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Women's Studies:
Feminist Critique:
Androcentrism
Definition of Androcentrism
Masculinity studies reveal that not all men have privileged standpoints;
men’s experiences also vary by status and position in society.
Feminist work has shifted from merely adding women into existing
frameworks to creating new theories that reflect women’s diverse
experiences.
Further Reading
Backlash
Definition of Backlash
Used in the 1950s and 1960s to describe political reactions against black integration in
the U.S.
In feminist discourse, it refers to a rejection of feminism by using counter-arguments and
even feminist language to attack its principles.
In the 1980s and 1990s, the media often blamed feminism for women’s problems rather
than focusing on sexism or male domination.
"Liberated" women were portrayed negatively, especially in films like Fatal Attraction
(1987), which punished single, career-driven women.
Faludi’s Concerns
Beyond "backlash," the public sphere remains challenging for women, especially those in
low-paid or insecure jobs.
The backlash against feminism obscures the struggles of working-class women and those
of color or with disabilities.
Further Reading
Body
Cartesian Dualism: The concept originates from Descartes, who distinguished the mind
from the body, placing them as separate entities. This influenced centuries of thought,
focusing on the body as part of the physical sciences rather than philosophy or social
sciences.
Shift in Thought: By the late 20th century, philosophers and theorists started questioning
Cartesian dualism, making the body a subject of study in humanities and social sciences.
Importance in Feminism and Gender Studies:
o Feminists view the body as crucial in social relations.
o Discussions include men's control over women's bodies, critiques of binary
thinking, and debates over essentialism.
Three Conceptions of the Body:
Citizenship
Citizenship Definition:
A status granting rights and/or obligations within a wider community, often a nation-
state.
Historical Evolution:
In Britain, citizenship rights evolved from civil rights (17th century), political rights, and
finally social rights (20th century).
Citizenship includes those deemed citizens, granting them rights, while excluding others
from these privileges (Lister, 1997).
Gendered Citizenship:
Lister (1997) calls for a combined approach, avoiding dichotomous logic and considering
women’s differences without hindering their citizenship.
Prokhovnik (1998) argues for citizenship as a moral relationship involving
responsibilities in both public and private spheres, emphasizing the interconnectedness of
both.
With migration and globalisation, attention is shifting to how citizenship excludes based
on gender, ethnicity, and territory.
There is a move to expand citizenship beyond the nation-state to include global
citizenship and international human rights (Turner, 2001; Werbner and Yuval-Davis,
1999).
Conclusion:
Citizenship remains a critical subject of debate in gender studies, especially around the
inclusion and exclusion mechanisms tied to it.
Class
Class Definition:
A concept used to analyze social divisions based on the unequal distribution of economic
resources, grouping individuals according to their position in an economic hierarchy.
Marxist Perspective:
Historical Context:
Since the 1970s, economic and social changes have challenged class as the primary
source of social inequality:
o Post-war labor market restructuring and increased political mobilization around
gender and ethnicity have shifted focus from occupational class analysis.
Feminist Critiques:
Feminist writers argue that traditional class analysis neglects gender relations:
o Walby (1990) highlights the need to incorporate gender into class definitions.
o Initial feminist efforts aimed to redefine class to include gendered inequalities
(e.g., Delphy and Firestone’s models).
Conventional class analysts defended their positions by claiming women's roles were
primarily domestic, thus making class irrelevant.
Criticisms noted the rising number of women in paid employment and the need for a
nuanced understanding of class that includes gender and other stratifying factors.
Crompton’s Research:
Conclusion:
Consciousness Raising
Definition and Origin:
o Initial focus was on personal experiences for the first three to six
months, then shifting to self-help and theoretical discussions.
Group Dynamics:
Political Implications:
o The phrase “the personal is political” became central,
emphasizing how personal experiences reflect societal injustices.
Critiques:
Cultural Influence:
Legacy:
Cyborg
Definition of Cyborg:
Cyborgs are hybrid entities combining organic and mechanical elements, emerging from
technological advances that blur the lines between natural and artificial bodies.
Donna Haraway defines them as "hybrid creatures," reflecting the merging of organisms
with machines in late 20th-century Western culture.
Cyborg Manifesto:
The cyborg concept enables new ways to analyze gender, race, and national identities.
For example, Geldalof discusses how the cyborg framework can help redefine women's
roles in societal narratives, emphasizing their agency and resistance within these
identities.
Cyber-anthropology:
This emerging field examines the intersection of bodies with technology, focusing on
artifacts that shape identities (e.g., mobile phones, artificial organs).
It looks at how technology influences self-conception and social interactions.
Cyborg Babies:
Studies on reproductive technologies highlight how the concept of cyborgs applies to the
creation of "cyborg babies," merging human reproduction with medical advancements.
Critical Perspectives:
Cyborg as a Framework:
The cyborg provides a lens through which to study how gender identities are constructed
in the context of technology.
Balsamo notes the potential for gendered bodies to be refashioned by technology, but
cautions against oversimplifying this process, as it is often shaped by existing social
hierarchies.
Dichotomy
Definition of Dichotomy:
Conclusion
Difference
Complexity of Equality:
o There are concerns about whether aiming for equality with men
merely replicates existing social hierarchies, particularly those of
privileged men.
Post-structuralist Perspectives:
Conclusion
The debate over difference and equality remains central in feminist theory,
revealing the complexities of striving for equality amid diverse experiences
and identities. The shift towards recognizing both similarities and differences
among women offers a pathway to a more inclusive feminist discourse that
resists essentialism and embraces diversity.
Historical Context:
The traditional division became prominent with industrialization, where men worked outside for
wages while women managed the home.
Feminist Theories:
Feminists in the 1970s began analyzing domestic work as "labour," using Marxist frameworks.
Some argued that women’s unpaid labour within the home supports capitalism by replenishing
labour power for the economy (Della Costa), while others highlighted the connection between
patriarchy and capitalism (Hartmann, Delphy, and Leonard).
Perceptions of Fairness:
Research, such as that by Baxter (2000), shows that women often perceive the domestic division
of labour as "fair" even when they do more housework. Fairness is judged not on the time spent
but on which tasks are shared.
Slow Change:
Although men are gradually increasing their share of housework, studies suggest that significant
changes will likely occur slowly.
Double Standard
Double Standard
Feminist Concerns
Men vs. Women: As men age, their experience is often valued (e.g.,
“distinguished”), while women face greater pressure to maintain
youthful appearances.
Economic vs. Physical Value: Older men are valued more for their
work, while women are primarily valued for their looks.
Varied Impact: Double standards are not uniform and may vary based
on class, ethnicity, and sexual orientation.
Equality
Equality
Gender Equality: Historically, men held higher social status and more
extensive rights than women. Feminist movements in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries fought for equal rights, including education,
property, employment, and voting rights.
LGBTQ+ Rights: Gay men and lesbians have also campaigned for
equal legal rights, including marriage and the age of consent.
Perspectives on Equality
1. Equality Perspective
o Key Idea: Women should enjoy the same rights and privileges as
men by eliminating areas of unequal treatment through legal
reforms.
2. Difference Perspective
o Examples:
3. Diversity Perspective
Re-conceptualizing Equality
Politics of Difference: Young argues that equality should be
redefined to respect and affirm group differences rather than
neutralizing them. True equality arises from mutual respect among
socially and culturally different groups.
Conclusion
The current stage of gender theorizing seeks to move beyond the rigid
equality/difference debate, integrating aspects of both equality and
difference to create a more inclusive and diverse understanding of
social justice.
Essentialism
Essentialism
Biological Essentialism
Strategic Essentialism
Conclusion
The family
Feminist Analysis of the Family
Feminist Critiques
Economic Challenges
Feminisms
Origin of the Term 'Feminism'
Evolution of Feminism
Feminist Activism
Early feminists imagined a world where women could realize their potential as
individuals, conceptualizing ideas that were largely unknowable at the time due to
women's lack of legal identity.
Feminist knowledge was historically seen as informal or illegitimate.
Modern feminists circulated ideas widely to legitimize feminist knowledge and ensure
accessibility to other women.
Multiplicity of Feminisms
The plural form of "feminism" is commonly used, acknowledging that while feminists
agree on the need to end female oppression, their philosophical or political approaches
differ.
Feminism’s diversity of viewpoints is considered its strength, fostering debate rather than
presenting a single dogma.
Liberal Feminism: Stems from Enlightenment liberal thought; seeks equality through
existing democratic processes, emphasizing education as a means of equality.
Socialist/Marxist Feminism: Links women's oppression to industrial capitalism and
advocates for revolution, focusing on class, race, and gender oppression as
interconnected.
Radical Feminism: Emerged from left-wing movements, promoting separatism and
women-only spaces for policy-making, often misunderstood as anti-male.
Feminism has included working-class women, women of color, and LGBTQ+ women,
but many felt marginalized within the movement.
The 1979 Combahee River Collective’s "A Black Feminist Statement" highlighted
tensions between mainstream feminist ideals and the needs of marginalized women.
Examines concepts like 'woman' and 'inequality,' questioning fixed meanings and power
dynamics.
Feminism’s refusal to be reduced to a single doctrine has contributed to its enduring
relevance and ability to address women's daily realities.
first wave feminism
Historical Development of Feminism
Wave Analogy:
o Key Events:
o Strands of Feminism:
Suffrage Movement:
o By the early 1900s, suffrage became the predominant issue
uniting various feminist factions.
Post-War Developments:
o By the late 1920s, divisions along class lines weakened the first
wave movement, with middle-class feminists opposing protective
legislation that working-class feminists supported.
Gender
Introduction of Gender as an Analytical Category (1970s)
The concept of gender was used to distinguish biological sex from socially constructed
roles assigned as "masculine" or "feminine."
Purpose: Highlight that biological differences were exaggerated to maintain patriarchal
power.
Oakley’s Sex, Gender, and Society (1972) emphasized how societal efficiency relied on
traditional gender roles, such as housewife/mother.
Simone de Beauvoir (The Second Sex) argued that gender differences are hierarchical,
with masculinity as the norm and femininity as "Other."
Shulamith Firestone suggested that patriarchy exploits women’s reproductive capacities
and advocated using technology to break this dependency.
Some feminists, like cultural feminists, valued motherhood as a natural disposition, while
Firestone’s ideas faced criticism.
Unisex clothing in the 1970s symbolized an endorsement of gender as a social construct.
Gendered
Gendered as a Descriptor
Gender as a Verb
The shift to using "gender" as a verb reflects the understanding that gender is an ongoing,
active process, not fixed or predetermined.
Gendering refers to the social processes that produce and maintain gender distinctions.
Impact of Gendering
Gendered outcomes are socially constructed and often give men advantages over women.
Gendering describes both the production of gendered assumptions and how institutions
are shaped by them.
Various studies (Pilcher, 1999) show the gendered nature of education, paid work,
household tasks, media, crime, and politics.
Lisa Adkins (1995) focused on the processes of gendering in the labor market,
specifically in the British tourist industry.
Adkins' study on leisure parks found that men and women had to perform their work
differently, even in the same job.
Women had to engage in "sexualized" labor to be perceived as attractive workers, a
condition not imposed on men.
Gendering as a Process
Adkins argued that the labor market is gendered before jobs are differentiated, meaning
women are required to meet gendered expectations regardless of occupation.
Caution in Using "Gendered"
While focusing on gendering as an ongoing process is useful, the term "gendered" may
imply a fixed, unchanging state, which risks overlooking the fluid and evolving nature of
gender relations.
gender order
Gender Order Defined
A structured system of ideological and material practices that organize power relations
between men and women.
Developed by Jill Matthews, it shows how societies create and recreate forms of
masculinity and femininity.
Gender order recognizes the distinction between men and women, allowing for variations
across societies.
It can be egalitarian, patriarchal, or matriarchal, and does not inherently have to be
oppressive or hierarchical.
Gender order contrasts with patriarchy, as it accounts for the dynamic and evolving
nature of gender relations.
R.W. Connell expanded the concept into a broader social theory of gender.
Connell links gender with the body, emphasizing that gender is shaped by human
interpretations of biological traits, which influence culture, institutions, and identities.
Connell identified three structures in gender relations: labor, power, and cathexis
(emotional and sexual relationships). These structures constantly interact to form the
overall gender order in a society.
Both Matthews and Connell stress that gender relations are constantly evolving, shaped
by human actions, resistance, and contestation.
Connell identifies "crisis tendencies" in the gender order of industrialized societies, such
as changes in family law and the rise of movements like women's and gay liberation.
The gender order concept is more diverse and open to human agency than the static
notion of patriarchy.
Critics argue that Connell's theory overlooks the intersection of gender with race and
class.
Despite this, some critics find it useful for postmodern gender theory, as it is historically
and culturally specific.
The gender order allows for a society to be described as patriarchal without assuming
patriarchy as a universal, unchanging system.
It avoids the trans-historical and agent-less view of patriarchy by emphasizing gender as
a process shaped by individuals and groups.
While helpful, the concept requires more focus on how gender, class, and race intersect,
as pointed out by critics like Pollert and West. Despite this, it remains a valuable tool for
understanding gender relations in diverse contexts.
gender segregation
Definition of Gender Segregation:
International Comparisons:
Feminist Perspective:
Feminists and lesbian groups sought to distinguish between sexism and heterosexism.
Heterosexism emphasizes prejudice against gay and lesbian individuals, reinforcing that
heterosexuality is viewed as the natural choice for everyone.
Diane Richardson argues that heterosexuality shapes societal norms, particularly through
institutions like marriage and family.
It contrasts with homosexuality, which is often reduced to sexual identity and deviance.
Controversies:
Compulsory Heterosexuality:
The term has expanded to include public discourse and societal norms that endorse
heterosexuality while marginalizing LGBTQ+ identities.
LGBTQ+ groups continue to fight for equal rights regarding legal recognition,
healthcare, marriage, and other areas.
Heterosexual Discontent:
Fragmentation of Feminism:
Ideology
Marxist Theory of Ideology
o The hope was that once workers recognized their true conditions,
they would rise against capitalism.
Althusser's Contributions
Lesbian Experiences:
Rich's Defense:
Historical Context:
Expanding Definitions:
Enduring Influence:
Conclusion
masculinity/ masculinities
Definition of Masculinity:
Feminist Critique:
Theoretical Perspectives:
Gender Hierarchy:
Masculinity Politics:
Discursive Approaches:
Conclusion
Historical Context
Theoretical Perspectives
Connell's Framework
Masculinity Politics
Consciousness-Raising
Critical Perspectives
Men's Responsibilities
Feminist Resistance
Evolving Dynamics
Crisis Narratives
Conclusion
(the) Other
Key Concepts from Simone de Beauvoir's Theory of the Other
Philosophical Foundations
Reproductive Role
Educational Context
Reinterpretation of Otherness
Emphasis on Diversity
patriarchy
Definition of Patriarchy: Originally meant male rule within a family or tribe but has evolved
to signify masculine domination over women in society. Feminists have developed various
theories to explain the subordination of women to men under patriarchy.
Radical Feminist View: Patriarchy is the primary social division, with institutions like the
family being key to men's domination. Some emphasize men's control over women’s bodies,
sexuality, or male violence.
Marxist Feminist View: Patriarchy stems from capitalism, with women’s unpaid domestic
labor benefiting the capitalist system. Gender inequality is seen as a by-product of class
inequality.
Dual Systems Theory: A combination of Marxist and radical feminist perspectives. It views
capitalism and patriarchy as interconnected systems that mutually reinforce women’s oppression.
Criticisms of Patriarchy:
Anthias and Yuval-Davies: Criticize Walby for treating patriarchy, capitalism, and racism
as largely independent systems.
Pollert: Argues Walby’s theory conflates description and explanation, failing to clarify
the origins or persistence of patriarchy.
Pornography
Definition and Boundaries: The boundary between pornography and erotica is often
debated. Many feminists argue that this distinction lies between art and commercialism, making
it difficult to define what exactly constitutes pornography.
Early Feminist Actions: Feminists in the early days of the movement actively protested
against sexualized imagery by graffitiing or adding stickers to offensive images. They also
worked to create more positive representations of women, showcasing a diverse range of bodies,
ages, ethnicities, and abilities.
Anti-Pornography Movement: In the 1980s, the anti-pornography wing of feminism
became a pronounced movement, led by figures like Andrea Dworkin and Catherine Mackinnon.
Their approach was uncompromising, likening pornography to violence against women and
linking it to male power and domination.
Feminist Divides: The anti-pornography movement created significant rifts within feminism,
particularly over issues of censorship. Some feminists argued that targeting pornography for
censorship would lead to broader restrictions on freedom of expression, while others focused on
exploring female desire and sexual self-expression.
Pro-Sex vs. Anti-Pornography: The divide between anti-porn and pro-sex feminists became
more pronounced, particularly after events like the 1982 Barnard Conference on Sexuality. Pro-
sex feminists argued for a more nuanced approach to sexuality, exploring the possibilities of
non-patriarchal female sexuality, while anti-porn activists sought to eliminate pornography.
Shift in Focus: By the 1990s, the debate shifted from anti-porn to a more pluralist approach,
acknowledging that all forms of media, including television, film, and literature, are often sexist.
The debate broadened to include topics like sex education, support for sex workers, and the right
to sexual diversity.
Key Thinkers and Works: Key works in this debate include Andrea Dworkin's writings,
Carole Vance's essays from the Barnard Conference, and critiques from Elizabeth Wilson, Gayle
Rubin, and Lynne Segal.
post-colonial theory
Origins & Evolution:
o Term first used in the 1970s for nations gaining independence
post-WWII.
Theoretical Roots:
Post-Colonial Criticism:
Cultural Hybridity:
post-feminism
def: a term used to describe a societal perception that many or all of the
goals of feminism have already been achieved.
Lack of Consensus:
Criticisms of Feminism:
o Critics argue that feminism has not fully accounted for race,
class, and sexual orientation, but notable voices like bell hooks
and Patricia Hill Collins continue to find political relevance in the
term “feminism.”
o Many feminists believe that the struggle for equality and against
oppression is far from over.
Conclusion:
Post-feminism remains a contested and multifaceted concept. While some
interpret it as a move beyond feminism, others see it as a critique or
evolution of feminist thought. Its relationship with third-wave feminism,
influence from postmodernism, and media representation continue to shape
the debate, while criticisms persist that it may dilute the political power of
feminism.
Postmodernism
Postmodernism Overview:
Postmodernism is a broad set of ideas related to advanced industrial societies from the
late 20th century onward.
It analyzes societal, cultural, and historical shifts, focusing on uncertainty, fragmentation,
and fluidity.
Theorists associated with postmodernism include Lyotard, Baudrillard, and Jameson,
while Foucault is sometimes labeled as a postmodernist.
Impact of Postmodernism:
Postmodern Feminism:
post-structuralism
Foundational Thinkers:
Deconstruction:
Tension in Feminism:
Challenges in Post-structuralism:
Criticism of Post-structuralism:
Complexity of Power:
Power in Democracies:
o Marxists argue that the state uses both economic and ideological
power to maintain the status quo.
psychoanalytical feminism
Here’s a summary of key points related to Freud and psychoanalytical
feminism:
Freud's Contribution:
Feminist Criticism:
o Introduced concepts like 'womb envy' and the split between the
'good' and 'bad' breast in relation to child-mother dynamics.
Lacan’s Influence:
o Kristeva focused on the concept of the 'abject,' and the need for
women to reclaim language to express their feminine
experience.
Psychoanalytical Feminism:
Lacan’s Legacy:
Further Reading:
Minsky’s 1996 work on Freud, Klein, Lacan, Kristeva, and Irigaray for a
comprehensive understanding of these theories.
public/private
Public and Private Realms:
Gendered Association:
o Public realm traditionally associated with masculinity, private
realm with femininity.
Feminist Engagement:
queer theory
Overview of Queer Theory
Political Implications
Theoretical Foundations
Foucault's Influence
Complexities of Identity
Cultural Representation
o Queer theory has influenced film and popular culture,
contributing to the notion of "genderfuck" which plays with
gender norms.
Political Engagement
Conclusion
Race/Ethnicity
Concepts of Race and Ethnicity
Sociological Perspective:
Concept of Ethnicity:
Distinct Experiences:
Conclusion
Race and ethnicity, alongside gender and class, are crucial in critiques
of universalism and essentialism in discussions of diversity and
difference in gender relations. The intersectionality of these concepts
complicates understanding social dynamics and individual experiences.
Representation
Key Points on Representation in Feminism
Importance of Representation:
Impact of Media:
Public Demonstrations:
Contemporary Representation:
Commercialization of Feminism:
Reproductive Technologies
Definition:
Reproductive technologies encompass a wide range of medical and technological
practices focused on human sexual reproduction.
1. Fertility Control:
o Methods to prevent conception (e.g., withdrawal, condoms) or terminate
pregnancies (miscarriage, abortion, infanticide).
2. Childbirth Management:
o Medical procedures like caesareans, forceps, labor-inducing drugs, and fetal
monitoring.
3. Technologies of Conception:
o Techniques to overcome infertility, such as artificial insemination, surrogacy,
IVF, and the freezing of sperm or eggs.
4. Genetic Improvement:
o Practices to improve the health and genetic traits of the fetus, like ultrasound
scans and genetic screening.
5. Ameliorating Effects of Aging:
o Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) for menopausal women, and Viagra for
men with erectile difficulties.
Feminists have long been concerned with the control of reproductive capacities as
essential for achieving gender equality.
Shulamith Firestone (1979):
o Saw reproductive technologies as liberating, arguing that women’s biological
roles made them dependent on men.
o Advocated for replacing natural reproduction with artificial means, such as the
use of ‘artificial wombs,’ to free women from biological constraints.
Writers have critiqued medical management of childbirth, IVF, genetic screening, and
HRT as potentially oppressive.
IVF Controversy:
o Viewed as problematic due to its connection with fetal screening and genetic
engineering.
o Feminist group FINRRAGE opposes IVF, arguing it could give men control over
reproduction, possibly leading to the removal of women's last autonomous role in
human reproduction.
Some argue the focus on male control (e.g., FINRRAGE) is overstated and doesn’t
account for women’s agency.
Reproductive technologies are seen as both empowering and oppressive, depending on
context.
Wajcman (1991):
o Highlights commercial interests, masculine hegemony, and societal power
structures that influence reproductive technologies.
These critiques challenge the idea that reproductive technologies impact all women
uniformly.
Steinberg (1997):
o Argues that experiences of reproductive technologies are not universal but shaped
by power relations in science, medicine, and society.
o Criticizes generalizations that use the experiences of infertile women as a
template for all women.
Historical Context:
o The term "waves" was popularized in the late 1960s and early
1970s, indicating a renewed awareness of feminist history.
Key Issues:
o The second wave highlighted the need for women's liberation
beyond mere legal rights, emphasizing bodily autonomy and the
societal perceptions of women's roles.
Political Activism:
Decentralization:
Continued Impact:
Legacy:
Separatism
Here is a summary of the key points from the text on Separatism in Second
Wave Feminism:
Degrees of Separatism:
Purpose of Separatism:
Cultural Feminism:
Sexual Contract
Sexual Contract vs. Social Contract:
Male Sex-Right:
Continued Relevance:
Sexuality
The excerpt you've provided delves into the complexities of sexuality,
emphasizing how it has been socially constructed and shaped by historical,
cultural, and political forces. Here's a detailed breakdown of its key concepts
and arguments:
Definition of Sexuality
Social Meaning: John Gagnon and William Simon assert that sexuality
is imbued with social meanings. The significance of sexual acts cannot
be detached from their cultural context; thus, the understanding of
sexuality is dynamic and influenced by societal norms.
Conclusion
Standpoint
Stereotype
Violence
Women’s Studies