ATOC 184

THE SCIENCE OF STORMS

WINTER 2024

TR 1:05-2:25pm
Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences (AOS)
Faculty of Science

Course Instructor : Evangelia Ioannidou

Evangelia.Ioannidou@mcgill.ca
 LECTURE 19

• THE WEATHER RADAR

Estimates of precipitation

• CONVECTIVE STORMS

Elements of convective storms

The air mass thunderstorm

The squall line

The gust front

 RECAP

Raindrops can’t become

larger than 6mm.

WHY ?

• Raindrops may evaporate as they fall into the surrounding air before reaching the surface.

• Raindrops collide as they fall and break up into many smaller drops.

• Raindrops that grow too large become unstable and break apart.
 SOLID PRECIPITATION : SNOW RECAP
Winter temperature profile for snow Summer temperature profile for snow becoming rain

3600m 300m
needed for
Most precipitation begins its life as solid precipitation as it originates at levels where the full melting
temperature is below freezing. of the
snowflake
In summer the freezing level is at about 3600m, so as the snow flakes fall below 3600m they
melt before reaching the ground.

In winter the freezing level is much closer to the surface, so the falling snowflake has chances to
reach the ground.
RECAP

The most common snowflakes are those that look like a branching star and
are called dendrites. Why ?
Because an ice crystal attracts more the supercooled droplets surrounding it at temperatures
between -12C and -16C than at any other temperature. So, dendrite-type snowflakes that
form at the above temperature range will grow faster and be the most commonly seen.
 REAL PHOTO ?? RECAP

26-Dec-2018 - 1 Photograph by Alexey Kljatov

 SLEET and FREEZING RAIN
RECAP
Temperature profiles
Refreezing of the falling raindrop near the surface in both cases.

January 1998
A catastrophic
freezing rain
storm in Quebec
 FORMATION OF THE RINGS OF THE HAILSTONE RECAP

If air in the cloud locally is cold and with few cloud droplets:
the droplets that accumulate on the ice crystal freeze immediately and
a coating of white ice is created.

When the ice crystal goes through another part of the cloud where air is
warmer and with many cloud droplets:
a lot of latent heat is released at the ice crystal surface so most of the
droplets do not freeze immediately. A coating of water is created.

This water coat freezes slowly and the ice that is created this way is clear.
RADAR ESTIMATES of PRECIPITATION
LOCATION and INTENSITY
Weather radars send directional pulses of microwave radiation at wavelengths of 1 – 10 cm.
– RADAR REFLECTIVITY
 PRINCIPLES of OPERATION

Targets are hydrometeors

i.e raindrops, snowflakes,
hailstones, cloud drops
within a cloud, as well as
other things ..

An electromagnetic signal is generated by the weather radar and emitted towards a target.
The wave is reflected at the target, and its reflection is detected by the radar receiver system.
More precisely: radar signal reflected by a hydrometeor in the cloud
 Radar screen

Radar beam revolves by 360 degrees around

the vertical axis to make measurements of all
cloud formations in the vicinity of the radar.
 The intensity of the reflected signal is called ‘radar reflectivity’ 𝑍.
It is measured and displayed on the radar screen.

IN GENERAL, a high value of reflectivity indicates large size and high concentration of
hydrometeors within the volume of the cloud and a low value of reflectivity indicates
small size and low concentration of hydrometeors within the cloud volume.

What would generate

large hydrometeors ??
 REMEMBER that

Hailstones grow
for several
minutes as they
A cloud droplet rising then falling through a warm cumulus are moved
cloud grows by collision and coalescence and emerges from around in the
the cloud as a large raindrop. convective cell by
vigorous updrafts
and downdrafts
Large size and high concentration of hydrometeors is the result of intense, long-lasting updrafts in a cloud
RELATION BETWEEN intensity of PRECIPITATION and REFLECTIVITY value 𝒁
 𝜃 𝜃

𝜃 ∶ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙

called ‘elevation angle’
 RANGE HEIGHT INDICATOR or RHI
generates images of reflectivity on a vertical section.

𝜃2
𝜃1
 A vertical section across a cloud

The radar beam scans also up and down.

 – RHI IMAGE –
APPROACHING STORM
APPROACHING HURRICANE – PPI IMAGE –

PPI: PLAN POSITION INDICATOR

or plan view
PLAN POSITION INDICATOR --
HURRICANE
MOVING STORM –
ANIMATION BASED on sequence of PPI IMAGES
 ANIMATIONS
of extensive weather systems made possible by radar networks

Radar animation of a low-pressure system showing the system’s movement and the precipitation pattern along the
warm and the cold fronts.
SNOW BANDS – PPI IMAGE – RADAR REFLECTIVITY
CONVECTIVE STORMS
CLOUDS WITH VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT
REMEMBER
are the cumuliform clouds

Below we see the known cumulus clouds.

When in low concentrations in the skies they
are called fair-weather cumulus.
 𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑠 REMEMBER
or towering cumulus

𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠

can grow into can grow into

Much larger and more vertically developed.

Seen in the afternoon hours.

Small vertical growth, no precipitation
Showery precipitation, but not heavy.
 𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠 REMEMBER
or thunderstorm clouds

Tropopause level

A C𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑠 that continues to grow

vertically becomes a 𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠 or 𝐶𝑏 cloud. Heavy, showery precipitation
 • Heavy and intense precipitation. REMEMBER

Rain Shaft
 REMEMBER
Hail
• Heavy and intense precipitation.
• Various types of precipitation : large raindrops, small
raindrops, snow pellets, hailstones.
 REMEMBER

Warm Updraft

Downdraft hits the surface and spreads out,

Note that it encounters the warm updraft …

Big temperature difference (alternatively strong temperature gradient)

between the cold downdraft air and the nearly warm and humid updraft air.
 THE AIR-MASS THUNDERSTORM
REMEMBER

Cumulus stage Mature stage Dissipating stage

A C𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠 lifecycle
ELEMENTS of the CONVECTIVE STORMS
 THE UPDRAFT

TROPOPAUSE

THE UPDRAFTS are made of big numbers of buoyant

rising air masses, also called air parcels.

ADDITIONAL UPLIFT may be provided by

1. Convergence
2.Orographic uplift, uplift due to a warm or cold front (called frontal forcing)
 THE UPDRAFT

TROPOPAUSE

• Latent Heat Release due to

condensation of water vapour in the
ascending air parcels creates
additional buoyancy and
intensifies the updraft.

• Updraft air hits the tropopause and spreads

out horizontally giving the characteristic anvil cloud.
 ∙ THE DOWNDRAFT

TROPOPAUSE

𝑍0

WARM WARM
COLD POOL

The downdraft is made of a large numbers of descending air parcels.

It originates in the mid-levels (𝑍0 = 700-500 mb )

Initiated by : loading of the air parcel due to the weight of the water droplets.
This is enhanced through the evaporative cooling of falling droplets that make the
air masses colder and therefore increased the density and weight of the sinking
parcel.
TROPOPAUSE

𝑍0

WARM WARM
COLD POOL

Downdraft air hits surface and spreads out horizontally

thus creating a low level pool of cold air.

The pool of cold air moves like a current and is called the gust front.

Gust front : Front between the low-level pool of cold air

created by the downdraft and the surrounding warm air.
ROLL CLOUD
ANVIL
 WIND SHEAR

Wind shear is the difference in wind speed or

in wind direction between two levels of the atmosphere.

Wind in general increases with height.

Wind is always slower near the surface due to friction.

As we have seen earlier, geostrophic wind speed increases

with height as density decreases.
 GEOSTROPHIC WIND -- ESTIMATES REMEMBER

11
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 =
= ×
× (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑓𝑓 ×
× 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝𝑁
1 2 3

𝑉𝑔 𝑑
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.002 𝑃𝑎Τ𝑚
𝑝𝑆

𝑉𝑔 = 30 𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 = 2Ω 𝑠𝑖𝑛φ = 9.36 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑ൗ 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
Density decreases as we move up in the troposphere →
geostrophic wind speed increases
 WIND SHEAR

West surface
East

Difference in wind speed.

In the diagram above, the wind

blows from the west at all levels
but increases in strength with height.
 WIND SHEAR

W E

Difference in wind direction.

In the diagram above, the southerly wind

(blowing from the south) at low levels, turns to
a westerly wind (blowing from the west) in
upper levels.
An air mass thunderstorm grows in conditions of no-shear

This means that there is no background wind shear

to tilt the updrafts /downdrafts that develop in an
air-mass thunderstorm cloud.

NO SHEAR upright updrafts/downdraft

so: upright 𝑧
updrafts/downdrafts

COLD POOL
 Upright updraft/downdraft

So, the cold downdraft falls into the warm, buoyant air masses
that rise and form the updraft. This way the updraft is
eliminated.

→ so, the convective circulation does not persist

Dissipating stage : downdrafts dominate
 IMPORTANCE OF SHEAR

When there is big supply of warm and humid air at low levels of the
atmosphere:
the more the shear the more long-lived the convective circulation and the
resulting storm.
In no shear conditions convective developments, and the resulting storms are
shallow and short-lived.

𝑧
 Line of thunderstorms (called a squall line) as seen by weather radar

𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 N
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑

W E

S
𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑

Wind vector turns with height

The wind shear set-up commonly seen in central US
Line of thunderstorms (called a squall line) as seen by weather radar

Large size and high concentration of hydrometeors showing as high values of

reflectivity are the result of intense, long-lasting updrafts in the cloud.
STORM system travelling from south to north, and passing over MONTREAL
THE SQUALL LINE
 THE SQUALL LINE

Weather Radar Imagery

RED COLOR indicates high reflectivity and

therefore intense precipitation.

GREEN/BLUE COLOS indicate low reflectivities

and therefore moderate or weak precipitation
 A SQUALL-LINE
A two-dimensional convective system : it consists of thunderstorms,
in a straight line or, aligned in a bow shaped structure.

The squall may be a continuous line or may show breaks in between the individual
thunderstorm cells.

All thunderstorms of the squall propagate with uniform speed.

LOOKING UP FROM THE SURFACE AS THE SQUALL IS APPROACHING
 SQUALL CHARACTERISTIC

Strong wind shear in the low levels

𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑉

𝑾 𝑬
 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑉

Strong winds from west

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙 Weak winds from west

𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑾 𝑬
 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑉
To an observer moving
with the storm FIG. 1
Strong winds from west shows what the wind
feels like

Inflow into the storm from the

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙 weak winds from west East in the low levels, inflow
𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
into the storm from the West
in the upper levels.

FIG.1

𝑾 𝑬
Development of the SQUALL LINE
𝑾 𝑬

1. Due to the wind blowing into

the storm from the east at low
levels, warm, moist air is drawn
into the squall from the pre-
storm sector.
 𝑾 𝑬

2. The warm, moist air glides over the gust front and is lifted
upwards . As it is lifted, it is cooled, it reaches saturation and
the cloud base forms.

The uplift is provided by the cold pool that is created by the

downdraft air.
𝑾 𝑬

3. Dry air is continuously drawn into the squall from the west
because of the wind set-up.

Precipitation from the updraft is falling into this dry air. The falling
precipitation evaporates, thus moistening the air and cooling it
due to evaporative cooling.

This way the air becomes heavy and begins to sink thus creating
the downdraft and the gust front (that will help the warm humid
FIG.1
Note that a

TILTED UPDRAFT – TILTED DOWNDRAFT

is generated that permits the long term maintenance

of the squall.
WHY ?
FIG.1 is generated that permits the long term
maintenance of the squall. WHY ?

Cold downdraft is located to the rear of the

warm, humid air that feeds the squall.
to be continued ……