Name Range

Low Voltage 50 – 1000 V

Medium Voltage 1 kV – 100 kV
High Voltage 100 kV – 345 kV
EHV Voltage 345 kV – 765 kV
UHV Voltage > 765 kV

Dielectric loss refers to part of the energy being dissipated within a

dielectric in the form of heat when an alternating electric field is
applied. Dielectric loss depends on the dielectric's properties, with its
magnitude determined by the dielectric loss tangent and permittivity
values.
dielectric loss, loss of energy that goes into heating a dielectric
material in a varying electric field. For example, a capacitor
incorporated in an alternating-current circuit is alternately charged and
discharged each half cycle.

Commutation
To generate motion in a three-phase linear motor there must be
switching between the phases to energize appropriate windings. The
process of switching between the phases is called commutation. In
order to create the desired movement a controller must determine
which phase needs to be switched on.
Commutation in DC Machine or Commutation
in DC Generator or Motor
The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating
magnetic field, of a DC generator is alternating in nature. The
commutation in DC machine or more specifically commutation
in DC generator is the process in which generated alternating
current in the armature winding of a dc machine is converted into
direct current after going through the commutator and the
stationary brushes.
Again in DC Motor, the input DC is to be converted in alternating
form in armature and that is also done through commutation.
This transformation of current from the rotating armature of a DC
machine to the stationary brushes needs to maintain continuously
moving contact between the commutator segments and the
brushes. When the armature starts to rotate, then the coils situated
under one pole (let it be N pole) rotates between a positive brush
and its consecutive negative brush and the current flows through
this coil is in a direction inward to the commutator segments.
Then the coil is short circuited with the help of a brush for a very
short fraction of time (1⁄500 sec). It is called commutation period.
After this short-circuit time the armature coils rotates under S pole
and rotates between a negative brush and its succeeding positive
brush. Then the direction is reversed which is in the away from the
commutator segments. This phenomena of the reversal of current is
termed as commutation process. We get direct current from the
brush terminal.
The commutation is called ideal if the commutation process or the
reversal of current is completed by the end of the short circuit time
or the commutation period.

If the reversal of current is completed during the short circuit time

then there is sparking occurs at the brush contacts and the
commutator surface is damaged due to overheating and the
machine is called poorly commutated.

The skin effect is where alternating current tends to avoid travel

through the center of a solid conductor, limiting itself to conduction
near the surface.
This effectively limits the cross-sectional conductor area available to
carry alternating electron flow, increasing the resistance of that
conductor above what it would normally be for direct current:
 Skin effect: skin depth decreases with increasing frequency.

The electrical resistance of the conductor with all its cross-sectional

area in use is known as the “DC resistance.” The “AC resistance” of
the same conductor refers to a higher figure resulting from the skin
effect.
As you can see, at high frequencies the AC current avoids traveling
through most of the conductor’s cross-sectional area.

Skin effect is defined as the tendency of an AC current to distribute

unevenly over the cross-section of a conductor, such that the
current density is highest near the surface of the skin of the
conductor and decreases exponentially towards the core. This
means that the inner part of the conductor carries less current than
the outer part, resulting in increased effective resistance of the
conductor. Skin effect is defined as the tendency of an AC current
to distribute unevenly over the cross-section of a conductor, such
that the current density is highest near the surface of the skin of
the conductor and decreases exponentially towards the core. This
means that the inner part of the conductor carries less current than
the outer part, resulting in increased effective resistance of the
conductor.
Skin effect reduces the effective cross-sectional area of the
conductor available for current flow, which increases the power
losses and heating of the conductor. Skin effect also causes a
change in the impedance of the transmission line, which affects the
voltage and current distribution along the line. Skin effect is more
pronounced at higher frequencies, larger diameters, and lower
conductivities of the conductors.
Skin effect does not occur in direct current (DC) systems, because
the current flows uniformly throughout the cross-section of the
conductor. However, in AC systems, especially those operating at
high frequencies such as radio and microwave systems, the skin
effect can have significant impacts on the design and analysis of
transmission lines and other components.
The formula for calculating skin depth for a cylindrical conductor
with a circular cross-section is:

δ = sqrt(2/ωµσ)

where:

 δ is the skin depth (in meters)

 ω is the angular frequency of the AC current (in radians per
second)
 μ is the permeability of the conductor (in henries per meter)
 σ is the conductivity of the conductor (in siemens per meter)
What Is Skin Effect?
When an Alternating Current flows through a conductor, it is not distributed uniformly
throughout the conductor cross-section. AC current has a tendency to concentrate near
the surface of the conductor. This phenomenon in alternating currents is called as
the skin effect. Due to the skin effect, current is concentrated between the outer
surface of the conductor and a level called as the skin depth (skin depth is shown by ẟ
in the following figure). If the frequency of AC current is very high, the current is
restricted to a very thin layer near the conductor surface. Skin effect increases with
increase in the frequency.
Due to skin effect, the effective cross-section of the conductor through which the current
flows is reduced. Consequently, the effective resistance of the conductor is slightly
increased.

The Cause Of Skin Effect

Imagine a solid conductor split into a large number of strands, each strand carrying a small part
of current. The inductance of each strand will vary according to its position. Strands located at
the center would be surrounded by a greater magnetic flux and, therefore, will have a larger
inductance than those near the surface. Higher inductance (and hence, higher reactance) of the
inner strands causes the alternating current to flow through the strands having lower reactance,
i.e. near the surface.
The skin effect depends upon the following factors:
 Conductor material: Better conductors and ferromagnetic materials experience higher skin
effect
 Cross-sectional area of the conductor: skin effect increases with increase in the cross-
sectional area
 Frequency: increases with increase in the frequency
 Shape of the conductor: skin effect is lesser for stranded conductors than solid conductors
  Proximity Effect
 When two or more conductors carrying alternating current are close to each
other, then distribution of current in each conductor is affected due to the varying
magnetic field of each other. The varying magnetic field produced by alternating
current induces eddy currents in the adjacent conductors. Due to this, when the
nearby conductors carrying current in the same direction, the current is
concentrated at the farthest side of the conductors. When the nearby
conductors are carrying current in opposite direction to each other, the current is
concentrated at the nearest parts of the conductors. This effect is called
as Proximity effect. The proximity effect also increases with increase in the
frequency. Effective resistance of the conductor is increased due to the proximity
effect.


 Skin effect and proximity effect both are absent in case of DC currents, as frequency of
DC current is zero.

Corona Discharge - Its Effects and Methods of

Reducing It
 Electrical power transmission generally deals with very high voltages as a bulk amount
of electrical energy has to be transmitted from generating stations to load centers. At this
much high voltages, an effect called as corona effect is introduced. As this corona
effect results in loss of electrical energy, it is also called as corona discharge.

What Is Corona Effect In Transmission Line?

 Have you ever heard a hissing noise when standing below a high voltage transmission
line? That hissing noise is due to the corona discharge. Corona discharge is usually
 accompanied by a hissing or cracking audible noise, visual violet glow, production of
ozone gas around the conductor, power loss and radio interference.
When a potential difference is applied between two conductors, a potential gradient (or electric
field) is set up in the air. This potential gradient is maximum at the surfaces of the conductors.
Under the influence of this potential gradient, existing free electrons in the air acquire greater
velocities. Some free electrons are always present in the air due to cosmic rays, UV
radiations etc. Greater the applied voltage, greater the potential gradient and, hence, greater
the velocity of free electrons.

When the potential gradient at conductor surfaces is large enough (about 30 kV/cm),
existing free electrons strike neutral air molecules with enough velocity to dislodge one
or more electrons from it. Hence, cumulative ionization of the air near the conductor
surfaces occurs. Ionized air is partially conductive. Electric discharge occurs due to
the ionized air which results in corona. And if the conductors are close enough to
each other, the air insulation breaks down and electric discharge occurs through
a spark.
The minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona starts to occur is called as critical
disruptive voltage. And, the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which visual corona glow
appears all along the conductors is called as visual critical voltage.

Factors Affecting Corona

 Atmosphere: As it is already explained that the corona forms due to ionization of the air.
There are always some free electrons in the air (which means air is pre-ionized to a little
extent). However, in stormy weather, the number of free electrons is more than that in
normal conditions. In such case, corona occurs at much lesser voltage.
 Conductor size: Corona discharge also depends on the shape and size of the
conductors. Irregularities on the conductor surface concentrate the electric field at
locations, resulting in corona at these spots. Thus, a stranded conductor gives rise to
more corona than a solid conductor with a smooth surface. Also, conductors having
large diameter have lower electric field gradient at the surface. Hence, conductors
having large diameter produce lower corona than small-diameter conductors.
 Spacing between the conductors: Larger distance between the conductors reduces the
electric stresses between them. And, hence, larger the distance between conductors,
lesser the corona formation.
 Line voltage: As it is already explained, lesser the line voltage, lesser the ionization of
surrounding air. Corona discharge starts to occur when the voltage becomes greater than
a minimum critical voltage called as critical disruptive voltage.

How to Reduce the Corona Discharge?

Corona discharge is always accompanied by power loss (which is dissipated in the form of
sound, light, heat and chemical action). Though it accounts for a small percentage of total
losses, power loss due to corona becomes significant in foul or wet weather conditions.
Corona discharge can be reduced by the following methods:
  By increasing the conductor size: As explained above, larger the diameter of the
conductor, lesser the corona discharge.
 By increasing the distance between conductors: Larger the conductor spacing, lesser
the corona.
 Using bundled conductors: Using a bundled conductor increases the effective diameter
of the conductor. This results in reduction of the corona discharge.
 Using corona rings: The electric field is greater where the conductor curvature is sharp.
Therefore, corona discharge occurs first at the sharp points, edges and corners. To
mitigate this, corona rings are employed at the terminals of very high voltage equipments
such as at the bushings of a very high voltage transformer (Corona discharge also occurs
in high voltage equipment). A corona ring is electrically connected to the high voltage
conductor, encircling the points where corona discharge may occur. This significantly
reduces the potential gradient at the surface of the conductor, as the ring distributes the
charge across a wider area due to its smooth round shape.

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AC FAULTS OCCURING IN AN HVDC SYSTEM:

 A) AC Fault: AC fault occurs in the AC grids of the HVDC system. This may occur in the AC grid
on the rectifier side or inverter side. Faults on rectifier side AC grid cause less problems
compared to that on the inverter side. In the inverter side, the AC faults cause the short circuit
in the converter circuit. This is known as commutation failure in the HVDC system. AC faults are
mainly of two types; L-G fault and three phase fault. Single line to ground fault (L-G fault) is the
most commonly occurring type of fault. This causes an unbalanced current flow in the AC
system. Whereas three phase fault is the rarest and the dangerous one. These cause
commutation failure in the inverter station.

 B) Commutation Failure Due to AC Faults Commutation failures following AC system

disturbances may occur in HVDC systems, mostly in the inverter station. The sensitivity of an
HVDC inverter to commutation failure depends on the circuit design and on the control system.
The commutation failures may happen during an AC system disturbance due to the voltage
 reduction. Repeated commutation failures generally cause overcurrent in the valves and also
delay the restart time of the HVDC system after the fault clears. In a severe situation it might
also cause the protection system to block the valves.
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Surge impedance loading, commonly called SIL, is a quantity used
by system operators as a benchmark to determine whether a
transmission line is acting as a capacitance that injects reactive power
(VARs) into the system or as an inductance that consumes VARs, thus
contributing to reactive power losses in the system.

Surge Impedance Loading

Capacitance and reactance are the main parameters of the transmission
line. It is distributed uniformly along the line. These parameters are also
called distributed parameters. When the voltage drops occur in
transmission line due to inductance, it is compensated by the capacitance
of the transmission line.

The transmission line generates capacitive reactive volt-amperes in its

shunt capacitance and absorbing reactive volt-amperes in its series
inductance. The load at which the inductive and capacitive reactive
volt-amperes are equal and opposite, such load is called surge
impedance load.

It is also called natural load of the transmission line because power is not
dissipated in transmission. In surge impedance loading, the voltage and
current are in the same phase at all the point of the line. When the surge
impedance of the line has terminated the power delivered by it is called
surge impedance loading.
Shunt capacitance charges the transmission line when the circuit breaker
at the sending end of the line is close. As shown below

Let V = phase voltage at the receiving end

L = series inductance per phase
XL = series inductance reactance per phase
XC = shunt capacitance reactance per phase
Zo = surge impedance loading per phase

Capacitive volt-amperes (VAr) generated in the line

The series inductance of the line consumes the electrical energy when the
sending and receiving end terminals are closed.
Inductive reactive volt-amperes (VAr) absorbed by the line

Under natural load, the reactive power becomes terminated, and the load
becomes purely resistive.

And it is calculated by the formula given below

Surge impedance loading is also defined as the power load in which the
total reactive power of the lines becomes zero. The reactive power
generated by the shunt capacitance is consumed by the series inductance
of the line.

If Po is its natural load of the lines, (SIL)1∅ of the line per phase

Since the load is purely resistive,

Thus, per phase power transmitted under surge impedance loading is

2
(VP )/ZO watts, Where Vp is the phase voltage.
If kVL is the receiving end voltage in kV, then

Surge impedance loading depends on the voltage of the transmission line.

Practically surge impedance loading always less than the maximum loading
capacity of the line.

If the load is less than the SIL, reactive volt-amperes are generated, and
the voltage at the receiving end is greater than the sending end voltage. On
the other hand, if the SIL is greater than the load, the voltage at receiving
end is smaller because the line absorbs reactive power.

If the shunt conductance and resistance are neglected and SIL is equal to
the load than the voltage at both the ends will be equal.

Conclusion

Surge impedance load is the ideal load because the current and voltage
are uniform along the line. The wave of current and voltage is also in phase
because the reactive power consumed are equal to the reactive power
generated by the transmission line.

How to reduce Ferranti effect: This effect can be controlled by placing

the shunt reactors at the receiving end of the lines. A shunt reactor is
an inductive current element connected between line and neutral to
compensate for the capacitive current from transmission lines.
