution:
For 𝑡 < 0, the switch is opened. Since
inductor is short circuit to dc, 6 Ω resistor is
short circuited. 𝑖0 = 0

𝑖 0 = 2 𝐴 for 𝑡 < 0 & 𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 0 = 𝑖 0− = 2 𝐴

Solution
For 𝑡 > 0, the switch is closed. The voltage is short circuited.

From the Graph and expression: the inductor current is

continuous at t=0 (current through inductor cannot change
instantly), while resistor current through 6 Ω resistor drop from
0 to -2/3 at t=0, and voltage across 3 Ω resistor drop from 6 V to
4 V at t=0.
Singularity (Switching) Function
• Singularity (aka switching functions): useful for circuit analysis.
• Good approximations to the switching signals that arises in circuit with switching
operation.
• Helpful in the neat, compact description of the step response of RC or RL circuit.
• Singularity function: either discontinuous or have discontinuous derivatives.
• Three most widely used singularity functions:
❑ Unit step function
❑ Unit impulse function
❑ Unit ramp function
Unit Step Function
• Unit step function 𝑢 𝑡 is 0 for negative value of 𝑡 and 1 for positive value of 𝑡.
• In mathematically,

0 𝑡<0
𝑢 𝑡 =
1 𝑡>0

• Unit step function is undefined at 𝑡 = 0 where it changes abruptly from 0 to 1.

Unit Step Function
• Assume that abrupt (sudden) change occurs at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 (where 𝑡0 > 0) instead of 𝑡 = 0.

0 𝑡 < 𝑡0
𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑢 𝑡 is delayed
by 𝑡0 sec
1 𝑡 > 𝑡0

• Assume that abrupt (sudden) change occurs at 𝑡 = −𝑡0

0 𝑡 < −𝑡0
𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑡0 = 𝑢 𝑡 is
advanced by
1 𝑡 > −𝑡0 𝑡0 sec
Unit Step Function
• An abrupt change in voltage and current can be represented by step function.
0 𝑡 < 𝑡0
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑡0
1 𝑡 > 𝑡0

• If 𝑡0 = 0, 𝑣 𝑡 is simply
the step voltage 𝑉0 𝑢(𝑡)
Unit Impulse Function
• Derivative of the unit step function 𝑢(𝑡) is the unit impulse function which is represented by 𝛿(𝑡)

0 𝑡<0
𝑑
𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 = undefined 𝑡=0
𝑑𝑡
0 𝑡>0

• The unit impulse function 𝛿(𝑡) is zero everywhere except at 𝑡=0, where it is undefined.
• The unit impulse may be regarded as an applied or resulting shock. It may be visualized
as a very short duration pulse of unit area.
• It can be expressed mathematically as:
0+
න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1 The strength of the
0−
impulse function.
Unit Ramp Function
• Integral of the unit step function 𝑢(𝑡) is the unit ramp function r(𝑡):
𝑡
r 𝑡 = න 𝑢 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 . 𝑡
−∞

0 𝑡≤0
𝑟 𝑡 =
𝑡 𝑡≥0
Unit Ramp Function
• Delayed unit ramp function
0 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0
𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑡0 =
𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0

• Advanced unit ramp function

0 𝑡 ≤ −𝑡0
𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑡0 =
𝑡 + 𝑡0 𝑡 ≥ −𝑡0

• Three singularity functions are related by differentiation or integration:

𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑡
𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑡 = න 𝑢 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 −∞ −∞
Step Response of an RC Circuit
• When the dc source of an RC circuit is suddenly applied, the voltage or current
source can be modeled as a step function, and the response is known as a step
response.
• The step response is the response of the circuit due to a sudden application of a
dc voltage or current source.
• Once the switch is closed, there is a sudden application of dc source. Thus, the
circuit can be replaced by the following circuit (on the right)
Step Response of an RC Circuit
• Assume 𝑉0 is the initial voltage on the capacitor.
• Voltage of a capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
0− : just before switching
𝑣 0− =𝑣 0+ = 𝑉0 0+ : just after switching
• Apply KCL after 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠 𝑢(𝑡)
switch is closed : 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑅
=0 𝐶 + −
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅
=0

𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠 For 𝑡 > 0, unit

𝐶 + = + = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 step function is 1

𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑣 dt
+ = =− =− Integrate
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝐶

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑡 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑡
𝑑𝑣 1 t
න = −න 𝑑𝑡 ln 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑠 =−
𝑣(0) 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑠 0 𝑅𝐶 𝑉0 𝑅𝐶 0

𝑡 𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑉𝑠 𝑡
ln 𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑉𝑠 − ln 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 = − +0 ln =−
𝑅𝐶 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝐶
Step Response of an RC Circuit
𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑉𝑠 −
𝑡 𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
= 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑉𝑠 = (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠

𝑡
−𝜏
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 𝑡>0

Complete response (or total response) of the RC

circuit to a sudden application of dc voltage source

𝑉0 𝑡<0 Assuming capacitor

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑡
−𝜏 is initially charged
𝑉𝑠 + (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 𝑡>0

𝑣 𝑡 : two components
Step Response of an RC Circuit
Assume 𝑉𝑠 > 𝑉0

Capacitor 𝑉0 𝑡<0
still charging 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑡
−𝜏
𝑉𝑠 + (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 𝑡>0
Initial Voltage

0 𝑡<0
If capacitor is initially 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑡
uncharged, 𝑉0 = 0 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜏
) 𝑡>0

When 𝑡 < 0, 𝑢 𝑡 = 0 𝑡
−𝜏
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 1 − 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡)
When 𝑡 > 0, 𝑢 𝑡 = 1
Step Response of an RC Circuit
• Current through the capacitor (capacitor initially uncharged, 𝑉0 = 0 ):
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑡
−𝜏 1 𝑡
−𝜏
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 =𝐶 𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 ) 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑡>0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝜏

1 𝑡
−𝜏 𝑉𝑠 −𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 𝑉𝑒 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝜏 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑅𝐶 𝑠 𝑅

Capacitor voltage v 𝑡 Capacitor current 𝑖 𝑡

Step Response of an RC Circuit
• Another way of finding step response of an RC & RL circuits.

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
−𝜏 −𝜏 −𝜏
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉0 𝑒 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑒
𝑡 𝑡
− −
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝜏 + 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 𝜏) 𝑣 𝑡 : two components

• Two ways of decomposing into two components:

❑ Natural response and forced response
❑ Transient response and steady-state response
Step Response of an RC Circuit
• 1st: Natural response and forced response:
• Total response or complete response can be written as:

Complete response=natural response + forced response

(Storage energy) (Independent source)

𝑡
−𝜏
𝑣𝑛 :natural response 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑉0 𝑒 Storage energy in the capacitor
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑛 + 𝑣𝑓 𝑡
𝑣𝑓 :forced response −𝜏
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑉𝑠 (1 −𝑒 ) Independent source

• 𝑣𝑛 is the natural response that is produced by capacitor.

• 𝑣𝑓 is the forced response that is produced by the circuit when external force (a
voltage source) is applied.
• Natural response dies out and leaving only the steady-state component of forced
response since as time increases, energy stored in the capacitor is reduced.
Step Response of an RC Circuit
• 2nd: Transient response and steady-state response:
• Total response or complete response can be written as:

Complete response=transient response + steady-state response

(Temporary part) (Permanent part)

𝑡
−𝜏
𝑣𝑡 :transient response 𝑣𝑡 = (𝑉0 −𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 Temporary part
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑣𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑠𝑠 :steady-state response 𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 Permanent part

• Transient response 𝑣𝑡 is temporary response and decay to zero as time

approaches infinity.
• The steady-state response 𝑣𝑠𝑠 remains after the transient response has die out.
Step Response of an RC Circuit
• The complete response of the general equation may be written as:
𝑡
−𝜏
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 ∞ + [𝑣 0 − 𝑣 ∞ ]𝑒

• 𝑣 0 : initial voltage
• 𝑣 ∞ : final or steady-state value.
• Step response of an RC circuit requires three parameters:
❑ The initial capacitor voltage 𝑣 0
❑ The final capacitor voltage 𝑣 ∞
❑ The time constant 𝜏 as 𝑣 0 reaches 𝑣 ∞

• If the switch changes position at time 𝑡 = 𝑡0 instead of 𝑡 = 0, there is a time

delay in the response and the equation becomes:
𝑡−𝑡
− 𝜏0
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 ∞ + [𝑣 𝑡0 − 𝑣 ∞ ]𝑒 𝑣 𝑡0 : initial voltage value at 𝑡 = 𝑡0
Example 6
The switch in the circuit shown below has been in position A for a long time. At 𝑡 = 0, the
switch moves to B. Determine 𝑣 𝑡 for 𝑡 > 0 and calculate its value at 𝑡 = 1 𝑠 and 𝑡 = 4 𝑠.
Solution:
For 𝑡 < 0, the switch is at position A. The
capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc

Capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously

Complete response:
For 𝑡 > 0, the switch is at position B. Thevenin
resistance (equivalent resistance): 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 4 𝑘Ω

Capacitor acts like an open circuit

to dc at steady-state, 𝑣 ∞ = 30 𝑉
Example 7
In the circuit shown below, the switch has been closed for a long time and is
opened at 𝑡 = 0. Find 𝑖 and 𝑣 for all time.
Solution:
By definition of the unit step function:
0 𝑡<0
30𝑢 𝑡 =
30 𝑡>0

𝑡<0

𝑡>0
Apply KCL:
Step Response of an RL circuit
• When the switch is closed, there is a sudden of voltage source is applied and the circuit is
replaced by the following circuit (on the right)
• The voltage source (or current source) can be modeled as a step function (aka step response).
• Let the current response is sum of transient and steady-state response
𝑡
−𝜏 𝐿 𝑉𝑠 −
𝑡 𝑉𝑠
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑡 + 𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜏= 𝑖𝑠𝑠 = 𝑖= 𝐴𝑒 𝜏 +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
• Current through inductor cannot change instantaneously: 𝑖 0+ = 𝑖 0− = 𝐼0
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 −𝑡
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝐼0 = 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 𝐼0 − 𝑖 𝑡 = + (𝐼0 − )𝑒 𝜏
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Step Response of an RL circuit
• To find the complete response, RL circuit requires three parameters:
❑ The initial inductor current i 0
❑ The final inductor current i ∞

❑ The time constant 𝜏 to get from i 0 to i ∞ .

𝑡
−𝜏 Complete response
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 ∞ + [𝑖 0 − 𝑖 ∞ ]𝑒

0 𝑡<0
If 𝐼0 = 0, 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑡
−𝜏
1−𝑒 𝑡>0
𝑅

When 𝑡 < 0, 𝑢 𝑡 = 0 𝑉𝑠 𝑡
−𝜏
𝑖 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡)
When 𝑡 > 0, 𝑢 𝑡 = 1 𝑅

𝑑𝑖 𝑡
−𝜏
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐿 ⇒ 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒
𝑑𝑡
Example 8
Find 𝑖(𝑡) in the circuit of shown below for 𝑡 > 0. Assume that the switch has been
closed for a long time.
Solution:
When 𝑡 < 0, 3 Ω resistor is short-circuited and
inductor acts like short circuit (dc condition)

When 𝑡 > 0,
Example 9
At 𝑡 = 0, switch 1 in the circuit given below is closed, and switch 2 is closed 4 s
later. Find 𝑖(𝑡) for 𝑡 > 0. Calculate 𝑖 for 𝑡 = 2 𝑠 and 𝑡 = 5 𝑠 .
Solution:
Solution
First-Order Op Amp Circuit: Example 10
For the op amp circuit shown below, find 𝑣0 for 𝑡 > 0, given that 𝑣 0 = 3 𝑉. Let
𝑅𝑓 = 80 𝑘Ω, 𝑅1 = 20 𝑘Ω, and 𝐶 = 5 𝜇𝐹.
Solution:
Method 1: KCL at node 1:

Same equation as
source free RC
Solution
Method 2:

To find 𝜏, we need to find 𝑅𝑒𝑞 . Remove

capacitor and place 1 A current source (source
free circuit). Apply KVL to the input loop:
Example 11
Determine the step response 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑣0 (𝑡) in the circuit shown below.
Solution:
Since we will find step response, we
can write the following equation:

𝑡 < 0, the switch is open and no voltage across capacitor

𝑡 > 0,
Capacitor acts like an open circuit
to dc and op amp circuit behaves
like an noninverting op amp.
Noninverting op amp:
𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 = (1 + )𝑣1
𝑅1
Example 12
Find the step response 𝑣0 (𝑡) for 𝑡 > 0 in the op amp circuit shown. Let
𝑣𝑖 = 2𝑢 𝑡 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 20 𝑘Ω, 𝑅𝑓 = 50 𝑘Ω, 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 10 𝑘Ω, and 𝐶 = 2 𝜇𝐹.
Solution:
Using Thevenin theorem, we may simplify the circuit.
Remove the capacitor and find the Thevenin equivalent
circuit

𝑅𝑇ℎ can be found by turning

off the input voltage 𝑣𝑖 .
Doing so, 𝑣𝑎𝑏 will be zero