Circle Geometry

for High School students

gerrit stols

Download the Circle Geometry App and explore and discover

geometry: now with interactive sketches & answers
 Circle Geometry
for
High School Students

Gerrit Stols

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First published 2014

© Gerrit Stols 2014

For more free manuals and other resources visit http://school-maths.com.

please email me comments and feedback for improvement: gerrit.stols@gmail.com

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Table of Content
Theorem 1: A line from the centre to a chord ......................................................................................... 4
Proof of conjecture 1 ........................................................................................................................... 6
Review ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Theorem 2: The perpendicular bisector of a chord ............................................................................... 11
Applications ...................................................................................................................................... 12
Proof of Conjecture 2 ........................................................................................................................ 13
Theorem 3: Angle subtended by an arc or chord ................................................................................. 15
Proof of Conjecture 3 ........................................................................................................................ 18
Review ............................................................................................................................................... 20
Theorem 4: Angles in a circle ............................................................................................................... 23
Proof of Conjecture 4 ........................................................................................................................ 26
Review ............................................................................................................................................... 27
Theorem 5: Cyclic quadrilaterals .......................................................................................................... 30
Proof of Conjecture 5a ...................................................................................................................... 32
Review ............................................................................................................................................... 33
Theorem 6: Tangents to a circle ............................................................................................................ 36
Proof of Conjecture 6 ........................................................................................................................ 39
Review ............................................................................................................................................... 40
Applications of Theorem 6 ................................................................................................................ 42
Theorem 7: Angle between a tangent and a chord ................................................................................ 43
Proof of Conjecture 7 ........................................................................................................................ 45
Review ............................................................................................................................................... 46
Complex problems (riders) .................................................................................................................... 49
Summary of circle geometry theorems.................................................................................................. 50
Project.................................................................................................................................................... 59
Axiomatic system .................................................................................................................................. 61
Axioms .............................................................................................................................................. 61
Logic and proofs................................................................................................................................ 63
More circle relationships ....................................................................................................................... 65
Ptolemy's theorem ............................................................................................................................. 65
ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................................ 70
SELECTED SOLUTIONS .................................................................................................................... 72

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Introduction
Circles are everywhere. We are so used to circles that we do not notice them in
our daily lives. In this book you are about to discover the many hidden properties
of circles.

This book will help you to visualise, understand and enjoy geometry. It offers
text, videos, interactive sketches, and assessment items. The book will capture the
essence of mathematics. Mathematicians are pattern hunters who search for
hidden relationships. They also prove and use these relationships to solve
problems. In this book you will explore interesting properties of circles and then
prove them. Let’s just review some important ideas about circles before we
continue with the discoveries.

We use a compass to draw a circle.

 The distance between the pin of the
compass and pencil is the radius of the
circle. Any point on the circle is therefore
the same distance from the centre.
 The centre of the circle is at the sharp point
of the compass.

1
 Investigation 0-1: Drag the points and try to describe a diameter, chord and arc of
a circle in your own words.

Download
the Circle
Geometry

We define a diameter, chord and arc of a circle as follows:

 The distance across a circle through the centre is called the diameter. Thus, the
diameter of a circle is twice as long as the radius.
 A chord of a circle is a line that connects two points on a circle.
 An arc is a part of a circle.

You will use results that were established in earlier grades to prove the circle
relationships, this include:
 Angles on a straight line add up to 180° (supplementary).
 The angles in a triangle add up to 180°.
 In an isosceles (two equal sides) triangle the two angles opposite the equal
sides are themselves equal.
 The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of interior opposite
angles.

You will use results that were established in earlier grades to prove the circle
relationships, this include:
 Angles on a straight line add up to 180° (supplementary).
 The angles in a triangle add up to 180°.
 In an isosceles (two equal sides) triangle the two angles opposite the equal
sides are themselves equal.
 The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of interior opposite
angles.

You will often use congruency in proofs. Geometric figures that have the same
shape and the same size are congruent. If ΔABC is congruent to ΔDEF we write
ΔABC ≡ ΔDEF. As soon as you use this notation the order of the vertices are
important. If we move one triangle on top of the other triangle so that all the parts
coincide, then vertex A will be on top of vertex D, vertex B will be on top of
vertex E, and vertex C will be on top of vertex F.

The minimum conditions for congruency of triangles require three pieces of

information:

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 Side, side, side (SSS): If the three sides of one triangle are equal to the
three corresponding sides of the other triangle, then the two triangles are
congruent.

 Side, side, included angle (SAS): If any two sides and the included angle
of one triangle are equal to the corresponding two sides and the included
angle of the other triangle, the two triangles are congruent.

 Angle, angles & corresponding sides (ASA): If any two angles and a side
of one triangle are equal to the corresponding the angles and side of the
other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

 Right-angle, hypotenuse, side (RHS): If the hypotenuse and a side of one

right-angled triangle are respectively equal to the hypotenuse and a side
of the other right-angled triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

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 THEOREM 1: A LINE FROM THE CENTRE TO A CHORD
Inductive reasoning is what mathematicians use to discover relationships and
patterns. We refer to a new discovery as a conjecture. In this section you will
explore and discover interesting relationships about perpendicular lines and
chords of circles. To express these relationships in your own words you need the
following terminology:
 Perpendicular means 90°
 Bisects means to divide into two equal parts
 A chord of a circle is a line that connects two points on the circle.

Investigation 1-1a: This investigation is about a line drawn from the centre to a
chord. Drag the point E. What do you notice about the length of CE and DE when
the angle is 90°? Change the chord by dragging C and D and repeat the process.

Use the
interactive
sketch in
your App

Complete the statement: If the angle is 90° then CE = .....

It is important for you to explore and to try to describe the relationship in your
own words before you continue reading. This statement must be expressed in such
a way that you can explain your new discovery to somebody over a phone. You
need to explain your discovery without referring to this specific sketch. You can
use words like circle, centre, segment, chord, bisect, perpendicular.

Conjecture 1a: If a line is drawn from the centre of a circle perpendicular to a

chord, then it bisects the chord.

Investigation 1-1b: Drag the point E in the previous sketch. What do you notice
about the angle if CE = DE?

The converse of Conjecture 1a is also true:

Conjecture 1b: If a line is drawn from the centre of a circle to the midpoint of a
chord, then the line is perpendicular to the chord.

We can use these conjectures about the relationship between the line and the
chord to solve problems.

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Exercise 1.1

1. Calculate the value of p.

2. Calculate the value of q.

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PROOF OF CONJECTURE 1
We already discovered and state:
Conjecture 1a: If a line is drawn from the centre of a circle perpendicular to a
chord, then it bisects the chord.

Is conjecture 1a always valid? As mentioned a mathematician does not accept any

result without proof. Note that a proof for the statement “if A is true then B is also
true” is an attempt to verify that B is a logical result of having assumed that A is
true. You will have to discover the linking relationship between A and B.

Can you think of a way to prove the conjecture? There are different ways to prove
the conjecture: you can use congruency of triangles or the Pythagoras theorem.
Here is an alternative proof of conjecture 1a based on Pythagoras theorem.

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The proof of Conjecture 1a is based on congruency of triangles:

Construction: Connect OA and OB.

Strategy: If we can show that ΔAXO and ΔBXO are congruent then the sides AX
and BX must be equal.
Given: OX AB
Required to prove: AX = XB

Proof:
In ΔAOX and ΔBOX is:
OX = OX (common)
OA = OB (radii)
90° (given)
Then ΔAOX ≡ ΔBOX (90°, hypotenuse, side)
Therefore AX = XB (congruency)

After you manage to prove your conjecture, it will become a theorem:

Theorem 1a: If a line is drawn from the centre of a circle perpendicular to a

chord, then it bisects the chord.

How will you prove Conjecture 1b which states that if a line is drawn from the
centre of a circle to the midpoint of a chord, then the line is perpendicular to the
chord?

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REVIEW
The conjectures that were proved are called theorems and can be used in future
proofs. In this lesson you discovered and proved the following:

Theorem 1a: If a line is drawn from the centre of a circle perpendicular to a

chord, then it bisects the chord.

The converse of this theorem:

Theorem 1b: If a line is drawn from the centre of a circle to the midpoint of a
chord, then the line is perpendicular to the chord.

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Exercise 1.2

1. Calculate the value of r.

2. Calculate the value of s.

3. Prove Conjecture1b:If a line is drawn from the centre of a circle to the

midpoint of a chord, then the line is perpendicular to the chord.

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4. EG is a chord of the circle with centre O. CF is perpendicular to EG. DF =
4DC and CD = 3 cm. Calculate the length of EG.

5. The equation of the line is 2 10 and that of the circle 25.

If AE DC calculate the length of DE.

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THEOREM 2: THE PERPENDICULAR BISECTOR OF A
CHORD
The following investigation is about the perpendicular bisector of a chord.
A perpendicular bisector is a perpendicular line that passes through the midpoint
of a line segment. You will also remember that a chord of a circle is a line that
connects two points on the circle. To state conjectures in mathematical words you
need to know that perpendicular means 90° and that bisects means to divide into
two equal parts.

Investigation 2-1: What do you notice about the perpendicular bisector when
both of the red points are on the circle (when the red line is a chord)?

We refer to a new discovery as a conjecture.

Conjecture 2: If the perpendicular bisector of a chord is drawn, then it passes

through the centre of the circle.

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APPLICATIONS
We can use this theorem to locate the centre of any circle. Just construct two
chords and their perpendicular bisectors.

Investigation 2-2: Drag the chords. What do you notice about the intersection of
the perpendicular bisectors?

Corollary: The centre of a circle is on the perpendicular bisector of any chord,

therefore their intersection point is the centre.

The conjecture also explains why we use perpendicular bisectors if we want to

construct a circle circumscribed about a triangle.

Investigation 2-3: Drag the vertices of the triangle, what do you notice about the
intersection of the bisectors?

Corollary: The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle meet at the

centre of the circumscribed circle.

The triangle consists of three chords. According to Theorem 2 the centre of the
circle should be on the perpendicular bisectors of all three chords (sides) of the
triangle.

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PROOF OF CONJECTURE 2
We already discovered and stated Conjecture 2: If the perpendicular bisector of a
chord is drawn, then it passes through the centre of the circle. But as mentioned a
mathematician does not accept any result without proof. Note that a proof for the
statement “if A is true then B is also true” is an attempt to verify that B is a
logical result of having assumed that A is true. You will have to discover the
linking relationship between A and B.

The first step in any proof is to recognise the statements A and B. In general,
everything after the word “if” and before the word, ‘then’ or the comma, is
statement A, the premise or everything that you assume to be true. Everything
after the word “then” is the statement “B” or the conclusion that you have to
prove.

Strategy: We will show that if we construct any random chord the centre is on the
perpendicular bisector of the chord. Let O be the centre of the circle. Draw any
chord AB and let X be the midpoint of the chord: that is AX = BX.
Construction: Construct OA, OD, and OB.
Given: AX = BX and 90°

Proof:
Assume that OX does not pass through the perpendicular bisector of a chord then
90°.
In ΔAOX and ΔBOX is:
OX = OX (common)
OA = OB (radii)
AX = BX (construction)
Therefore ΔAOX ≡ ΔBOX (side, side, side)
Then
Therefore 90° (angles on a straight line)
Then OX is a perpendicular bisector of chord AB with the centre O on it.

We can therefore state a new theorem after the conjecture has been proved:

Theorem 2: If the perpendicular bisector of a chord is drawn, then it passes

through the centre of the circle.

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Exercise 2.1

1. Points A(2; -6), B(16; 8) and C(2; 14) is on a circle. Find the coordinates of the
centre of this circle.

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THEOREM 3: ANGLE SUBTENDED BY AN ARC OR
CHORD
You will remember that:
 A chord of a circle is a line that connects two points on a circle.
 An arc is a part of a circle.
 An angle P is subtended (or created) by the end points of a line segment AB
(or any two points A and B) is the angle ∠APB or .

This investigation is about the relationship between an angle subtended by an arc

or chord at the centre of a circle and the angle subtended by the same arc at the
circle.

Investigation 3-1: Drag the points. What do you notice about the sizes of the
angles at the centre and on the circle? Describe this relationship in your own
words (make a conjecture).

Conjecture 3: The angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a circle is double

the size of the angle subtended by the same arc at the circle.

It is important to notice that the angle on the circle must be on the same side of
the chord as the centre.

From Conjecture 3 we know that the angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a
circle is double the size of the angle subtended by the same arc at the circle. What
do you think is the angle on the circle if the angle at the centre is 180°.

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Investigation 3-2: Drag the points until the angle at the centre is 180°. What did
you notice about the sizes of the angle on the circle? Describe this relationship in
your own words (make a conjecture).

A diameter is the distance across a circle through the centre.

Drag the point on the circle to confirm your finding:

This discovery is named after Thales of Miletus who lived 624- 546 BC.

Thales’ theorem: The angle subtended on the circle by the diameter is always
90°.

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Investigation 3-3: Drag the point X inside, outside and on the circle. What did
you notice about the size of the angle at point X? Describe this relationship in
your own words (make a conjecture).

Exercise 3.1

1. Calculate the size of a, b, c, d, e and f.

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PROOF OF CONJECTURE 3
Conjecture 3: The angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a circle is double
the size of the angle subtended by the same arc at the circle.

Given: Circle with centre O and arc AB subtending at the centre and at
the circle.
Construction: Draw a line through O and C.
Required to prove: 2
The proof of conjecture 3 is also tricky because there is more than one possible
case.
Case 1: Let = α and = β

=α (Base angles of isosceles ΔOAC; OA = OC = radius)

Hence 2 (External angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the
opposite interior angles)
Similarly 2
Then = 2α + 2β = 2(α+β) = 2

Case 2: Let = α and =β

=α (Angles of isosceles ΔOAC; OA = OC = radius)

Hence 2 (External angle of a triangle = sum of interior angles)
Similarly if then 2
Then = 2α – 2β = 2(α–β) = 2 ( )=2
Therefore 2

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A conjecture is a proposition that is not yet proved. After providing a proof for a
conjecture, we call the conjecture a theorem.

Theorem 3: The angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a circle is double the
size of the angle subtended by the same arc at the circle (on the same side of the
chord as the centre)

Here is a video explanation of the proof of Figure 3:

Some of you may prefer an alternative proof:

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REVIEW
Theorem 3: The angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a circle is double the
size of the angle subtended by the same arc at the circle (on the same side of the
chord as the centre)

A special case of Theorem 3: Thales’ theorem

 The angle subtended on the circle by the diameter is always 90º; or
 An angle in a semicircle is always a right angle.

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Exercise 3.2

1. O is the centre of the circle. Calculate angle a.

2. O is the centre of the circle. Calculate angle b.

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3. O is the centre of the circle. Calculate angle c.

4. O is the centre of the circle. Calculate angle b.

5. Prove Thales’ Theorem.

6. Use Thales’ theorem to construct a right angle.

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 THEOREM 4: ANGLES IN A CIRCLE
An arc is a part of a circle and the associated chord is a line segment joining the
endpoints of the arc. An angle subtended by an arc or chord is one whose two rays
pass through the endpoints of that arc or chord. For example in the accompanying
figure arc or chord AB subtends both of the angles = α and =β

The next investigation is about the relationship between angles subtended by an

arc or chord on a circle.

Investigation 4-1: Drag the points; what do you notice about the sizes of the
angles on the circle? Describe this relationship in your own words (make a
conjecture).

Conjecture 4a: If angles on a circle are subtended by the same chord or arc
THEN the two angles are equal.

It is important to notice that the angle on the circle must be on the same side of
the chord. Why do you think does the relationship hold?

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Investigation 4-2: The converse of Conjecture 4: Drag the two angles until they
are equal; what do you notice? Make a conjecture.

Conjecture 4b: If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two
other points on the same side of a line segment, these four points are on the same
circle.

Points that are on a circle are called concyclic. A related conjecture is about
angles subtended by equal chords or arcs:

Corollary: Angles subtended by equal chords or arcs have the same size.

A corollary is just a proposition that follows from one already proved.

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Exercise 4.1

Use the given information to calculate the size of the red angle in each case:

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PROOF OF CONJECTURE 4
The proof of conjecture 4 is straightforward. In fact, you have used the idea
behind this proof to solve the last question of the previous exercise. It follows
from Theorem 3.

Conjecture 4: Angles subtended by a chord of the circle, on the same side of the
chord, are equal.

Given: Circle with centre O and a chord CD subtending and in the

same segment. Let = α.
Construction: Draw CO and DO
Required to prove:

Proof:
2 2 (Angle at the centre = 2 × angle on the circle)
2 (Angle at the centre = 2 × angle on the circle)
Hence

After proving Conjecture 4 we can use it in future proofs and state the following
theorem:

Theorem 4: Angles subtended by a chord of the circle, on the same side of the
chord, are equal.

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REVIEW
Theorem 4: Angles subtended by a chord of the circle, on the same side of
the chord, are equal.

Exercise 4.2

1. Calculate the size of a.

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2. Calculate the size of b.

3. Calculate the size of c.

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4. Calculate the size of d.

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THEOREM 5: CYCLIC QUADRILATERALS
You already know that:
 Quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides and four vertices.
 Supplementary means that the sum of the angles is 180°.
 Cyclic means that the vertices are on a circle.

In this section we will investigate properties of cyclic quadrilaterals, that is, a

quadrilateral with all four vertices on a circle.

Investigation 5-1a: Drag the vertices onto the circle; what do you notice about
the size of the two opposite angles? Make a conjecture.

Two angles are supplementary if they add to 180°.

Conjecture 5a: If a quadrilateral is cyclic, then the opposite angles are

supplementary.

Investigation 5-1b: You can use the previous sketch to investigate the converse
of the conjecture. Drag the vertices until the opposite angles are supplementary;
what do you notice?

Conjecture 5b: If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then

the quadrilateral is cyclic.

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Exercise 5.1

1. Calculate the size of a, b, c and e.

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PROOF OF CONJECTURE 5A
Conjecture 5a: If a quadrilateral is cyclic, then the opposite angles are
supplementary.

Given: Circle O containing cyclic quadrilateral ABCD. Let = α and =β

Construction: Draw OB and OD.
Required to prove: = α + β = 180°, = 180°

Proof
2 2 & 2 2 (Angles at centre 2 × angle at
circumference)
but 2
Hence 2α + 2β = 360° (Angles around a point)
Then = α + β = 180°
We also know that = 180° because the sum of the interior angles of a
quadrilateral is 360°

Theorem 5: The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.

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REVIEW
Theorem 5a: The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.

Theorem 5b: If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then the
quadrilateral is cyclic.

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Exercise 5.2

1. Calculate the size of a and b.

2. Calculate the size of c.

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3. Calculate the size of d.

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THEOREM 6: TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
The first investigation is about a tangent and a radius of a circle. A tangent to a
circle is a line that meets the circle at just one point and perpendicular means 90°.
To solve problems and do proofs in this section you should also know the
Theorem of Pythagoras.

Investigation 6-1: Drag the points; what do you notice about the angle between
the tangent and radius? Describe this relationship in your own words (make a
conjecture).

We will accept this conjecture and use it to prove other conjectures. This is why
we use the word axiom. An axiom is a statement that we accept as true. You will
notice that we also use all the results about congruency and triangles that we
established in earlier grades as axioms to prove the circle conjectures.

Axiom: A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of

contact.

An axiom is a statement that we accept as true without proving it. The next
investigation is about the relationship between two tangents drawn from the same
point outside the circle.

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Investigation 6-2: Drag the points; what do you notice about the length of the
tangents? Describe this relationship in your own words (make a conjecture).

Conjecture 6: If two tangents are drawn from the same point outside the circle,
then they are equal in length.

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Exercise 6.1

Calculate the size of a, b, c, d and e. The red line is a radius and the blue line is a
tangent.

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PROOF OF CONJECTURE 6
We will accept and use the following axiom to prove Conjecture 6:

Conjecture 6: If two tangents are drawn from the same point outside the circle,
then they are equal in length.

An axiom is a statement that we accept as true. You will notice that we also use
all the results about congruency and triangles that we established in earlier grades
as axioms to prove the circle conjectures.

Axiom: A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius, drawn to the point of

contact.

Given: Circle O with tangents BC and AC from point C.

Construction: Draw OB, AO and OC.
Required to prove: BC = AC

Proof:
In ΔOBC and ΔOAC:
OC is a common side
OB = OA (radii)
(Axiom: a tangent is perpendicular to the radius)
Hence ΔOBC ≡ ΔOAC (90°angle, side, hypotenuse)
Therefore BC = AC

Theorem 6: If two tangents are drawn from the same point outside the circle, then
they are equal in length.

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REVIEW
Axiom: A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of
contact.

Conjecture 6: If two tangents are drawn from the same point outside the circle,
then they are equal in length.

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Exercise 6.2

1. A girl sits in a building, 50 m high, and stares at the sea looking for ships. How
far can she see? Assume that the circumference of the earth is 42 650 km.

2. Determine the equations of the tangents to the circle 5 through

point C(−1; 3).

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APPLICATIONS OF THEOREM 6
This video illustration shows different kinds of common tangents to two circles.

Investigation 6-3: The circle is inscribed in a quadrilateral ABCD. Drag points A

and C. Add the sum of the two opposite sides of the quadrilateral; what do you
notice? Make a conjecture and prove the conjecture.

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THEOREM 7: ANGLE BETWEEN A TANGENT AND A
CHORD

In the diagram chord CD divides a circle in two areas or

segments: segment A (red) and segment B (blue).
The alternate segment refers to the other segments. The
alternate of segment A, is segment B.

This next investigation is about the relationship between

the tangent to a circle and the chord drawn from the
point of contact.

Investigation 7-1: Drag the points; what do you notice about the length of the
tangents? Describe this relationship in your own words (make a conjecture).

Conjecture 7a: The angle between a tangent to a circle and a chord drawn from
the point of contact is equal to an angle in the alternate segment.

Why do you think it is necessary to add the requirement about the alternate
segment to Conjecture 7a? You can use the next sketch to investigate the converse
of the conjecture.

Investigation 7-2: Drag the vertices until the line is tangent to the circle; what do
you notice about the angles?

Conjecture 7b: If a line is drawn through an endpoint of a chord, forming an

angle equal to an angle in the alternate segment, then the line is a tangent to the
circle.

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Exercise 7.1

Calculate the size of a, b, c, d, e and f.

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PROOF OF CONJECTURE 7
Conjecture 7a: The angle between a tangent to a circle and a chord drawn from
the point of contact is equal to an angle in the alternate segment.

Given: Circle O with a tangent AB at A.

Construction: Draw diameter AOE and chord CE. Let .
Required to prove: &

Proof
Draw diameter AE and join F and C.
(Angles on the circle subtended by chord AC)
and = 90° (Angles in a semi-circle)
then = 90° − α (The sum of the interior angles of AEC =
180°)
but = 90° (Assumption: a tangent is perpendicular to the
radius)
+ (90° − α) = 90° ( = 90°  α)
=α
180° (Angles on a straight line)
and 180° (Sum of the interior angles of ACD)
therefore

Theorem 7a: The angle between a tangent to a circle and a chord drawn from the
point of contact is equal to an angle in the alternate segment.

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REVIEW
Theorem 7a: The angle between the tangent to a circle and the chord drawn from
the point of contact is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.

Theorem 7b: If a line is drawn through an endpoint of a chord, forming an angle

equal to an angle in the alternate segment, then the line is a tangent to the circle.

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Exercise 7.2

1. Calculate the size of angles c, d and e if DH is a tangent to the circle. O is the

centre of the circle. Give a reason for each statement.

2. Calculate the size of angles f and g if DC is a tangent to the circle. ∥ .

Give a reason for each statement.

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3. Calculate the size of angle a if all the blue line segments are tangents to the
circles. Give a reason for each statement.

4. Calculate the size of angle b if all the blue line segments are tangents to the
circles. Give a reason for each statement.

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COMPLEX PROBLEMS (RIDERS)

In this section you will use the circle geometry theorems to solve more complex
problems. Sometimes they refer to a complex problem as a rider. In all the
problems to date we have used the theorems to calculate angles. In this section we
will use the theorems to prove angles in more complex problems equal. These
relationships are not only valid for a specific number but is for any angles. Let’s
look at an example:

Prove that .

Proof
(Theorem 4a: Angles subtended by a chord at the circle
are equal)
but (Vertically opposite angles are equal)
and (Theorem 4a: Angles subtended by a chord at the circle
are equal)
Hence

In summary the chain of reasoning is: A C C A .

But before we look at more complex problems let’s summarise what you have
learnt.

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SUMMARY OF CIRCLE GEOMETRY THEOREMS
In this section you will use the circle geometry theorems to solve more complex
problems. In the following summary the given "if" information is in blue and the
conclusion "then" in red:
Theorem 1b: If a
line is drawn from
Theorem 1a: The
the centre of a
line drawn from the
circle to the
centre of a circle
midpoint of a
perpendicular to a
chord, then that
chord bisects the
line is
chord.
perpendicular to
the chord.

Theorem 2: The
perpendicular
bisector of a chord
passes through the
centre of the circle.

Theorem 3: The
angle subtended by
an arc at the centre
of a circle is double
the size of the angle
subtended by the
same arc at the
circle (on the same
side of the chord as
the centre).
Theorem 4b: If a
line segment
Theorem 4a: joining two points
Angles subtended subtends equal
by a chord at the angles at two other
circle on the same points on the same
side of the chord side of a line
are equal. segment, these four
points are
concyclic.
Theorem 5b: If
the opposite angles
Theorem 5a: The
of a quadrilateral
opposite angles of a
are supplementary,
cyclic quadrilateral
then the
are supplementary.
quadrilateral is
cyclic.

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Theorem 6: Two Axiom: A tangent
tangents drawn to a to a circle is
circle from the perpendicular to
same point outside the radius drawn to
the circle are equal the point of
in length. contact.

Theorem 7b: The

Theorem 7a: The
angle between the
angle between a
tangent to a circle
tangent to a circle
and the chord
and a chord drawn
drawn from the
from the point of
point of contact is
contact is equal to
equal to the angle
an angle in the
in the alternate
alternate segment.
segment.

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Exercise 8.1

1. If GH || DE and GH is a tangent to the circle, prove that .

2. FJ is a tangent to circle FGLD.

Prove that
a)
b) ΔFJH is isosceles.

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3. If EF || CD, prove that .

4. If EF is a tangent to the circle and EF || HJ prove that .

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HOW DO I PROVE A QUAD IS CYCLIC OR A LINE IS A TANGENT?
As seen in the previous questions we can be asked directly or indirectly to prove
that two angles are equal. For example, instead of asking you to prove that
, I can also ask you to prove that ΔFJH is isosceles. In this case you first need
to interpret the question in terms angles.

Prove that two lines are parallel

Prove a pair of corresponding angles or alternate angles equal or that the sum of a
pair of co-interior angles is supplementary (180°).

Prove that a quadrilateral is cyclic (or that four points are concyclic)
We can use Theorems 4b or 5b to prove that a quadrilateral is cyclic. Cyclic
means that it is possible to construct a circle through all four vertices of the
quadrilateral.

Investigation 8-1: Drag the point onto the circle. What do you notice about the
angles?

Theorem 4b: If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two
other points on the same side of a line segment, these four points are concyclic.

Investigation 8-2: Drag the point onto the circle. What do you notice about the
angles?

Theorem 5b: If two opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then the
quadrilateral is cyclic.

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Examples of cyclic quadrilaterals:

Proof that a line is a tangent to a circle

We can use the Theorems 4b or 5b to prove that a quadrilateral
is cyclic (that it is possible to construct a circle through all four
vertices).

Theorem 7b: If a line segment joining two points subtends

equal angles at two other points on the same side of a line
segment, these four points are concyclic.

Examples of tangents to a circle through three points

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Exercise 8.2

1. If O is the centre of the circle, prove that DGHF is a cyclic quadrilateral.

2. If JL and JK are tangents to the circle and JQ || LM, prove that JKQL is a
cyclic quadrilateral.

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3. If LN and LM are tangents to the circle and SM || LQ, prove that LPMN is a
cyclic quadrilateral.

4. If the area of the square is 16 cm², calculate the area between the two circles.

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5. Calculate the sizes of a and b.

6. Prove that PQ || MN if KL is a common tangent.

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7. If MK and ML are tangents to the circle and KN || QL, prove that MKLP is a
cyclic quadrilateral.

PROJECT
1. All-terrain tracks help propel a machine over all types of terrain. The question
is about the length of track of an excavator.

The radius of both wheels is 40 cm and the distance between the wheels is 3
metres. Calculate the total length of the track.

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2. A bicycle chain transfers power from the pedals to the wheels of a bicycle. The
chain of your bicycle connects two gears with centres A and B. The radii of the
gears are 2 cm and 4 cm, and the distance between their centres is 10 cm. Find
the total length of chain needed to connect the two gears.

3. Calculate the area of the blue shaded area inside the triangle.

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AXIOMATIC SYSTEM
The ancient Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria lived about 300 BC. He is
known as the father of geometry. He realised the importance of assumptions
(axioms or postulates) and reorganised the known geometry at that stage into an
axiomatic system. Euclid wrote a series of 13 books, which is known as the
Elements. The high school geometry we all know are just small selections from
his book. This is why the geometry in this book is known as Euclidean Geometry.

Geometry uses the terms as triangle, line, circle, quadrilateral and so on. But how
do you explain these concepts to somebody else? You can explain, for example,
that a triangle consists of three line segments that connect three non-collinear
points. But then you have to explain the terms line segments and non-collinear
points. Any attempt to explain the meaning of every word would lead to an
infinite cycles of regression. You have to start somewhere. We will call these
starting points undefined terms. The geometry curriculum uses the following
undefined terms: point, line, etc. Once you have agreed on the undefined terms,
you can use them to explain other concepts (definitions), for example: a triangle
consists of three segments connecting three non-collinear points.

Undefined terms: point, line, plane, between, segment.

Definitions
 A line segment consists of two points plus all the points between them on the
line containing these two points.
 A perpendicular bisector of a line segment is the line which is perpendicular to
the line segment and passes through the midpoint of the line segment.
 Points are collinear if they lie on the same line.
 A triangle consists of three segments connecting three points that are not on
one line.
 A circle is the set of all points in a plane at a fixed distance, called the radius,
from a fixed point, called the centre.
 The segment bound by the circle is called a chord. The area of a circle cut off
by a chord is called a circle segment.
 A line touching the circle in one place is called a tangent.
 An angle is formed by two segments with a common vertex.
 If two sides of a triangle have the same measure it is an isosceles triangle.

AXIOMS
A mathematician wants to understand a relationship and wants to ascertain
whether the discovery or relationship always exists. We need to justify our claims
rigorously. The process of proving is known as deductive reasoning. Deductive
reasoning is a method that uses logic to make inferences from relationships we
regard as true. We use deductive reasoning in mathematical proofs and call the
conjectures that we prove through deductive reasoning, theorems. We use
theorems and previous results to prove new theorems. This makes proofs messy
because it is never clear what results can be accepted and used in order to prove a
theorem. Just as the vocabulary of an axiomatic system has to contain some
fundamental undefined terms, so some statements have to be accepted as basic
without proof. Euclid and other mathematicians realised that we do not have any
choice but to accept certain ‘basic truths’ (Euclidian geometry is named after
Euclid). We call these truths axioms or postulates. Axioms are therefore unproved

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assumptions that we make about undefined terms. It is important to prove any so-
called ‘facts’ if we want to use them in a proof.

In geometry we use congruency and previously learnt relationships to prove our

conjectures. Let’s analyse the structure of the proofs of the Theorems 1 to 7.

The table shows the reasons that we used in each of the proofs of the different
theorems:

Theorem Reasons used in the proof of the theorem

1 Conditions for congruency of triangles.
Conditions for congruency of triangles.
2
The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
The measures of the two base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
3 Exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of interior opposite
angles
4 Theorem 3
Theorem 3
5
The sum of the angles around a point is 360°.
Conditions for congruency of triangles.
6 A tangent is perpendicular to the radius drawn at the point of contact
with the circle.
Theorem 3
The sum of angles on a straight line is 180°.
7 If two angles are a linear pair, the sum of their measure is 180°.
A tangent is perpendicular to the radius drawn at the point of contact
with the circle.

We will refer to these reasons as axioms (results that were established earlier). We
assume these results without an attempt to prove them. This is our starting point.
We can group some of the related reasons together because they are all based on
the same principle:
 Exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of interior opposite angles.
 The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
 The sum of the angles around a point is 360°.

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We can therefore list our axioms:
 Axiom 1: Conditions for congruency of triangles.
 Axiom 2: The measures of the two base angles of an isosceles triangle are
equal.
 Axiom 3: Exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of interior opposite
angles.
 Axiom 4: If two angles are a linear pair, the sum of their measure is 180°.
 Axiom 5: A tangent is perpendicular to the radius, drawn at the point of
contact with the circle.

Axiomatic geometry starts with an analysis of the proofs in order to determine the
axioms. You will notice from this structure the importance of Theorem 3 in the
proofs. The following figure is a representation of the structure of the circle
geometry in this book:

LOGIC AND PROOFS

One of the most common forms of deductive logic was developed by Aristotle
(384-322 BC). It is commonly known as Modus ponens. The first premise is the
“if-then” or “P implies Q” statement. The second premise is that P, the conditional
claim, is true. From these two premises it can be logically concluded that Q must
be true as well. Modus ponens is therefore a valid argument form of type: If “P
implies Q” is true and if P is true then Q is true. An argument using modus ponens
is said to be deductive. An inductive argument is one in which the conclusion
goes beyond the premises.

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Exercise 9.1

1. Prove Theorem 1b: If a line is drawn from the centre of a circle to the midpoint
of a chord, then that line is perpendicular to the chord.
2. Prove Theorem 4b: If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles
at two other points on the same side of a line segment, these four points are
concyclic.
3. Prove Theorem 5b: If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary,
then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
4. Prove Theorem 7b: The angle between the tangent to a circle and the chord
drawn from the point of contact is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.

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MORE CIRCLE RELATIONSHIPS
There are interesting circle properties that we do not discuss in our school
curriculum, for example Ptolemy's theorem. This is one of the great theorems of
geometry from the time of the ancient Greeks. Ptolemy or Claudius Ptolemæus
lived around 90-170 AD in Alexandria and his great work, called Al Magest,
covers almost all the astronomical knowledge of the ancient world.

PTOLEMY'S THEOREM
The theorem says that if A, B, C and D are points in order around a circle, then
(AB)(CD) + (BC)(DA) = (AC)(BD). It is possible to prove these theorems by
using grade 12 theorems. This is one of the great theorems of geometry from the
time of the ancient Greeks; Ptolemy used this theorem in about 150 AD to
calculate the lengths of chords in a circle.

Ptolemy's theorem: The theorem says that if A, B, C and D are points in order
around a circle, then (AB)(CD) + (BC)(DA) = (AC)(BD).

In other words Ptolemy’s Theorem states that in a cyclic quadrilateral the sum of
the products of the two pairs of opposite sides equals the product of its two
diagonals.

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THE AREA OF A CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL
Brahmagupta was an Indian mathematician who lived in the 7th century. He
develops a simple way to calculate the area of a cyclic quadrilateral if you know
all the sides. If the sides’ lengths are for example a, b, c and d then let s be half of
the circumference:

Investigation 10-1: Drag the vertices of the quadrilateral and use Brahmagupta’s
area formula to calculate the area.

Brahmagupta conjecture: The area of the cyclic quadrilateral is

where .

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THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE
If we make one of the sides of the cyclic quadrilateral zero we get a triangle (all
triangles are cyclic - it is always possible to construct a circumscribed triangle to a
circle). Heron of Alexandria was an ancient Greek mathematician who lived about
10-70 AD. We can use Brahmagupta’s conjecture for a cyclic quadrilateral and
move D on top of A, therefore AD = d = 0.

From the sketch it is clear that Heron's formula for the area of a triangle is just a
special case of Brahmagupta’s formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral. Let s
be half of the circumference: . The area of the cyclic quadrilateral
is then: Area = (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) (s − 0). This can be simplified to a formula
known as Heron’s formula for the area of a triangle.

Heron’s formula: The area of the triangle is where

.

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Exercise 10.1

1. Calculate the area of a triangle with sides 2 cm, 3 cm, and 4 cm.

2. Find the length AB in the figure below. Here, the circle has diameter 8 cm and
BD is a diameter, length BC = 5 cm, and length AC = 6 cm.

3. Calculate the area of quadrilateral ABCD.

4. Prove the theorem of Pythagoras using Ptolemy's Theorem.

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5. Prove the compound angle sine and cosine rule using Ptolemy's Theorem.

4. Calculate the sizes of all the angles if AB is tangent to the circle with centre O
and radius OD. AO OB and DC OB.

5. It was not easy to find the value of the trigonometric functions for each angle
before calculators. The mathematician François Viète (1540-1603) used a
construction to find these values. In the diagram the length of each segment
gives the value of all six trigonometric functions if the radius OD has a length
of 1 unit. Drag the red dot to find the values for an angle size:

Explain why this result works.

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ANSWERS
Exercise 1.1
1. p = 40 mm
2. q = 50 mm

Exercise 1.2
1. 1 cm
2. 32,5 cm
3. proof
4. EG = 12 cm
5. 2,24 units

Exercise 2.1
1. (6; 4)

Exercise 3.1
a = 49°
b = 96°
c = 45°
d = 234°
e = 90°
f = 24°

Exercise 3.2
1. a = 52°
2. b = 38°
3. c = 54°
4. d = 32°
5. proof
6. Construct any circle and its diameter. Any diameter of a circle always
subtends a right angle to any point on the circle.

Exercise 4.1
a = 52°
b = 32°
c = 33°
d = 102°
e = 24°
f = 40.5°
g = 40.5°

Exercise 4.2
1. a = 48°
2. b = 51°
3. c = 50°
4. d = 110°

Exercise 5.1
a = 96°
b = 63°
c = 115°
d = 63°

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Exercise 5.2
1. a = 41°; b = 64°
2. c = 46°
3. d = 106°

Exercise 6.1
a = 44°
b = 56°
c = 48°
d = 65°
e = 54°

Exercise 6.2
1. radius = 6 788 km & distance = 26 km
2. Determine the equations of the tangents to the circle 5 through
point C(−1; 3).

Exercise 7.1
a = 39°
b = 35°
c = 58°
d = 104°
e = 67.5°
f = 54°

Exercise 7.2
1. c = 42°; d = 59°; e = 42°
2. f = 19°; g = 37°
3. a = 26°
4. b = 120°

Exercise 8.1
1.
2. a)
b)
3.
4.

Exercise 8.2
1. 90° & 90° therefore 90°
2.
3.
4. 4
5. a = 27° & b = 22°
6. , therefore PQ || MN
7.

PROJECT
1. 8,51 m
2. 53,42 cm

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SELECTED SOLUTIONS

Exercise 2.1
1. There is more than one way to find the centre of the circle. One way is to
determine the equations of the two perpendicular bisectors and solve them
simultaneously. An other way is to let ; be the centre of the circle. Then
and (radii). Let’s try the first way that we mentioned. First
we are going to connect the points and then determine the equation of two of
the perpendicular bisectors. Points 2; 6 , 16; 8 and 2; 14 are on a
circle.

The midpoint of segment AC is 2; 4 and the equation of the perpendicular

bisector of AC is 4. The midpoint of BC is 9; 11 and the equation of the
perpendicular bisector of BC is 7 3 30. The midpoint of AB is
9; 1 and the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB is 10. By
solving the equations of any two perpendicular bisectors simultaneously we
find the centre of the circle. The centre is the point 6; 4 .

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Project
2. ∠ ∠ and tan 0,2 therefore 11,5°.

Big arc EE': Angle = 180° + 11,5° + 11,5° = 203°

Big arc length = 16 28,34 cm

Small arc HH': Angle = 180° − 11,5° − 11,5° = 157°

Big arc length = 4 5,48 cm

EH: 10 2 then 9,8 (Pythagoras)

Total chain length = 28,34 + 5,48 + 2(9,8) = 53,42 cm

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Circle Geometry for High School Students

Download the accompanying apps from

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