metals

Article
Welded Construction Design of Transition Fittings
from Metal Pipes to Plastic Pipes
Dan Dobrotă * , Ionela Rotaru and Ioan Bondrea
Faculty of Engineering, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, 550024 Sibiu, Romania; ionela.rotaru@ulbsibiu.ro (I.R.);
ioan.bondrea@ulbsibiu.ro (I.B.)
* Correspondence: dan.dobrota@ulbsibiu.ro; Tel.: +40-722-446-082




Received: 7 August 2020; Accepted: 11 September 2020; Published: 13 September 2020


Abstract: Transition type fittings are components often used in facilities where fluids are transported
that allow the passage from a high density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe to a steel pipe. In the presented
studies, four types of transition fittings were analyzed in the first stage. The four types of transition
fittings are distinguished by the shape of their welded steel construction. The performed analyses
took into account testing the behavior upon exposure to fatigue, measuring the HDPE hardness and
applying the finite element method (FEM). As a result of these studies it was demonstrated that
the form of the welded steel construction has a very great influence on the operating behavior of
the transition fitting. Thus, a new transition fitting with a welded steel construction was designed.
In this new type of transition fitting, an approximately 50% increase in resistance to fatigue stress,
an approximately 90% reduction in stress in the part material and a reduction in the hardness of
the material in HDPE pipes was obtained. The studies allow not only an improvement of the
characteristics for these types of parts, but also the optimization of other types of steel-plastic joints.

Keywords: design; welded construction; constructive optimization; transition fitting; finite

element method

1. Introduction
Metals and plastics are widely used in industrial applications, and the connection of a metal part
with a plastic part is often necessary and important from a manufacturing point of view. Therefore,
the combination of a metal material and a laser-assisted plastic material (LAMP) has been developed
as an innovative direct laser joint, without adhesives or glue [1,2]. It has been demonstrated that the
joining of metal and plastic materials through LAMP technology offers a high-strength nanostructural
bonding through formation of an oxide film that has high reliability in various practical uses [3–5].
Also, for joining stainless steel plates with polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic plates, the
tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding process is used. The analysis of the joints made by this welding
process showed that the two plates were glued by the reaction of the PET carbonyl groups and the
metallic element which allows the formation of chemical bonds that result in joints with significantly
improved strengths [6,7].
The technological variant of laser welding of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and titanium alloy
Ti6Al4V was tested and it was shown that porosity always appears in the high temperature region of
the formed joint due to the decomposition of PET. In addition, it was also found that a melted material
bath is formed only in the PET layer and certain parameters of the welding technological process have
significant effects on the fluid flow, which influences the heat transfer and, implicitly, the formation of
the welded joint. Consequently, it is always necessary to adopt adequate technological parameters to
when forming the joint in order to obtain a welded joint without defects [8,9].

Metals 2020, 10, 1231; doi:10.3390/met10091231 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2020, 10, 1231 2 of 20

A variant for joining carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) with titanium (Ti) alloy is laser
technology. When applying this technology, the results indicated that fewer defects can be obtained on
the surface of the titanium alloy and fewer bubbles inside the CFRP, provided a higher welding speed
is adopted. The layer of material obtained in the joint was generated as a CTi0.42V1.58 phase due to
the carburization of the titanium alloy [10,11].
The joining of different lightweight materials for the realization of lightweight multi-material
structures is also a new technical solution in the manufacture of cars or other advanced vehicles [12].
Given that titanium alloys are characterized by high specific strength and good corrosion resistance,
they can be a solution for the realization of aerospace and automotive industry equipment. However,
titanium alloys are fairly expensive, so that with increasing requirements for lightweight structural
materials, carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) with high specific strength and low density has
gradually been considered as an alternative material in engineering applications [13,14]. In order
to replace titanium alloys, in recent years CFRP/titanium alloy material joining technologies have
been developed with applications in aircraft construction and certain automotive industry pats, in the
aircraft and automotive subsectors. Thus, a high quality combination of CFRP and titanium alloy will
not only provide an additional weight reduction but will also increase the application scope of these
advanced materials [15,16].
A possible technology for joining thermoplastic and metallic materials is ultrasonic welding.
The use of this joint technology seems to provide good results in practice, but the performance of
such a joint is strongly influenced by the geometry of the microstructure of the metallic material in
the piece. If a suitable geometry is adopted for the metal part, ultrasonic hot welding seems to be a
fast, low-cost and reliable method to obtain hybrid plastic/metal products for electronics and other
industrial applications [17,18].
A possible variant for optimizing the joining parameters of metals and plastics is the use of FEM,
and the obtained results indicate that this approach can be easily used to optimize process conditions as
well as to optimize the shape and size of welded joints [19]. At present, plastic deformation technologies
have been applied to make joints between aluminum pipes and plastic pipes, but this solution can be
applied only if these types of joints are subject to low mechanical stress [20,21].
The law of similarities between deep drawing and tube drawing with and without a floating
mandrel, together with the entered real boundary conditions of the drawing process simulation, can
represent a technical solution that can be applied in the case of joints between a piece of metal and a
piece of plastic [22].
At present, a special problem that requires an optimal technical solution refers to the realization
of fittings with the best possible characteristics and performance in operation, which will allow the
assembly of plastic and steel pipes. These fittings have a welded steel construction in the structure
that allows joining them with plastic pipes. The presence of the welded joint and, implicitly, of a
heat affected zone (HAZ), requires the adoption of a certain design for the welded joint so that the
heat in the HAZ influences as little as possible the characteristics of the plastic pipes. Under these
conditions, studies have considered several variants of the welded construction of the fittings, aimed
at the following aspects: analysis of the behavior at the fatigue stress of different transition fittings,
the effect of the presence of heat from the HAZ in changing the hardness of plastics and modeling
of different types of fittings by the finite element method (FEM). Following these analyzes, a fitting
variant with a certain welded construction design and very good behavior in operation was proposed.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The structure of a transition fitting from a metal pipe to a plastic one includes the following types
of material: the steel from which the metal pipes are made, the inner and outer bushes of the fitting,
pipe made of high density polyethylene (HDPE) and any material added to form the welded joint.
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 3 of 20

The steel from which the inner bushings, outer bushings and the steel pipe were made was a
steel used to make seamless pipes resistant to pressure and ambient temperature, with the P 235 TR
1 designation, in accordance with SREN 10025-4. The chemical composition of a liquid steel batch
is presented in Table 1 and the mechanical characteristics in Table 2. Both the chemical composition
(Table 1) and the mechanical properties (Table 2), are in accordance with those provided by the steel
pipe manufacturer (TubeMFG, Zhangjiagang, China).

Table 1. Chemical composition for steel P 235 TR 1.

Element C Mn Si S P Al V Ti Cr Mo Ni Fe
max max max max max max max max max max max
wt% balanced
0.16 1.2 0.35 0.020 0.025 0.020 0.02 0.04 0.30 0.08 0.30

Table 2. Mechanical properties for steel P 235 TR.

Yield Strength Tensile Strength Elongation A5 Minimum Value of Notch Impact Energy
Rp0.2 (MPa) Rm (MPa) (%) (J) -Notch Impact Test-Longitudinal
min min 25 −20 ◦ C 0 ◦C +20 ◦ C
235 420 17 39 51 58

An electrode filler material with a E 50 4 B 4 2 H5 designation was used to from the welded
construction, in accordance with EN 2560-A. Its chemical composition, shown in Table 3, is in accordance
with the data provided by the manufacturer (Voestalpine Böhler Welding CEE GmbH, Frankfurt am
Main, Germany). This filler material is a basic coated Ni-alloyed electrode with excellent mechanical
properties, particularly high toughness and crack resistance. It can be used for higher strength
fine-grained construction steel with a carbon content up to 0.6%. This filler material is suitable for
service temperatures from −60 to 350 ◦ C. It offers very good impact strength under aged conditions.
Metal recovery is about 115%. It has easy weldability in all positions except vertical down. It has very
low hydrogen content. The mechanical properties of all weld metal-typical values are presented in
Table 4, being in accordance with those provided by the manufacturer. It is recommended to use this
filler material with DC+, and if is necessary to redry, do so between 300–350 ◦ C for a minimum 2 h.

Table 3. Chemical composition for the filler material with E 50 4 B 4 2 H5.

Element C Mn Si Fe
wt% max. 0.08 max. 1.7 max. 0.7 balanced

Table 4. Mechanical properties for the filler material with E 50 4 B 4 2 H5.

Yield Strength Tensile Strength Elongation Impact Values

Rp0.2 (MPa) Rm (MPa) A5 (%) ISO-V KV (J)
−40 ◦ C +20 ◦ C
Min 580 560–720 Min 26
90 170

The plastic pipes used were made of HDPE 100 high density polyethylene. This type of material
has flexibility, low weight, roughness of almost 0, good abrasion resistance superior to that of steel,
and insolubility in solvents, which is why it cannot be assembled with adhesives. This material
contains carbon black, which ensures its protection from ultraviolet radiation. The physical properties
of the HDPE are presented in Table 5, being in accordance with those provided by the manufacturer
(PEBO, S.p.A., Piego – Frazione Monterone, Piego, Italy)
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 4 of 20
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19
Table 5. The main physical-mechanical properties of HDPE.
Table 5. The main physical-mechanical properties of HDPE.
Table 5. The main physical-mechanical properties of HDPE.
Value
Value Unitofof
Unit
Characteristic
Characteristic Value Unit of Test
TestStandard
Standard
Characteristic HDPE
HDPE8080 HDPE
HDPE100 100 Measurement
Measurement Test Standard
HDPE 80 HDPE 100 Measurement
Density
Density 0.93
0.93 0.95
0.95 g/cm
g/cm 3 3 ENISO
EN ISO1183-1
1183-1
Density 0.93 0.95 g/cm3 EN ISO 1183-1
Breaking
Breakingstrength
strength atat 23 ◦C
°C 1818 3030 N/mm 2 2 ENISOISO527-1
527-1
Breaking strength at 23
23 °C 18 30 N/mm
N/mm 2 EN
EN ISO 527-1
Modulusofofelasticity,
Modulus at 23 ◦°C
elasticity, at C 700
700 900
900 N/mm
N/mm 2 2 EN
ENISOISO527-1
527-1
Modulus of elasticity, at 23 °C ◦ 700 900 N/mm 2
2 EN ISO 527-1
TheTheCharpy
Charpyimpact
impactresistant,
resistant, at
at 23
23 °CC 110
110 8383 kJ/m
kJ/m2 2 EN
ENISOISO179-1
179-1
The Charpy
TheCharpy impactresistant,
Charpyimpact
impact resistant,atat−40
23 ◦°C
C 7 110 83
1313 kJ/m
2 ENEN ISO 179-1
The resistant, at −40 °C 7 kJ/m
kJ/m2 2 ENISOISO179-1
179-1
The Ball
Charpy impact
imprint resistant,
hardness, at −40
at (132 N) °C 7 37 13 kJ/m
N/mm 2 EN ISO 179-1
EN ISO 2030-1
Ball imprint hardness, at (132 N) 37 N/mm 2 EN ISO 2030-1
Ball imprint hardness,
Crystallite melting at (132 N)
point 131 37 130 N/mm
◦C 2 EN ISO
DIN 51007 2030-1
Crystallite melting point ◦ 131 130 °C DIN 51007
Crystallite melting point
Thermal conductivity, at 23 C 0.43131 130
0.38 W/mK °C ENDIN 51007
12664
Thermal conductivity,
Coefficient of linear at 23 °C
expansion 0.430.15-0.20 0.38 W/mK
Mm/mK DINEN53752
12664
Thermal conductivity, at 23 °C 0.43 0.38 W/mK EN 12664
Coefficient of linear expansion
Water absorption, 23 ◦ C 0.15-0.20 Mm/mK DINISO53752
Coefficient of linear at expansion 0.01-0.04
0.15-0.20 %
Mm/mK ENDIN 62
53752
Water
The absorption,
Index of Oxygen at 23 °C
Limit (LOI) 0.01-0.04
17.4 %% EN4589-1
ISO ISO 62
Water absorption, at 23 °C 0.01-0.04 % EN ISO 62
The Index of Oxygen Limit (LOI) 17.4 % ISO 4589-1
The Index of Oxygen Limit (LOI) 17.4 % ISO 4589-1
2.2. Realization of the Welded Construction of the Fittings
2.2.
2.2.Realization
Realizationofofthe
theWelded
WeldedConstruction
Constructionofofthe
theFittings
Fittings
For the realization of the welded construction of the transition fittings, the electric arc welding
For
process the
therealization
Forwith coated of
ofthe
thewelded
electrodes
realization was construction
chosen.
welded This choice
construction of
ofthe
thetransition
was made fittings,
taking
transition the
theelectric
into account
fittings, arc
arcwelding
the basic
electric material
welding
process
P with
235 TRwith
process coated
1. The welding
coated electrodes was
regime used
electrodes chosen. This choice
had the parameters
was chosen. was made
This choicepresented
was made taking
Table 6.into account the
in taking into account the basic
basic
material P 235 TR 1. The welding regime used had the parameters presented
material P 235 TR 1. The welding regime used had the parameters presented in Table 6. in Table 6.
Table 6. Welding regime of the samples.
Table 6. Welding regime of the samples.
Table 6. Welding regime of the samples.
Voltage Amperage Welding Speed Heat input
Voltage Amperage
UAmperage A vs. Welding
(mm/s) Speed Heat input
Voltage Welding Speed El (J/mm) Heat input
U A vs. (mm/s) El (J/mm)
U 20 A 100 3.1vs. (mm/s) 645 El (J/mm)
20 100 3.1 645
20 100 3.1 645

2.3.Assembly
2.3. Assembly of theTransition
Transition Fittings
2.3. Assemblyofofthethe TransitionFittings
Fittings
In order
In order to to optimize
optimize the
the welded
welded construction of of the transition
transition fittings and
and to increase
increase their
In order to optimize the welded construction
construction of thethe transition fittings
fittings and toto increase their
their
performance
performance in operation, four transition fittings were made (designated as T1, T2, T3, T4,). These fittings
performancein inoperation,
operation,four
fourtransition
transitionfittings
fittingswere
weremade
made(designated
(designatedas asT1,
T1,T2,
T2,T3,
T3,T4,).
T4,).These
These
have inhave
fittings the structure steel pipe whose form is form
presented in Tablein7.Table 7.
fittings havein inthe
thestructure
structuresteel
steelpipe
pipewhose
whose formisispresented
presented in Table 7.
Table7.
Table Theconstructive
7. The constructiveshape
shapeof
ofthe
thesteel
steelpipe.
pipe.
Table 7. The constructive shape of the steel pipe.
Transition
Transition Fitting
Fitting Type Type Steel Pipe
Transition Fitting Type

T1, T2,T1,
T3T2, T3
T1, T2, T3

T4
T4
T4

As
Ascan
canbe
beseen
seenfrom
fromthe
theimages
imagespresented
presentedin inTable
Table7,
Table 7,the
thesteel
steelpipes
pipesused
usedtotomake
makethethetransition
transition
fittings
fittings of type T1, T2 and T3, respectively, do not show additional processing after cutting.
fittings of
of type
type T1,
T1, T2T2 and
and T3, T3, respectively,
respectively, do not do not
show show
additional additional processing
processing after after
cutting. Regarding
cutting.
Regarding
Regardingthe thesteel
steelpipe
pipeused
usedtotomake
makethe
thetype
type44fitting,
fitting,itithas
hasaamachining
machiningatatthe
theend
endthat
thatparticipates
participates
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 5 of 20

in making the joints, and this is done to better guide it in the outer bush of the fitting. The HDPE
pipes havepipe
the steel the constructive
used to makeshape shown
the type in Table
4 fitting, 8. a machining at the end that participates in making
it has
Thus,
the joints, from the images to better guide it in theitouter
presented in Table 8 is observed
bush of that the HDPE pipes do nothave
showthe
Metals 2020, 10,and
x FORthis is done
PEER REVIEW the fitting. The HDPE pipes 5 of 19
additional
Metals
Metals 2020, processing
2020, 10,
10,
constructive xx FOR
FOR PEER
shapePEERbefore
REVIEW
REVIEW
shown assembly,
in Table 8. they will be used in the form obtained after cutting, but55theirof
of 19
19
shape and dimensions will change after fitting assembly.
in making the joints, and this is done to better guide it in the outer bush of the fitting. The HDPE
in making the joints, and this isTable done8.toConstructive
better guide it in the outer bush of the fitting. The HDPE
pipes have the constructive shape shown in Table 8. shape of HDPE pipe.
pipes have the constructive shape Tableshown in Table shape
8. Constructive 8. of HDPE pipe.
Thus, from the images
Transition Fitting presented
Type in Table 8 it is observedHDPEthat
Pipethe HDPE pipes do not show
Thus, from the images presented in Table 8 it is observed that the HDPE pipes do not show
Transition Fitting Type
additional processing before assembly, they will be used in the form obtained after cutting, but their
additional processing before assembly, they will be used in the form obtained after cutting, but their
shape and dimensions will change after fitting assembly.
shape and dimensions will change after fitting assembly.

Table 8. Constructive shape of HDPE pipe.

T1, T2, T3, T2, T3, T4 Table 8. Constructive shape of HDPE pipe.
T1,T4
Transition Fitting Type
Transition Fitting Type

The inner
T1, T2,bushings,
T3, T4 used in structure of the fittings, present a complex constructive form that
T1, T2, T3, T4
allows Thus,
the installation
from the of the fittings,
images theirin
presented shape
Table being presented
8 it is observedinthat
Tablethe9. HDPE pipes do not show
additional processing before assembly, they will be used in the form obtained after cutting, but their
shape and dimensions will Table
change9. The constructive
after shape of the inner bush.
fitting assembly.
The inner
Transition
The inner bushings,
Fitting used
Type used
bushings, inin structure
structure ofofthe
thefittings,
fittings,present
present
Inner a acomplex
Bush complexconstructive
constructive formthat
form that
The the
allows inner bushings,ofused
installation the in structure
fittings, their of the fittings,
shape being present aincomplex
presented Table 9. constructive form that
allows the installation of the fittings, their shape being presented in Table 9.
allows the installation of the fittings, their shape being presented in Table 9.
Table 9. The constructive shape of the inner bush.
Table 9. The constructive shape of the inner bush.
Table 9. The constructive shape of the inner bush.
TransitionT1
Transition Fitting Type
Fitting Type Inner
Inner Bush
Bush
Transition Fitting Type Inner Bush

T1 T1
T1

T2, T3

T2, T3 T2, T3
T2, T3

T4

From the T4
images presented
T4 T4 in Table 9, the following conclusions can be made regarding the form
of the inner bushes:
• the inner bushing for the type T1 fitting has on the outer surface a series of channels and conical
surfaces that allow an increase of its adhesion to the HDPE pipe, but also a better tightness of
the
Fromfitting;
the images presented in Table 9, the following conclusions can be made regarding the form
From the images presented in Table 9, the following conclusions can be made regarding the form
•of the
forinner
making the fittings T2 and T3, respectively, an inner bushing is used which has additional
bushes:
of the inner
From bushes:
the on
images presented in resulting
Table 9, the
processing one of the ends, in following conclusions
a larger diameter can opposite
on the be made end;
regarding the form
this type of
• of the
the inner
inner bushes:
bushing for the type T1 fitting has on the outer surface a series of channels and conical
• the inner bushing for the type T1 fitting has on the outer surface a series of channels and conical
surfaces that allow an increase of its adhesion to the HDPE pipe, but also a better tightness of
surfaces that allow an increase of its adhesion to the HDPE pipe, but also a better tightness of
the fitting;
the fitting;
• for making the fittings T2 and T3, respectively, an inner bushing is used which has additional
• for making the fittings T2 and T3, respectively, an inner bushing is used which has additional
processing on one of the ends, resulting in a larger diameter on the opposite end; this type of
processing on one of the ends, resulting in a larger diameter on the opposite end; this type of
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 6 of 20

• the inner bushing for the type T1 fitting has on the outer surface a series of channels and conical
surfaces that allow an increase of its adhesion to the HDPE pipe, but also a better tightness of
the fitting;
• for making the fittings T2 and T3, respectively, an inner bushing is used which has additional
processing on one of the ends, resulting in a larger diameter on the opposite end; this type of
Metalsprocessing
Metals 2020, 10, xx FOR
FORprotects the HDPE pipe from the action of heat released during the welding
PEER REVIEW ofprocess,
666 of 19
Metals 2020,
2020, 10,
10, x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW of 19
19
but also the achievement of an appropriate tightness for these types of fittings;
• the type T4protects
processing
processing fitting has
protects the in the pipe
the HDPE
HDPE structure
pipe from an inner
from the
the actionbush
action of
of heat
heatwith a much
released
released morethe
during
during complex
the weldingouter
welding process,
process, surface,
but also
consisting the achievement
of cylindrical of
andan appropriate
conical tightness
surfaces, and for
this these
allows
but also the achievement of an appropriate tightness for these types of fittings; types
to of fittings;
obtain a gradual deformation of
• the type T4 fitting has in the structure an inner bush with a much more complex outer surface,
•• the type
material
the type T4 fitting
T4 fitting has
from has in
the in
HDPEthe structure
the structure
pipe, factananwhich
inner has
inner busha with
bush with
greataainfluence
much more
much more complex
oncomplex outer of
the tightness
outer surface,
the fitting.
surface,
consisting
consisting
As for the of
of cylindrical
cylindrical
outer bushes and
and
of conical
conical
the surfaces,
surfaces,
analyzed and this
and
fittings, this
they allows
allows
show tovarious
to obtain aatypes
obtain gradual
gradualof deformationon
deformation
machining oftheir
of
consisting of cylindrical and conical surfaces, and this allows to obtain a gradual deformation of
the
the material
inner surfaces
material from
from the
and HDPE
their
the HDPE pipe,
shape
pipe,is fact which
which has
presented
fact aa great
in Table
has great10.influence
influence onon the
the tightness
tightness of
of the
the fitting.
fitting.
As
As for the outer bushes of the analyzed fittings, they show various types of machining on
for the outer bushes of the analyzed fittings, they show various types of machining on their
their
inner
inner surfaces
surfaces and and their
their shape
shape is is presented
presented in in Table
Table 10.
10.
Table 10. Constructive shape of the outer bushes.
Table 10.
Table 10. Constructive
Constructive shape
shape of
of the
the outer
outer bushes.
bushes.
Transition Fitting Table
Type 10. Constructive shape of the outer
Outerbushes.
Bush
Transition Fitting Type
Transition Type
Transition Fitting
Fitting Type

T1
T1
T1
T1

T2 T2
T2
T2

T3
T3 T3
T3

T4
T4
T4 T4

From
From thethe data
data presented
presented inin Table
Table 10
10 it
it is
is observed
observed that
that the
the outer
outer bushings
bushings for
for the
the four
four types
types of
of
fittings
fittings have complex machining on their inner surfaces. Thus, all bushings have channels of various
have complex machining on their inner surfaces. Thus, all bushings have channels of various
shapes (square,
shapes (square, rectangular,
rectangular, trapezoidal,
trapezoidal, triangular)
triangular) onon the
the inner
inner surface
surface and
and all
all these
these contribute
contribute toto
shapes (square, rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular) on the inner surface and all these contribute to
achieving
achieving thethe tightness
the tightness of
tightness of the
of the fitting
the fitting and
fitting and achieving
and achieving a gradual
achieving aa gradual deformation
gradual deformation
deformation ofof the
of the material
the material
material inin the
in the HDPE
the HDPE
HDPE
achieving
pipe. The
pipe. The outer
outer sleeve
sleeve of
of the
the type
type T1
T1 fitting
fitting has
has an
an additional
additional processing
processing at
at one
one ofof the
the ends
ends which
which
pipe. The outer sleeve of the type T1 fitting has an additional processing at one of the ends which
allows
allows itit to
to be
be properly
properly guided
guided onto
onto the
the steel
steel pipe.
pipe.
The assembly processes of the transition fittings were carried out differently, depending on their
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 7 of 20

From the data presented in Table 10 it is observed that the outer bushings for the four types of
fittings have complex machining on their inner surfaces. Thus, all bushings have channels of various
shapes (square, rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular) on the inner surface and all these contribute to
achieving the tightness of the fitting and achieving a gradual deformation of the material in the HDPE
pipe. The outer sleeve of the type T1 fitting has an additional processing at one of the ends which
allows it to be properly guided onto the steel pipe.
The assembly processes of the transition fittings were carried out differently, depending on their
constructive form, being adopted the following technological variants of assembly:

• the HDPE pipe is located inside the outer bushing, and the inner bushing is inserted by hot
pressing, the steel pipe being welded to the inner bushing; thus the type T1 transition fittings
presented
Metals 2020, 10, x in Figure
FOR 1a are obtained;
PEER REVIEW 7 of 19
• the HDPE pipe is located inside the outer bushing and the inner bushing is inserted by hot
• pressing,
the HDPE thenpipe
the is located
steel pipe inside the outer
is inserted whichbushing
will thenand
be the innertobushing
welded is bushing,
the outer inserted by hot
obtaining
pressing, then the steel pipe is inserted which will then be welded to the outer
the type T2 transition fittings (Figure 1b), type T3 (Figure 1c), type T4 (Figure 1d). bushing, obtaining
the type T2 transition fittings (Figure 1b), type T3 (Figure 1c), type T4 (Figure 1d).

Figure 1. Types of transition fittings obtained: (a)—T1 transition fittings; (b)—T2 transition fitting;
Figure 1. Types of transition fittings obtained: (a)—T1 transition fittings; (b)—T2 transition fitting;
(c)—T3 transition fitting; (d)—T4 transition fitting; 1—HDPE pipe; 2—outer bush; 3—inner bush; 4—
(c)—T3 transition fitting; (d)—T4 transition fitting; 1—HDPE pipe; 2—outer bush; 3—inner bush;
welding bead; 5—steel pipe.
4—welding bead; 5—steel pipe.
2.4.Testing
2.4. Testingthe
theFatigue
FatigueBehavior
BehaviorofofTransition
Transition Fittings
Fittings
Due to the fact that this type of fittings is subject to variable stresses, an analysis of their behavior
Due to the fact that this type of fittings is subject to variable stresses, an analysis of their behavior
with regard to their fatigue was required. Thus, a compression traction cycle with a frequency of 10
with regard to their fatigue was required. Thus, a compression traction cycle with a frequency of 10 Hz
Hz was applied. For the fatigue testing, a LVF 100 HM fatigue test machine (Saginomiya Seisakusho,
was applied. For the fatigue testing, a LVF 100 HM fatigue test machine (Saginomiya Seisakusho,
Tokyo, Japan) was used. The fatigue test machine has the following characteristics: maximum static
Tokyo, Japan) was used. The fatigue test machine has the following characteristics: maximum static
load of +/−100 KN; maximum dynamic load of +/−100 KN; maximum working frequency of 50 Hz;
100 mm piston stroke; a distance between the fastening devices of 1200 mm; overall dimensions: 900
mm × 600 mm × 2510 mm; weight of about 830 kg; working pressure from 44 to 200 bar; pump flow
of 44 L/min at 200 bar. The values of the forces applied to the four types of transition fittings are
presented in Table 11. The choice of these force values was made considering that in practice these
types of fittings are not normally subjected to forces higher than 0.8 ÷ 1.1 kN, and higher force values
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 8 of 20

load of ±100 KN; maximum dynamic load of ±100 KN; maximum working frequency of 50 Hz;
100 mm piston stroke; a distance between the fastening devices of 1200 mm; overall dimensions:
900 mm × 600 mm × 2510 mm; weight of about 830 kg; working pressure from 44 to 200 bar; pump
flow of 44 L/min at 200 bar. The values of the forces applied to the four types of transition fittings
are presented in Table 11. The choice of these force values was made considering that in practice
these types of fittings are not normally subjected to forces higher than 0.8 ÷ 1.1 kN, and higher force
values were chosen to analyze the situations in which in fittings suffer higher force stresses caused by
accidental increases in the pressure in the fittings.

Table 11. Applied forces for fatigue tests.

Samples ±Force (kN) Frequency (Hz)

T1, T2, T3, T4 ±1 10
T1, T2, T3, T4 ±2 10
T1, T2, T3, T4 ±3 10

The fittings were subjected to the above conditions until the assembly was broken. In order to
calculate the number of stress cycles until breaking (n) using Equation (1), the time after which each
type of fitting was broken was timed. Thus, knowing the stress time until breaking of each fitting,
one can calculate the number of cycles until breaking:

n = t·F (1)

where: n represents number of cycles until breaking; t—time, in seconds until the fittings break, F—the
applied frequency.
In order to determine the families of functions that are as close as possible to the experimentally
determined values, the mathematical program MathCad (Parametric Technology Corporation, Boston,
MA, USA) was used. By drawing the graph of these functions, the fatigue durability curves of the
transition fittings (Wohler curves) were obtained. With the help of these curves it was possible to
appreciate the behavior over time of the four types of fittings in terms of yielding through fatigue.
Wohler curves actually represent the relation between the applied voltage and the number of cycles to
break. Considering that in the case of these types of parts—transition fittings—there are two types of
materials, HDPE and steel, in their structure, respectively, it was approximated that the linear part of
these curves can be expressed by a logarithmic regression of the type given in Equation (2), where
lgA represents the intersection of the curve with the vertical axis, 1/p represents the slope of the line,
∆σ represents the tension variation due to the variation of the applied force between a minimum and a
maximum, and n represents the number of cycles. Equation (2) represents the law of variation of the
durability curve in linear coordinates. Equation (2) can also be written in the form of Equation (3).
Also, if it is considered that lgA is equal to a certain value r, Equation (3) can also be written in the
form (4), which in turn can be written in the form of the relation (5):

lgn = lgA − p ∗ lg∆σ (2)

lg(n ∗ ∆σp ) = lgA (3)

10r = n ∗ ∆σp (4)

r
p 10
r
∆σ = (5)
n
where: lg A represents the intersection of Wohler curves with vertical axis; 1/p—is the slope of the
line; ∆σ—the voltage variation that appeared as a result of the variation of the applied force between a
maximum and a minimum; n—number of cycles.
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 9 of 20

2.5. Material Hardness Analysis of HDPE Pipes

The material in HDPE pipes suffers a series of deformations in the assembly area with the
metal pipe through the inner and outer bushes. Also, the material at the end of the metal pipe
of the HDPE pipe can undergo a series of transformations during the realization of the welding
seams. Thus, a measurement of the hardness of the HDPE pipe material was required. In this sense,
the measurements were made starting from the right to the left starting with the part of the HDPE
pipe from the metal pipe (Figure 1), and the measurements were made at 15 points every 4 mm on a
length2020,
Metals of 56
10,mm.
x FORThe
PEERmeasurement
REVIEW of the hardness of the material in the HDPE pipe was performed
9 of 19
with the help of a Shore D durometer type PCE-DDD 10 produced by PCE Instruments (Southampton,
Hampshire,
hardness in UK).
hardThe Shoreand
rubber D durometer is a portable
thermoplastic. handheld
This digital device used
durometer has atoreading
check Shore D hardness
accuracy of 0.1
in hard rubber
hardness units. and thermoplastic. This digital durometer has a reading accuracy of 0.1 hardness units.

2.6. The
2.6. The Analysis
Analysis of
of Fittings
Fittings with
with Finite
Finite Element
Element Method
Method (FEM)
(FEM)
Transition fittings
Transition fittingsare pieces
are pieceswith a complex
with a complexconstruction that have
construction that in theirinstructure
have both metallic
their structure both
and metallic plastic materials. Also, the presence of welded joints can considerably
metallic and metallic plastic materials. Also, the presence of welded joints can considerably influence influence the
behavior
the in operation
behavior in operation of such
of suchtypes
typesof of
parts.
parts.AtAtthethesame
sametime
timeanyanyconstructive
constructive modification
modification to to
the welded construction can cause a change in the mechanical strength of the fittings. Thus,
the welded construction can cause a change in the mechanical strength of the fittings. Thus, anan
analysis by
analysis by the
the finite
finite element
element method
method of of all
all analyzed
analyzed transition
transition type
type variants
variants (T1,
(T1, T2,
T2, T3,
T3, T4)
T4) was
was
imposed. To perform the analysis by the finite element method, the four variants
imposed. To perform the analysis by the finite element method, the four variants of transition fittings of transition
fittingsmodeled
were were modeled and assembled
and assembled usingusing
CATIACATIA V5-6R2013
V5-6R2013 software
software (Version5,5,Dassault
(Version Dassault Systèmes,
Systèmes,
Vélizy-Villacoublay,
Vélizy-Villacoublay,France).
France).
Following the analysis
Following the analysis by by FEM
FEM ofof the
the four
four types
types ofof transition
transition fittings,
fittings, it
it is
is possible
possible to to optimize
optimize
the shape for each of their components. To achieve finite element modeling for
the shape for each of their components. To achieve finite element modeling for all types of transitionall types of transition
fittings, the
fittings, the HDPE
HDPE pipepipe was
was embedded,
embedded, and and atat the
the opposite
opposite end end represented
represented by by the
the steel
steel pipe
pipe aa load
load
was applied, requiring a maximum displacement of 50 mm (Figure 2). For
was applied, requiring a maximum displacement of 50 mm (Figure 2). For the plastic material of the plastic material of the
the
pipe, the allowable stress
pipe, the allowable stress σmax σ = 185 MPa was assigned.
max = 185 MPa was assigned.

Figure 2. The
Figure 2. The loading
loading mode
mode and
and the
the restrictions
restrictions applied
applied to
to the
the transition
transition fittings
fittings subjected
subjected to
to analysis
analysis
by the finite element method.
by the finite element method.

3. Results
3. Results and
and Discussions
Discussions

3.1. The
3.1. The Results
Results of
of the
the Analysis
Analysis of
of the
the Fatigue
Fatigue Behavior
Behavior of
of the
the Transition
Transition Fittings
Fittings
In
In order
order to
to carry
carry out
out the
the studies from the
studies from the point
point of
of view
view of
of the
the fatigue
fatigue behavior
behavior of
of the
the fittings,
fittings,
nine fittings of each type were made, and these were tested by turn with the help of a fatigue testing
nine fittings of each type were made, and these were tested by turn with the help of a fatigue testing
machine. Thus,
machine. Thus, three
three fittings
fittings of
of the
the same
same type
type were
were tested
tested for
for each
each stress
stress condition,
condition, and
and the
the results
results
obtained represent an average of the three measured values. After testing the four types of fittings in
terms of fatigue behavior, the results shown in Table 12 were obtained. Given that on a graph in
which on the ordinate (vertical axis) we have the Δσ, and on the horizontal we have the number of
cycles until breaking, the durability curves are obtained. These durability curves correspond to those
specified in relations (2)–(5) and with the help of the calculation program MathCad, by the
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 10 of 20

obtained represent an average of the three measured values. After testing the four types of fittings in
terms of fatigue behavior, the results shown in Table 12 were obtained. Given that on a graph in which
on the ordinate (vertical axis) we have the ∆σ, and on the horizontal we have the number of cycles until
breaking, the durability curves are obtained. These durability curves correspond to those specified in
relations (2)–(5) and with the help of the calculation program MathCad, by the mathematical processing
of the results obtained from the fatigue tests, the values p1 = 2 and r1 = 6.8 were determined for the
fittings T1, for which the graph of the function ∆σ1 is closest to our points represented by the vector
number of cycles noted with n1 = (16210; 154610; 197750) and the force vector denoted F = (3; 2; 1).
Under the same conditions, the data obtained for the fittings T2, T3 and T4 were processed and the
values p2 = 1.4 and r2 = 5.2 were obtained for the fitting T2, for the fitting T3 the values p3 = 1.9 and r3
= 6.5 respectively for the fitting T4 the values p4 = 1.8 and r4 = 6.1.

Table 12. Results obtained after fatigue testing of the samples.

Samples ±Force (kN) Frequency (Hz) Time (s) Number of Cycles n

±3 10 1612 16,210
T1 ±2 10 15,461 154,610
±1 10 197,751 197,750
±3 10 1171 11,710
T2 ±2 10 10,551 105,510
±1 10 13,757 137,570
±3 10 1631 16,310
T3 ±2 10 13,281 132,810
±1 10 18,367 183,670
±3 10 1262 12,620
T4 ±2 10 11,797 117,970
±1 10 15,789 157,890

Also, using equations (2 ÷ 5) ∆σ was calculated, the voltage variation that appeared as a result of
the variation of the force applied between a maximum and a minimum for the four types of fittings
under the mentioned stress conditions, the results being presented in Table 13.

Table 13. Voltage variation values ∆σ.

Fitting Type Force (kN) ∆σ

±3 16.06
T1 ±2 6.38
±1 5.64
±3 6.85
T2 ±2 1.33
±1 1.11
±3 15.47
T3 ±2 5.20
±1 4.39
±3 12.27
T4 ±2 3.51
±1 2.98

After testing the four types of fittings in terms of fatigue behavior, the results shown in Table 12
were obtained. Also, in Figure 3, a graphical evolution of the number of cycles until breaking of the
samples is presented.
 T4 +/−2 3.51
+/−1 2.98

After testing the four types of fittings in terms of fatigue behavior, the results shown in Table 12
were
Metalsobtained. Also, in Figure 3, a graphical evolution of the number of cycles until breaking of
2020, 10, 1231 11 the
of 20
samples is presented.

Metals 2020, Figure

10, x FOR
3. PEER REVIEW
Graphical representation of the number of cycles until give in through fatigue. 11 of 19
Figure 3. Graphical representation of the number of cycles until give in through fatigue.

Also,
Also,byby processing these
processing experimental
these data, the
experimental durability
data, curves were
the durability drawn
curves in linear
were drawncoordinates,
in linear
Figure 4, as follows:
coordinates, Figurefor thefollows:
4, as for the T1∆σ1,
T1 fitting—curve for the T2 fittings—∆σ2
fitting—curve curve,
Δσ1, for the T2 for the T3 fittings—∆σ3
fittings—Δσ2 curve, for the
curve, for the T4 fittings—∆σ4
T3 fittings—Δσ3 curve, for thecurve.
T4 fittings—Δσ4 curve.

Figure4.4.Durability
Figure Durabilitycurves
curvesof
offittings
fittingsin
inlinear
linearcoordinates.
coordinates.

Figure 44shows
Figure showsthat
thatnonodurability
durabilitycurve
curveisisasymptotic
asymptotictotothe thehorizontal
horizontalaxis.
axis. Therefore,
Therefore, these
these
curves will intersect at some point with the horizontal axis, i.e., there is no voltage for
curves will intersect at some point with the horizontal axis, i.e., there is no voltage for which we have which we have
an infinite fatigue life, as Wohler’s curve is drawn theoretically, where there is a voltage
an infinite fatigue life, as Wohler’s curve is drawn theoretically, where there is a voltage σ0, for which σ0, for which
werecord
we recordinfinite
infinitelifespan
lifespantotofatigue.
fatigue.Also,
Also,thetheclosest
closestvalues
valuesobserved
observedin inthe
thecase
caseof
ofdurability
durabilitycurves
curves
to the real values are obtained in the case of fitting type T2, but also in the case of other
to the real values are obtained in the case of fitting type T2, but also in the case of other types of fittings types of
fittings the difference is very small, falling within
the difference is very small, falling within the range of 2–9%.the range of 2–9%.
From Table 12 it is observed that, with the decrease of the test forces of the samples, the number
of cycles in which the test tubes yield to the applied fatigue increases. Also, from the same table it is
observed that the best behavior in response to fatigue corresponds to the type T1 fitting followed by
the fittings T3, T4 and T2, respectively. The fittings of type T2, T3, T4 have the same assembly
technology, but have differences in terms of the geometry of the inner and outer bush, respectively.
In these conditions it can be concluded that a substantial influence on the fatigue resistance of the
transition fittings has the constructive shape of the inner and outer bush, respectively.
Of the transition fittings T2, T3 and T4, the best fatigue resistance corresponds to the T3 fitting,
and this demonstrates that constructive differences between the inner and outer bushes can influence
the fatigue resistance. Thus, in the case of the inner bush, which has a diameter difference at one end,
the fatigue resistance is influenced due to the fact that the presence of a larger diameter for the inner
bush towards the end where the welded joint is to be made determines a protection of the HDPE pipe
material from the heat released in the joining process by welding. Under these conditions, it is
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 12 of 20

From Table 12 it is observed that, with the decrease of the test forces of the samples, the number
of cycles in which the test tubes yield to the applied fatigue increases. Also, from the same table it
is observed that the best behavior in response to fatigue corresponds to the type T1 fitting followed
by the fittings T3, T4 and T2, respectively. The fittings of type T2, T3, T4 have the same assembly
technology, but have differences in terms of the geometry of the inner and outer bush, respectively.
In these conditions it can be concluded that a substantial influence on the fatigue resistance of the
transition fittings has the constructive shape of the inner and outer bush, respectively.
Of the transition fittings T2, T3 and T4, the best fatigue resistance corresponds to the T3 fitting,
and this demonstrates that constructive differences between the inner and outer bushes can influence
the fatigue resistance. Thus, in the case of the inner bush, which has a diameter difference at one end,
the fatigue resistance is influenced due to the fact that the presence of a larger diameter for the inner
bush towards the end where the welded joint is to be made determines a protection of the HDPE pipe
material from the heat released in the joining process by welding. Under these conditions, it is required
that the inner bushings of the transition fittings present at the end where the welded joint is made, an
addition of material, that would allow the amount of heat released during the welding to be absorbed.
Regarding the geometry of the outer bush, it was observed that it influences the resistance to
fatigue in the sense that it is not indicated that on the surface of the bush there to be a very sharp
geometric profile that causes an accentuated deformation of the material in the HDPE pipe. Thus,
the profile of the channels on the surface of the outer bush must be less sharp and thus the stresses
introduced in the material of the HDPE pipes should be as low as possible.
Regarding the T1 type fitting, it had the best fatigue behavior, and this can be explained both by
the geometry of the inner and outer bush and by the fact that, in the assembly process of this type of
fitting, the assembly process by welding is performed before inserting the HDPE pipe.
Regarding the durability curves drawn in Figure 4, it is observed that, leading a parallel line to the
horizontal, the four durability curves intersect at four points that give us information on the number of
cycles until yielding of the four types of fittings. It can be seen from Figure 4 that the T1 type fitting
has a point characterized by the highest number of stress cycles until the fitting will fail.

3.2. The Results of the Analysis of the Hardness of the Material from the HDPE Pipes
From the analysis of the behavior under fatigue exposure of the four types of fittings, it was
observed that the geometry of the inner and outer bush, respectively, can have a special influence
but also the assembly technology of the applied welding. Under these conditions, at this stage of the
research, a measurement was made of the value of the hardness of the material in the HDPE pipes.
As for the HDPE hardness measuring points, for those four types of fittings, they are shown in Figure 1.
Thus, point 1 is represented by the end of the HDPE pipe from the weld bead, and the following
measuring points are arranged from 4 in 4 mm, until the HDPE pipe is no longer affected by the metal
construction of the fitting. The evolution of the results obtained following the hardness measurements
for the four types of fittings are presented in Figure 5.
From the analysis of the hardness values of the material from HDPE pipes, presented in Figure 5,
it was observed that an additional deformation of HDPE causes an increase in hardness, but at the same
time, the welding assembly technology adopted causes a change in HDPE hardness. This change in the
HDPE hardness produced during the fitting assembly process is not conducive to their in use behavior.
Thus, the largest change in HDPE hardness was observed in the case of the T2 type fitting, and
the smallest change in hardness was observed in the case of the T1 fitting. These differences between
the hardness changes of HDPE can be explained by the fact that in the case of the T1 type fitting the
welding assembly of the metal construction is done before the introduction of HDPE pipe and thus
there is no influence of heat from the head affected zone (HAZ) on this. Also, the slightest change in the
hardness of HDPE for fittings T2, T3, T4 was observed in the case of fitting T3 which is characterized by
the fact that it has an inner bush with a special construction that prevents to some extent the penetration
of heat from HAZ to HDPE. Also, an influence on the hardness changes of HDPE has the geometry of
 From the analysis of the behavior under fatigue exposure of the four types of fittings, it was
observed that the geometry of the inner and outer bush, respectively, can have a special influence but
also the assembly technology of the applied welding. Under these conditions, at this stage of the
research, a measurement was made of the value of the hardness of the material in the HDPE pipes.
As for the HDPE hardness measuring points, for those four types of fittings, they are shown in Figure
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 13 of 20
1. Thus, point 1 is represented by the end of the HDPE pipe from the weld bead, and the following
measuring points are arranged from 4 in 4 mm, until the HDPE pipe is no longer affected by the metal
construction
the outer bush, ofinthe fitting.
the sense The
that, the evolution of inner
sharper of the the results obtained
bush profile, following
the greater the hardness
the hardness changes
measurements
of HDPE. for the four types of fittings are presented in Figure 5.

Figure 5. The hardness values, Shore D, for the four types of fittings.
Figure 5. The hardness values, Shore D, for the four types of fittings.
Regarding the results obtained during the hardness measurements, they can be influenced by
From the analysis
certain errors determined of the
by hardness
the errorsvalues
of the of the material
measuring frombut
device, HDPE pipes,
also by the presented
positioninginmode
Figureof
5,the
it was observed that an additional deformation of HDPE causes an increase in hardness,
probe. All these possible errors do not influence the final conclusion regarding the fact that but at the
the
same
way of time, the welding
deforming assembly
the material technology
of HDPE pipes byadopted
means causes a change
of external in HDPE
and internal hardness.
bushes, but also This
the
change in the HDPE hardness produced during the fitting assembly process is not
heat released in the process of welding joining cause a change in the hardness of the material from conducive to their
in use behavior.
HDPE pipes. Under these conditions, when designing the transition fittings, special attention must be
Thus,
paid both to thethe
largest change
geometry in HDPE
of the welded hardness was observed
metal construction andintothe
thecase of thewelding
adopted T2 type technology.
fitting, and
the smallest change in hardness was observed in the case of the T1 fitting. These differences between
the
3.3.hardness changes
The Results of HDPEofcan
of the Analysis the be explained
Transition by the
Fittings by fact that in the case of the T1 type fitting the
the FEM
welding assembly of the metal construction is done before the introduction of HDPE pipe and thus
For the four types of fittings, the aim was to establish the maximum tension that appears in their
there is no influence of heat from the head affected zone (HAZ) on this. Also, the slightest change in
material under stress conditions at a maximum force of 28,000 N. When choosing this force size, it was
the hardness of HDPE for fittings T2, T3, T4 was observed in the case of fitting T3 which is
taken into account that in practice, the maximum load that can be applied to these types of pieces is
characterized by the fact that it has an inner bush with a special construction that prevents to some
25,000 N, and the value considered represent this point of view.
extent the penetration of heat from HAZ to HDPE. Also, an influence on the hardness changes of
The FEM analysis was performed for all four types of fittings and is presented in Figure 6.
HDPE has the geometry of the outer bush, in the sense that, the sharper of the inner bush profile, the
The results presented in Figure 6 allow us to observe the maximum tension that appears in the fitting
greater the hardness changes of HDPE.
material in case of tensile stress under the conditions mentioned above. From the results presented
Regarding the results obtained during the hardness measurements, they can be influenced by
in Figure 6, the following values of the effective stresses in the fitting material were observed: fitting
certain errors determined by the errors of the measuring device, but also by the positioning mode of
T1—10.31 MPa; T2 fitting—23.69 MPa; T3 fitting—15.71 MPa; T4 fitting—20.97 MPa.
the probe. All these possible errors do not influence the final conclusion regarding the fact that the
Thus, it was concluded that the T1 type fitting has the best behavior under tensile stress and this
demonstrates that both the technology of joining the fittings and the geometry of the inner and outer
bush substantially influence the behavior in operation.
 The FEM analysis was performed for all four types of fittings and is presented in Figure 6. The
results presented in Figure 6 allow us to observe the maximum tension that appears in the fitting
material in case of tensile stress under the conditions mentioned above. From the results presented
in Figure 6, the following values of the effective stresses in the fitting material were observed: fitting
T1—10.31 MPa; T2 fitting—23.69 MPa; T3 fitting—15.71 MPa; T4 fitting—20.97 MPa.
Thus, it was concluded that the T1 type fitting has the best behavior under tensile stress and this
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 14 of 20
demonstrates that both the technology of joining the fittings and the geometry of the inner and outer
bush substantially influence the behavior in operation.

(a)

Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19

(b)
Figure 6. Cont.

(c)

(d)

Figure 6.Figure
FEM 6.analysis
FEM analysis for the four types of transition fittings: (a): T1 fitting; (b): T2 fitting; (c): T3
for the four types of transition fittings: (a): T1 fitting; (b): T2 fitting; (c): T3
fitting; (d): T4 fitting.
fitting; (d): T4 fitting.
3.4. The Results of the Analysis of the Transition Fitting with an Improved Geometry of the Welded
Construction
Following the analysis of the experimental research results, it was proposed to make a new
transition fitting that has an assembly technology as close as possible to the T1 fitting technology,
and, in the same type adopts the constructive elements from the structure of the other types of fittings,
that have been shown to positively influence their characteristics.
Thus, for the realization of the new type of transition fitting, the inner bushing which is used to
 Metals 2020, 10, 1231 15 of 20

3.4. The Results of the Analysis of the Transition Fitting with an Improved Geometry of the
Welded Construction
Following the analysis of the experimental research results, it was proposed to make a new
transition fitting that has an assembly technology as close as possible to the T1 fitting technology, and,
in the same type adopts the constructive elements from the structure of the other types of fittings,
that have been shown to positively influence their characteristics.
Thus, for the realization of the new type of transition fitting, the inner bushing which is used to
make the fittings T2 and T3, respectively, was chosen along with the outer bush used to make the type
T3 fitting. The choice of these types of bushings was made considering the fact that in the experimental
research it was demonstrated that the choice of these types of bushings results in an improvement of
the behavior of the fittings in operation. The constructive form of the component parts of the new
transition
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR fitting (TN) is presented in Table 14, and a section through this type of transition
PEER REVIEW 15 of 19fitting is
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19
shown in Figure 7.
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19
Table 14. Transition fitting structure TN.
Table 14. Transition fitting structure TN.
Table 14.Table 14. Transition
Transition fitting structure
fitting structure
structure TN. TN.
The Piece of the Structure of the Table 14. Transition
Proposed fitting TN.
The Piece of the Structure of the Proposed
The Piece
The ofTransition
Piece of The
the PieceFitting
Transition
the Structureofof
ofthe
Fitting
Structure theStructure
the Proposed
Proposed of the The Shape of the Piece in the Structure of the
Proposed
Transition Transition
Fitting
Transition Fitting Fitting Transition Fitting TN

Steel pipe
Steel pipe
Steel pipe
Steel pipe Steel pipe

Pipe HDPE
Pipe HDPE
Pipe Pipe HDPE
HDPE
Pipe HDPE

Inner bushInner bush

Inner bush
Inner bush
Inner bush

Outer bush
Outer bush
Outer bush
Outer bush
Outer bush
 Outer bush

Metals 2020, 10, 1231 16 of 20

Figure Section through

Figure7.7. Section through TN
TN transition
transitionfitting:
fitting:1—HDPE
1—HDPE pipe;
pipe; 2—outer
2—outer bush;
bush; 3—inner
3—inner bush;
bush; 4—
4—welding bead; 5—steel pipe.
welding bead; 5—steel pipe.

This new type of transition fitting was subjected to the same tests as the four types of fittings
analyzed previously. Thus, the results of the fatigue behavior analysis of this transition fitting are
presented in Table 15.

Table 15. Results obtained after fatigue testing of the TN fitting.

Sample ±Force (kN) Frequency (Hz) Time (s) Number of Cycles n

±3 10 2631 26,310
TN ±2 10 21,981 219,810
±1 10 29,665 296,650

The analysis of the results presented in Table 14 shows that the new type of transition fitting has a
much better response to applied fatigue compared to the other four types of transition fittings analyzed
previously, in the sense that an increase in the number of cycles was obtained, with approximately 50%
for the TN fitting compared to the T1 fitting, which had the best fatigue behavior in relation to the
T2, T3 and T4 fittings. This demonstrates that the choice of part geometry and an improved assembly
technology can allow obtaining fittings with superior characteristics.
Also, the new type of transition fitting was subjected to hardness tests for HDPE material under
the same conditions as T1, T2, T3 and T4 fittings. Following the hardness tests, the highest hardness
58 Sh D for HDPE was obtained, which shows that the new geometry of the inner and outer bushes,
causes a very small change in the hardness of the HDPE material, which initially had a hardness of
55 Sh D. This can be explained by the fact that the influence of heat from HAZ on HDPE is very low,
and the geometry adopted for the bushings does not cause a large increase in hardness.
The FEM analysis of the TN transition fitting was performed under the same conditions as in the
case of the other four types of transition fittings, this being presented in Figure 8. From the results
presented in Figure 8 it was observed that the TN fitting has an effective stresses in the material from
component parts 6.37 MPa, which demonstrates that this type of fitting has a lower material tension by
about 90% compared to the T1 fitting, which was the best of the four initially analyzed.
 and the geometry adopted for the bushings does not cause a large increase in hardness.
The FEM analysis of the TN transition fitting was performed under the same conditions as in
the case of the other four types of transition fittings, this being presented in Figure 8. From the results
presented in Figure 8 it was observed that the TN fitting has an effective stresses in the material from
component
Metals parts 6.37 MPa, which demonstrates that this type of fitting has a lower material tension
2020, 10, 1231 17 of 20
by about 90% compared to the T1 fitting, which was the best of the four initially analyzed.

Figure8.8.FEM
Figure FEM analysis
analysis for
for TN
TN fitting.
fitting.

ThisThis much
much better
better tensile
tensile behavior
behavior ofofthe
theTN
TNfitting
fittingcan
canbebeexplained
explainedbybythethefact
factthat
thatthe
thedesign
design of
theoftransition
the transition
fittingfitting has been
has been considerably
considerably improved
improved by design
by design andand choosing
choosing optimal
optimal shapes
shapes forthe
for
the inner bushing and the outer bushing, but also by adopting an improved
inner bushing and the outer bushing, but also by adopting an improved welding assembly technology welding assembly
technology
so that HDPE so that
pipe isHDPE
not bepipe is not bebyinfluenced
influenced by the heat
the heat released released
during during the
the welding welding process.
process.
FromFrom what
what is is presented,ititisisobserved
presented, observedthatthat the
the way
way the
the welded
weldedjoint
jointisisformed
formedhas hasa avery great
very great
influence on the behavior of the fittings in use. Thus, through the design of the welded
influence on the behavior of the fittings in use. Thus, through the design of the welded construction, construction,
HAZ must be as restricted as possible, so as not to influence the HDPE pipe. It is also necessary to
HAZ must be as restricted as possible, so as not to influence the HDPE pipe. It is also necessary
consider the possibility of replacing this welding technology with an ultrasonic welding process
to consider the possibility of replacing this welding technology with an ultrasonic welding process
consisting of a rotating sonotrode, which moves around the parts to be welded or that the ultrasonic
welding machine that a sonotrode, around which the parts to be welded rotate. This technological
solution is possible because ultrasonic welding has a multitude of advantages such as the fact that
surface damage is minimal because heat is generated at the interface (very restricted HAZ) and, at the
same time, is a clean joining process because it does not generate smoke or sparks during welding and
is therefore considered environmentally friendly [23,24].
Also, by changing the geometry of the parts in the fitting structure, the HDPE temperature
should not exceed 50 ◦ C because above this temperature this type of material quickly loses its ductility.
The process of loss of ductility depends on the morphological appearance of the HDPE structures.
Furthermore, the increasing trends of the tensile modulus at the higher exposure temperature indicates
temperature sensitivity on chemicrystallization [25].
The results obtained in the studies confirm those recorded in testing the tensile yield strength of
HDPE using instrumented indentation tests with a flat-ended cylindrical indenter [26,27]. However,
unlike previous research, different forms of inner and outer bushings were analyzed, which offer
different degrees of deformation for HDPE, thus establishing the geometric shape of the welded
construction that allows an optimal deformation of the HDPE pipe.
Regarding the optimal geometry of the surfaces of the inner and outer bushes, theoretical and
practical research can be performed using mathematical modeling. These aspects are justified by
the fact that, in many previous studies, researchers have mainly analyzed the law of mechanical
deformation of flexible pipes by laboratory tests and numerical simulations [28,29].
Research has looked at the dynamic stress behavior of transition fittings because, although it was
initially established that static load results in increased deformation of HDPE pipes [30], subsequent
research has shown that the dynamic load was more than three times higher than the static load [31,32].
Given the conducted studies, the load at which the fittings are required can be reduced if they are
covered with expanded polystyrene (EPS) to alleviate the pressure and deformation of surface-buried
high density polyethylene (HDPE) flexible pipes [33]. Thus, considering the proposed solutions,
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 18 of 20

regarding the improvement of the welded construction of the transition fittings, but also the technical
solutions proposed by other researchers, conditions are created so that the lifespan and the number of
stress cycles until their rupture increase substantially.

4. Conclusions
Transition fittings from steel pipes to HDPE pipes that ensure the connection of pipes used to
transport natural gas are a very important product that must be safe in use. The big problem that
appears in obtaining the fittings is related to the fact that it is necessary to form an assembly between
two pipes made of materials with completely different properties. Also, the research was guided by
the following aspects: the geometry of the surfaces of the parts in the structure of a transition fitting is
very complex; it is necessary to make a welded metal construction that is assembled with HDPE pipe.
The researches initially considered four transition fitting variants which were analyzed from the point
of view of their fatigue stress behavior and from the point of view of their tensile stress. It was also
analyzed how the HDPE hardness evolved in the deformation zone. Thus, the research demonstrated
the following:

• the fatigue resistance of the fittings can be considerably improved in the conditions in which an
optimal geometry is chosen for the inner and outer bush, respectively;
• the fatigue load behavior is very different for the four types of fittings, large differences being
noted in the number of cycles it withstands. Thus, in the case of stress fittings with a force
F = ±1 kN, a number of stress cycles of minimum nmin = 137,570 and maximum nmax = 197,750
was recorded, thus substantial differences of approximately 45% are observed and in the case of
the case a force F = ±3 kN is applied to the fittings, the differences are even greater, about 60%;
• the adoption of a new constructive variant allowed an improvement of the behavior under fatigue,
so that the number of stress cycles for a force F = ±1 kN increased from n = 197,750 for the T1
fitting to n = 296,650 for the TN fitting;
• the transition fittings behave better at the traction request in the conditions in which the welded
construction has an optimal geometry and the best parameters for the welding regime are adopted;
• HDPE undergoes hardness changes in the deformation zone, and in order for the changes to be as
small as possible, an optimization of the geometry of the inner and outer bush is required, but also
taking measures to transfer some of the heat from the HAZ to the HDPE pipe;
• the hardness changes of HDPE were the largest in the case of the T2 fitting, where they were
approximately 10oSh D. These changes can be explained mainly by the fact that on the inner
surface of the outer sleeve a series of square-shaped channels are present, which produce a large
HDPE deformation;
• the adoption of a new geometric shape for the welded construction allowed us to obtain a
new TN transition fitting, characterized by an improvement of the fatigue stress resistance by
approximately 50%, a decrease in material stress at the tensile stress by approximately 90% and a
reduction of HDPE hardness change.

All these results prove that the new TN transition fitting is a much more reliable product and has
a better operating behavior. Also, the results obtained in the research can represent technical solutions
for assembling other types of products that have in their structure metal parts or HDPE parts. Future
research will consider identifying the welding process that will allow one to obtain welded assemblies
with the best characteristics.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.D. and I.R.; methodology, D.D.; software, D.D.; validation, D.D.,
I.R. and I.B.; formal analysis, I.R.; investigation, D.D.; resources, I.R.; data curation, I.B.; writing—original draft
preparation, I.B and I.R.; writing—review and editing, D.D.; visualization, I.B and I.R..; supervision, D.D.; project
administration, I.R.; funding acquisition, I.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Metals 2020, 10, 1231 19 of 20

Funding: Project financed by Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu & Hasso Plattner Foundation research
grants LBUS-IRG-2020-06.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest

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