THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
2022/2023 ACADEMIC YEAR LECTURE NOTES

INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS PH 110

CHAPTER 9
OSCILLATIONS
In this chapter, we study a special type of motion called periodic motion. This is a repeating
motion of an object in which the object continues to return to a given position after a fixed
time interval. Some examples of periodic motion are motion of planets around the sun,
oscillation of a simple pendulum and vibration of atoms. In addition, in nature, seasons occur
periodically after every one year. The back-and-forth movements of an object are called
oscillations. We will focus our attention on a special case of periodic motion called simple
harmonic motion.

9.1 Variables of Oscillations

9.1.1 Displacement
During every periodic motion, a certain measurable physical quantity changes with time. The
physical quantity which undergoes a change with time in a periodic motion is called
displacement. A displacement is always measured as a function of time. In this chapter, we
use the term displacement in a more general sense. It refers to change with time of any
physical property under consideration. In other words, the term displacement is not always to
be referred in the context of position only. Displacement can be changes in physical quantities
with time, such as position, angle, voltage, pressure, electric field etc. For an oscillating
simple pendulum, the angle from the vertical as a function of time may be regarded as a
displacement variable. Generally, it is convenient to measure displacement of the body from
its equilibrium position. Note that the displacement variable may take both positive and
negative values.

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9.1.2 Amplitude (A)
It is the maximum displacement of the particle from the equilibrium point, i.e, the amplitude
of oscillation. For example, if a pendulum swings one centimeter from the equilibrium
point before beginning its return journey, the amplitude of oscillation is one centimeter. The
displacement x can take values between – A and + A. This gives the physical significance of
the constant A.

9.1.3 Time Period (T)

A particle in simple harmonic motion repeats its motion after a regular time interval. Suppose
the particle is at a position x and its velocity is v at a certain time t. After some time, the
position of the particle will again be x and its velocity will again be v in the same direction.
This part of the motion is called one complete oscillation and the time taken in one complete
oscillation is called the time period T.

9.1.4 Frequency (f) and Angular Frequency (�)

The reciprocal of time period is called the frequency. Physically, the frequency represents the
number of oscillations per unit time. It is measured in cycles per second also known as hertz
and written in symbols as ��. The quantity � is called the angular frequency and has units of
rad/s. It is a measure of how rapidly the oscillations are occurring-the more oscillations per
unit time, the higher is the value of �. Frequency and angular frequency are related by the
equation

� = 2��

9.2. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

When a body repeats its motion after regular time intervals, we say that it is in harmonic
motion or periodic motion. A particle is said to execute simple harmonic motion when it
vibrates periodically in such a way that at any instant the acceleration of the system, and
therefore the net force, is proportional to the displacement and acts in the opposite direction
of the displacement from a fixed point on its path and is always directed towards that point.
The fixed point is called the mean position or equilibrium position.

Since acceleration is proportional to displacement, the force �(�) is a restoring force directed
towards the mean position and is proportional to the displacement from the mean position.

�(�) ∝ −�

�(�) = −��

where � is the force constant. We can use the equation � = −�� as the definition of SHM. The
resultant force on the particle is zero when it is at the equilibrium position. The motion of a
simple harmonic oscillating system can be described using cosine and sine functions.

If we plot the displacement as a function of time graph (See figure 9.1) for an object
undergoing simple harmonic motion, we would identify the period as the time between two
consecutive peaks or any two analogous points on two waves with the same phase. To locate

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the amplitude, we look at the highest peak in distance. As the cosine or sine function of time
varies from +1 to –1, the displacement varies between the extremes A and – A .

Figure 9.1 Displacement vs Time for a system in simple harmonic motion. From this graph,
we can identify the amplitude and period of oscillation.

9.3 Expression for the displacement of SHM

The displacement of a particle undergoing SHM is given by

� = � sin (�� + �)
or
� = � cos (�� + �)
where �, �, and � are constants.
Here � is the amplitude of oscillation, � is the angular frequency and � is the phase constant.

9.4 Expression for the velocity of the particle executing SHM

The displacement of a particle executing SHM at any instant is given by

� = � sin (�� + �)
Since the velocity of the particle at any instant is the rate of displacement, then;
dx d
v= = [ A sin(ωt +ϕ ) ]
dt dt

� = � � cos (�� + �)
At extreme positions � = �, and the velocity is zero. At the mean position, � = 0, velocity is
maximum. The expression for the maximum velocity is given by
���� = ��

9.5 Expression for the acceleration of the particle executing SHM

By definition, the acceleration of the particle at any instant is the rate of velocity, given by;

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 dv d
a= = [ ω A cos (ωt +ϕ ) ]
dt dt

� = −��2 sin (�� + �)

� = −�2� sin (�� + �)

Since � = � sin (�� + �), then;

� = −�2�

The force acting on a particle of mass � is given by the equation � = −��, and therefore by
Newton’s second law of motion, the acceleration of the particle is
F −kx
a= =
m m

−k
a= x
m

Combining the equation for the acceleration of the particle executing SHM and the above
equation, we get

−k
−ω2 x = x
m

2 k
ω=
m

ω=
√ k
m

At extreme positions � = �, and the acceleration is maximum.

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amax =−ω A

or
−k
amax = A
m

At the mean position, � = 0, acceleration is zero.

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9.6 Expression for the time period of SHM
The period may be expressed in terms of the mass m of the particle and the force constant
k . Generally, the period of the motion is given by,

2π
T=
ω

k
√
Since ω= m , hence, the period of a particle executing SHM is given by

2π
T=

√k
m

T =2 π
√ m
k

9.7 Expression for total energy of a particle executing SHM (Energy of a

harmonic oscillator)
Consider a particle of mass � executing SHM. Let � be the amplitude and � be the force
constant.
The kinetic energy of the particle at any instant is given by
1 2
K= m v
2

The velocity of a particle at that instant is given by

� = � � cos (�� + �)
Then, the kinetic energy is
1 2 1
K= m [ ω A cos(ωt+ ϕ) ] =¿ m ω2 A 2 cos2 (ωt +ϕ )
2 2

k
Since ω2 = ⟺ k=mω2 , then
m

1
K= k A2 cos 2( ωt+ ϕ)
2

We now derive the expression for the potential energy of a particle executing SHM. The
potential energy of a particle is the work done in displacing the particle from its equilibrium
position. At any instant when the displacement is �, the restoring force is � = −��.

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Work done in displacing the particle from equilibrium position to � against direction of the
force is given by
x x
1 2
W =∫ F x dx=∫ kx dx= k x
0 0 2

Therefore, the potential energy of the particle is

1
U= k x 2
2

Here � = � sin (�� + �), therefore

1 2 1
U= k [ A sin(ωt+ ϕ) ] = k A 2 sin2 ( ωt+ϕ )
2 2

The total (mechanical) energy of the system is thus,

E=K + U

1 2 2 1 2 2
E= k A cos (ωt +ϕ )+ k A sin (ωt+ϕ )
2 2

1 2 2 2
E= k A [ cos (ωt +ϕ )+ sin (ωt +ϕ ) ]
2

We know that cos 2( ωt+ ϕ)+sin 2(ωt+ ϕ)=1 , therefore expression for the total energy of a
harmonic oscillator is

1
E= k A 2
2

According to the law of conservation of energy, the sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy is constant. At the mean position, the energy is completely kinetic. As the particle
moves towards the extreme position, its kinetic energy decreases and the potential energy
increases and at the extreme position, the energy is completely potential.

9.8 Some examples of SHM

9.8.1 Springs
One of the simplest examples of SHM is the oscillation of a mass attached to a spring. When
a spring is stretched or compressed by a distance �, a restoring force acts on it. Consider a
weightless spring with one of its ends fixed rigidly and the other end attached to a body of

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mass m (See figure 9.2). This arrangement is placed on smooth horizontal plane. When
the body is displaced through distance x=OP=OQ , and released, it executes SHM. The
particle oscillates between P and Q by stretching and compressing the spring.

Figure 9.2 A block of mass m placed on a smooth horizontal surface and attached to a fixed
wall through a spring

According to Hooke’s law, if the compression or extension is not very large, restoring force is
directly proportional to the distance.
F ∝−x
F=−kx
where � is a constant known as the spring constant or force constant of the spring. The
negative sign shows that � is the restoring force.
If the stretched of the compressed spring is released, the acceleration is given by,
F −kx
a= =
m m

This is the equation for SHM. So, the spring executes SHM, with period given by

T =2 π
√ m
k

9.8.2 Simple pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a bob attached to the end of light inextensible string. When the
bob is displaced to one side and released it executes SHM. Let � be the mass of the bob and �
be length of the pendulum (Length of the pendulum is the distance between the point of
suspension to the center of gravity of the bob). Let the bob be displaced from the equilibrium
position through an angle �. The angle � is very small, so that the length � of the arc is
approximately a straight line

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Figure 9.3 A simple pendulum consists of a bob attached to the end of light inextensible
string
The force due to the weight of the bob ��, acts vertically downwards. This can be resolved
into two rectangular components;
(i) �� cos �, acting radially and
(ii) �� sin �, acting tangentially.
From figure 9.4, it is clear that �� cos � is balanced by the tension � along the string. Thus,

� = �� cos �
The component �� sin � acts towards the equilibrium position. Therefore, it is the restoring
force �. Thus,

� = −�� sin �

Since � is very small, sin � = �. Then.

� = −���
The distance of the particle from the equilibrium position along the arc is � = ��, and then
x
θ=
l

The expression for the restoring force now becomes

x −mg
F=−mg = x
l l

Comparing the above equation with the standard equation for SHM, � = −��, where k is a
constant, it is seen that the oscillation of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic.
mg
∴k=
l

Hence the period of the simple pendulum is given by,

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 √ √
m m
T =2 π =2 π
k mg
l

T =2 π
√ l
g

9.8.2.1 Determination of g in Laboratory

A simple pendulum provides an easy method to measure the value of ‘g’ in a laboratory. A
small spherical ball with a hook is suspended from a clamp through a light thread as shown in
figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4 A small spherical ball with a hook suspended from a clamp through a light thread
The length OP of the thread is measured with a meter scale.
The bob is slightly pulled aside and gently released from rest. The pendulum starts making
oscillations. The time for a number of oscillations (say 20 or 50) is measured with a stop
watch and the time period is obtained. The value of g is calculated by equation,

T =2 π
√ l
g

The length of the thread is varied and the experiment is repeated a number of times to
minimize the effect of rand

9.9 Undamped Oscillations

An undamped oscillation is an oscillation in which, when displaced from its equilibrium
point, experiences a restoring force which is proportional to the displacement. So, in the
undamped oscillation system, the magnitude of the oscillations never fades and the magnitude
of the oscillation remains the same. An example of undamped oscillation is alternating
current.

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9.10 Damped Oscillations
Damped oscillations are periodic oscillations with gradually decreasing amplitude. A particle
will execute a simple harmonic motion with a constant amplitude if the resultant force on it is
proportional to the displacement and is directed opposite to it. Nature provides a large
number of situations in which such restoring force acts. The spring-mass system and the
simple pendulum are examples. However, in many of the cases some kind of damping force is
also present with the restoring force. The damping force may arise due to friction between the
moving parts, air resistance or several other causes. The damping force is a function of speed
of the moving system and is directed opposite to the velocity. Energy is lost due to the
negative work done by the damping force and the system comes to a halt in due course. The
amplitude decreases with time and finally becomes zero. Figure 9.5 shows qualitatively the
displacement of the particle as a function of time.

Figure 9.5 Time – displacement curve for a damped harmonic motion

If the damping is large the system may not oscillate at all. If displaced, it will go towards the
mean position and stay there without overshooting on the other side. The damping for which
the oscillation just ceases is called critical damping.

9.11 Forced Oscillations and Resonance

In certain situations, apart from the restoring force and the damping force, there is yet another
force applied on the body which itself changes periodically with time. If an external periodic
force is applied on a harmonic oscillator, then the oscillating system is called forced (or
driven) harmonic oscillator and its oscillations are called forced (or driven) oscillations. In
forced oscillation the energy lost due to the damping force is compensated by the work done
by the applied force. The oscillations with constant amplitude are, therefore, sustained
The phenomenon in which the amplitude of the driven oscillator becomes maximum at a
particular frequency is called resonance. This frequency is called resonant frequency. It is the
same as the natural frequency of the oscillator. Figure 9.6 shows the amplitude as a function
of the applied frequency. We see that the amplitude is large if the damping is small. Also, the
resonance is sharp in this case, that is the amplitude rapidly falls if � is different from �0.

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 Figure 9.6 Variation of the amplitude with the angular frequency � of the periodic force.
If the damping were ideally zero, the amplitude of the forced vibration at resonance would be
infinity. Some damping is always present in mechanical systems and the amplitude remains
finite. However, the amplitude may become very large if the damping is small and the applied
frequency is close to the natural frequency. This effect is important in designing bridges and
other civil constructions.

EXERCISES
1. A particle of mass 200 g executes a simple harmonic motion. The restoring force is
provided by a spring of spring constant 80 N m –1. Find the time period. [0.314
s]
2. The position, velocity and acceleration of a particle executing simple harmonic motion
are found to have magnitudes 2 cm, 1 m/s and 10 m/s 2 at a certain instant. Find the
amplitude and the time period of the motion. [4.9
cm; 0.28 s]
3. A particle having mass 10 g oscillates according to the equation � = (2.0 ��)
sin[(100�−1) � + �⁄6]. Find
(a) the amplitude, the time period and the spring constant. [2 cm; 0.063 s; 100
N/m]
(b) the position, the velocity and the acceleration at t = 0. [1cm; 1.73 m/s; 100
m/s2]
4. The equation of motion of a particle started at t = 0 is given by x = 5 sin (20 t + π/3),
where x is in centimeter and t in second. When does the particle
(a) first come to rest? [� ⁄120
s]
(b) first have zero acceleration? [� ⁄30
s]

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 (c) first have maximum speed? [� ⁄30
s]
5. A body of mass 2 kg suspended through a vertical spring executes simple harmonic
motion of period 4 s. If the oscillations are stopped and the body hangs in equilibrium,
find the potential energy stored in the spring.
[40 J]
6. A particle executes simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 10 cm. At what distance
from the mean position are the kinetic and potential energies equal? [5√�
cm]
7. Calculate the time period of a simple pendulum of length one meter. The acceleration due
to gravity at the place is π2 ms−2. [2 s]
8. A simple pendulum is taken at a place where its distance from the earth’s surface is equal
to the radius of the earth. Calculate the time period of small oscillations if the length of
the string is 1 m. Take g=π 2 ms−2 at the surface of the earth.
[4 s]

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