EC3011 : Introduction to

Electronics and Instrumentation

S. Thananjeyan
 RC, RL Circuit Transient Behavior
• RL and RC circuits are also known as first-order circuits, because their
voltages and currents are described by first-order differential equations.
• No matter how complex a circuit may appear, if it can be reduced to a
Thévenin or Norton equivalent connected to the terminals of an equivalent
inductor or capacitor, it is a first-order circuit.

• The currents and voltages that arise in the above configurations are referred
to as the natural response of the circuit, to emphasize that the nature of the
circuit itself, not external sources of excitation, determines its behavior
 Natural Response of an RL Circuit
• The natural response of an RL circuit can best be described in terms of the
circuit shown in the Figure below.
• We assume that the independent current source generates a constant current
of 𝐼𝑆 A, and that the switch has been in a closed position for a long time.
• it means that all currents and voltages have reached a constant value.
• Thus only constant, or dc, currents can exist in the circuit just prior to the switch’s
𝑑𝑖
being opened, and therefore the inductor appears as a short circuit (L = 0) prior to
𝑑𝑡
the release of the stored energy.
• Because the inductor appears as a short circuit, the voltage across the
inductive branch is zero, and there can be no current in either 𝑅0 or R.
• Therefore, all the source current appears in the inductive branch.
 Natural Response of an RL Circuit
• Finding the natural response requires finding the voltage and current at the
terminals of the resistor after the switch has been opened, that is, after the
source has been disconnected and the inductor begins releasing energy.
• If we let 𝑡 = 0 denote the instant when the switch is opened, the problem
becomes one of finding 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖 𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0.

When 𝑡 ≥ 0
 Natural Response of an RL Circuit
𝑑𝑖
• 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑡
• The above equation is known as a first-order ordinary differential equation𝑑𝑖because
it contains terms involving the ordinary derivative of the unknown, that is
𝑑𝑡
• The highest order derivative appearing in the equation is 1; hence the term first-order.
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
• = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝐿
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑅 𝑡
• ‫ = 𝑥 ) 𝑡(𝑖׬‬− 𝐿 ‫𝑦𝑑 𝑡׬‬
0 0
• 𝑖 𝑡0 is the current corresponding to time 𝑡0 , here 𝑡0 = 0.
𝑖 𝑡 𝑅
• ln =− 𝑡
𝑖(0) 𝐿
𝑅
−( 𝐿 )𝑡
•𝑖 𝑡 =𝑖 0 𝑒
• 𝑖 0− = 𝑖 0+ = 𝐼0 (initial conductor current)
𝑅
−( 𝐿 )𝑡
• 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 (natural response of an RL circuit)
 𝑅
−( 𝐿 )𝑡
• 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒
• current starts from an initial value and decreases exponentially toward zero as t
increases

𝑅
− 𝑡
The voltage across the resistor 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 𝐿 𝑡 ≥ 0+
𝑅
−2 𝑡
Power dissipated in the resistor is 𝑝 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = 𝐼02 𝑅𝑒 𝐿

The energy delivered to the resistor during any interval of time after the switch has
𝑅
𝑡 𝑡 2 −2 𝐿 𝑥
been opened is 𝑤 = ‫׬‬0 𝑝 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 𝑑𝑥
1 2 𝑅
−2 𝐿 𝑡
𝐿𝐼0 1 − 𝑒 𝑡 ≥0
2
 Significance of the Time Constant
𝐿
• Time constant of an RL circuit 𝜏 =
𝑅
• The time constant is an important parameter for first-order circuits

• Note that when the elapsed time exceeds five time constants, the current is less than 1%
of its initial value.
• Thus we sometimes say that five time constants after switching has occurred, the currents and voltages
have, for most practical purposes, reached their final values.
• Thus the existence of current in the RL circuit is a momentary event and is referred to as
the transient response of the circuit.
• The response that exists a long time after the switching has taken place is called the
steady-state response.
• The phrase a long time then also means the time it takes the circuit to reach its steady-state value
 Question
• The switch in the circuit shown in Figure has been closed for a long time
before it is opened at 𝑡 = 0. Find
• 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
• 𝑖0 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0+
• 𝑣0 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0+ ,
• the percentage of the total energy stored in the 2 H inductor that is dissipated in the
10 Ωresistor.

Ans: 𝑣0 𝑡 = −160 𝑒 −5𝑡 𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0+ , 64%

 Natural Response of an RC Circuit
• Natural response of an RC circuit is analogous to that of an RL circuit

An RC circuit After switching

𝑑𝑣 𝑣
C 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑅 = 0
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝑣 𝑡 =𝑣 0 𝑒 ,𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑣 0− = 𝑣 0 = 𝑣 0+ = 𝑉𝑔 = 𝑉0 (Initial capacitor voltage)

Time constant for the RC circuit is 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶

𝑡
−𝜏
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 , 𝑡 ≥ 0 (natural response of a RC circuit)
 Question
• The switch in the circuit shown in Figure has been in position x for a long
time. At 𝑡 = 0, the switch moves instantaneously to position y. Find
• 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
• 𝑣0 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0+
• 𝑖0 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0+ and
• total energy dissipated in the 60 𝑘 Ω resistor.

Ans: 𝑖0 𝑡 = 𝑒 −25𝑡 mA, 1.2 mJ

 Step Response of an RL Circuit
• We are now ready to discuss the problem of finding the currents and voltages
generated in first-order RL circuits when either dc voltage sources are
suddenly applied.
• The response of a circuit to the sudden application of a constant voltage or
current source is referred to as the step response of the circuit.

• Energy stored in the inductor at the time the switch is closed is given in terms
of a nonzero initial current.
• The task is to find the expressions for the current in the circuit and for the
voltage across the inductor after the switch has been closed
 Step Response of an RL Circuit
𝑑𝑖
• 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝑉𝑠
• 𝑑𝑖 = − 𝑖− 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝑅
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
• 𝑉 = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑖−( 𝑠 ) 𝐿
𝑅
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑅 𝑡
• ‫𝐼׬‬ 𝑉 = − ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑥 −( 𝑠 ) 𝐿
𝑅
• Where 𝐼0 is the current at 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑖(𝑡) is the current at any 𝑡 > 0
𝑉
𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑅
• ln 𝑉 = − 𝑡
𝐼0 −( 𝑅𝑠 ) 𝐿
𝑉
𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑅
−( )𝑡
• 𝑉 =𝑒 𝐿
𝐼0 −( 𝑅𝑠 )
𝑅
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 −( 𝐿 )𝑡
•𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 (Step response of RL circuit)
𝑅 𝑅
 𝑅
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 −( )𝑡
•𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝐿
𝑅 𝑅
• When the initial energy in the inductor is zero, 𝐼0 is zero
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑅 𝑡
•𝑖 𝑡 = − 𝑒 𝐿
𝑅 𝑅
• It indicates that after the switch has been closed, the current increases exponentially
𝑉 𝐿
from zero to a final value of 𝑠. The time constant of the circuit determines the rate of
𝑅 𝑅
increase

step response of the RL circuit when 𝐼0 = 0

 𝑑𝑖
• The voltage across an inductor is 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑅
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 −( )𝑡
•𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐼0 − 𝑒 𝐿
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑉𝑆 −( 𝐿 )𝑡 −( 𝐿 )𝑡
•𝑣=𝐿 − 𝐼0 − 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼0 𝑅 𝑒 𝑡 ≥ 0+
𝐿 𝑅
• The voltage across the inductor is zero before the switch is closed. The above
equation indicates that the inductor voltage jumps to 𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼0 𝑅 at the instant
the switch is closed and then decays exponentially to zero.
𝑅
− 𝑡
• When the initial conductor current is zero 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝐿
 Question
• The switch in the circuit shown in Figure has been in position a for a long
time. At 𝑡 = 0 the switch moves from position a to position b. The switch is a
make-before-break type; that is, the connection at position b is established
before the connection at position a is broken, so there is no interruption of
current through the inductor.
• Find the expression for 𝑖 𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0
• What is the initial voltage across the inductor just after the switch has been moved to
position b?
• How many milliseconds after the switch has been moved does the inductor voltage
equal 24 V?

Ans : 40V, 51.08 ms

• We can also describe the voltage across the inductor directly, not just in
terms of the circuit current.
• We begin by noting that the voltage across the resistor is the difference between the
source voltage and the inductor voltage
𝑉𝑠 𝑣 𝑡
•𝑖 𝑡 = −
𝑅 𝑅
• Where 𝑉𝑠 is constant
𝑑𝑖 1 𝑑𝑣
• =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 1 𝑑𝑣
• 𝐿 =− 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝑑𝑣
• 𝑣=−
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑅
• + 𝑣=0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
• We can also solve the above equation to find the voltage across the inductor.
 Step Response of an RC Circuit
• We can find the step response of a first-order RC circuit by analyzing the circuit
below

𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐
• 𝐶 + = 𝐼𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐 𝐼𝑠
• + =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝐶
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
• 𝑣𝑐 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅 + 𝑉0 − 𝐼𝑠 𝑅 𝑒 𝑡 ≥ 0 (step response of an RC circuit)

• A similar derivation for the current in the capacitor yields the differential equation,
𝑑𝑖 1
• + 𝑖 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
𝑡
𝑉0 −𝑅𝐶
•𝑖= 𝐼𝑠 − 𝑒 𝑡 ≥ 0+
𝑅
 Question
• The switch in the circuit shown in Figure has been in position 1 for a long
time. At 𝑡 = 0, the switch moves to position 2. Find
• 𝑣0 (𝑡) for 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑
• 𝑖0 𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0+

Ans : 𝑣0 = −60 + 90 𝑒 −100𝑡 𝑡 ≥ 0 , 𝑖0 = −2.25𝑒 −100𝑡 𝑚𝐴 𝑡 ≥ 0+

 Laplace transform in circuit analysis
• The Laplace transform has two characteristics that make it an attractive tool
in circuit analysis.
• First, it transforms a set of linear constant-coefficient differential equations
into a set of linear polynomial equations, which are easier to manipulate.
• Second, it automatically introduces into the polynomial equations the initial
values of the current and voltage variables. Thus, initial conditions are an
inherent part of the transform process.
• This contrasts with the classical approach to the solution of differential equations, in
which initial conditions are considered when the unknown coefficients are evaluated.
 Circuit Elements in the s Domain
• The procedure for developing an s-domain equivalent circuit for each circuit
element is simple.
• First, we write the time-domain equation that relates the terminal voltage to
the terminal current.
• Next, we take the Laplace transform of the time-domain equation. This step
generates an algebraic relationship between the s-domain current and
voltage.
• Note that the dimension of a transformed voltage is volt-seconds, and the dimension
of a transformed current is ampere-seconds.
• A voltage-to-current ratio in the s domain carries the dimension of volts per ampere.
An impedance in the s domain is measured in ohms, and an admittance is measured in
siemens.
• Finally, we construct a circuit model that satisfies the relationship between
the s-domain current and voltage.
 A Resistor in the s Domain
• From Ohm’s law 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
• Because R is a constant, the Laplace transform of the above equation is
• 𝑽 = 𝑅𝑰
• where 𝑽 = ℒ 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑰 = ℒ 𝑖
• The above equation states that the s-domain equivalent circuit of a resistor is
simply a resistance of R ohms that carries a current of 𝑰 ampere-seconds and
has a terminal voltage of 𝑽 volt-seconds

The resistance element. (a) Time

domain. (b) Frequency domain
 An Inductor in the s Domain
• The left figure shows an inductor carrying an initial current of 𝐼0 amperes.
• The time-domain equation that relates the terminal voltage to the terminal
𝑑𝑖
current is 𝑣 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

series equivalent circuit for an

The Laplace transform gives inductor of L henrys carrying an
initial current of 𝐼0 amperes.
• 𝑽 = 𝐿 𝑠𝑰 − 𝑖 0−
• 𝑽 = 𝑠𝐿𝑰 − 𝐿𝐼0

𝑽+𝐿𝐼0 𝑽 𝐼0 parallel equivalent circuit for an

•𝑰= = + inductor of L henrys carrying an
𝑠𝐿 𝑠𝐿 𝑠
initial current of 𝐼0 amperes.
 Capacitor in the s Domain
• An initially charged capacitor also has two s-domain equivalent circuits
𝑑𝑣
•𝑖= 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
• 𝑰 = 𝐶 𝑠𝑽 − 𝑣 0−

parallel equivalent circuit for a

• 𝑰 = 𝑠𝐶𝑽 − 𝐶𝑉0 capacitor initially charged to 𝑉0 volts.

1 𝑉0 series equivalent circuit for a

•𝑽= 𝑰+ capacitor initially charged to 𝑉0
𝑠𝐶 𝑠 volts.
Summary of the s-Domain Equivalent Circuits
 Circuit Analysis in the s Domain
• If no energy is stored in the inductor or capacitor, the relationship between
the terminal voltage and current for each passive element takes the form
𝑽=𝑍𝑰
• where Z refers to the s-domain impedance of the element.
• Thus a resistor has an impedance of 𝑅 ohms, an inductor has an impedance
1
of 𝑠𝐿 ohms and a capacitor has an impedance of ohms.
𝑠𝐶
• The rules for combining impedances and admittances in the s domain are the
same as those for frequency-domain circuits. Thus series-parallel
simplifications and △-to-Y conversions also are applicable to s-domain
analysis.
• In addition, Kirchhoff’s laws apply to s-domain currents and voltages.
• Their applicability stems from the operational transform stating that the Laplace
transform of a sum of time-domain functions is the sum of the transforms of the
individual functions
 Natural Response of an RC Circuit
• We reconsider the natural response of an RC circuit via Laplace transform techniques
• The capacitor is initially charged to 𝑉0 volts, and we are interested in the time-domain expressions
for 𝑖 and 𝑣. We start by finding 𝑖.

capacitor discharge circuit An s-domain equivalent circuit

𝑉0 1
• = + 𝑅𝑰
𝑠 𝑠𝐶
𝑉0
𝐶𝑉0
• 𝑰= = 𝑅
1
𝑅𝐶𝑠+1 𝑠+𝑅𝐶

𝑉0 − 𝑡
• 𝑖= 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑢 𝑡
𝑅
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
• 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡)
• We now illustrate a way to find 𝑣 from the circuit without first finding 𝑖

capacitor discharge circuit An s-domain equivalent circuit

𝑽
• + 𝑠𝐶𝑽 = 𝐶𝑉0
𝑅
𝑉0
•𝑽= 1
𝑠+(𝑅𝐶)
𝑡 𝑡
−𝑅𝐶 −𝜏
• 𝑣 = 𝑉0 𝑒 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡)
 Question
• The switch in the circuit shown has been in position a for a long time. At 𝑡 =
0, the switch is thrown to position b
• Find 𝑰, 𝑽𝟏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑽𝟐 and as rational functions of s.
• Find the time-domain expressions for 𝑖, 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2

Ans: 𝑖 = 20𝑒 −1250𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 𝑚𝐴, 𝑣2 = 20𝑒 −1250𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 𝑉

 Step Response of a Parallel Circuit
• The problem is to find the expression for 𝑖𝐿 after the constant current source
is switched across the parallel elements

RLC circuit s-domain equivalent circuit

𝑽
• 𝑰𝐿 =
𝑠𝐿
𝑽 𝑽 𝐼𝑑𝑐
• 𝑠𝐶𝑽 + + =
𝑅 𝑠𝐿 𝑠
𝐼𝑑𝑐

•𝑽= 𝐶
1 1
𝑠2 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑠+ 𝐿𝐶
 𝐼𝑑𝑐

•𝑽= 𝐶
1 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠+
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
𝐼𝑑𝑐

• 𝑰𝐿 = 𝐿𝐶
1 1
𝑠[𝑠2 +𝑅𝐶𝑠+𝐿𝐶]
384 ∗105
• 𝑰𝐿 =
𝑠(𝑠 2 +64,000𝑠+16 ∗108 )
384 ∗105
• 𝑰𝐿 =
𝑠(𝑠+32,000 −𝑗24,000)(𝑠+32,000+𝑗24,000)
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑘2∗
• 𝑰𝐿 = + +
𝑠 𝑠+32,000 −𝑗24,000 𝑠+32,000+𝑗24,000
• 𝐾1 = 24 ∗ 10−3 , 𝐾2 = 20 ∗ 10−3 ∠126.870
• 𝑖𝐿 = [24 + 40𝑒 −32,000𝑡 cos(24,000𝑡 + 126.870 )] 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑚𝐴
• An Abbreviated List of Laplace Transform Pairs
• An Abbreviated List of Operational Transforms
 Thank you
Reference
• Electric circuit (10th edition) by James W. Nilsson and Susan A. Riedel