Fruit processing

 The production steps in a processing plant.

 Fruit delivery and what is done at the fruit reception area to prepare oranges for juice
extraction.
 How the maximum amount of juice is squeezed from fruit and the two principal extractor
types.
 Removing pulp by clarification so that juice can be evaporated to concentrate or
processed to single-strength juice.
 NFC production including heat treatment and bulk storage.
 Concentrate production and the need for efficient evaporators.
 The recovery of peel oil. How winterization makes wax drop out.
 The production of animal feed from waste streams.
 Pulp production and the many uses of pulp.
 Washing of pulp to recover valuable solids.

5.1 Processing plant overview

Orange processing plants are located in the vicinity of the fruit growing area. Fruit should be
processed as soon as possible after harvesting because fruit deteriorates quickly at the high
temperatures found in citrus-growing areas. Orange products, on the other hand, are produced in
a form that allows them to be stored for extended periods and shipped over long distances.
In the orange industry, the basic unit of reporting crop and plant intake is commonly the fruit
box.
A box of oranges is defined as containing 40.8 kg (90 lb) of fruit. In Florida, small and medium-
sized plants typically process 5-10 million boxes (200,000-400,000 tonnes) per season, the large
plants up to 25 million boxes. Most Brazilian citrus plants have much higher capacity. The
world’s largest orange juice plant, Citrosuco in Matao, Brazil, can take in 60 million boxes (2.4
million tonnes) of fruit during a season. In most other orange-growing regions, citrus processing
plants are considerably smaller than those in Florida and Brazil. Figure 5.1 shows the typical
orange processing steps.
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Figure 5.1
Flow chart showing typical processing steps found in an orange processing plant
Fruit reception
Fruit is delivered in trucks that discharge their loads at the fruit reception area. The fruit may be
prewashed to get rid of immediate surface dirt and pesticide residue before any leaves and stems
still attached are removed. Then follows pregrading by manual inspection to remove any
unsuitable fruit. Sound fruit is conveyed to storage bins. Damaged fruit goes directly to the feed
mill.
Extraction
Extraction involves squeezing or reaming juice out of either whole or halved oranges by means
of mechanical pressure. After final washing and inspection, the fruit is separated according to
size into different streams or lanes. Individual oranges are directed to the most suitable extractor
in order to achieve optimum juice yield. As the extraction operation determines juice yield and
quality, the correct setting of extractor operating conditions is very important.
Clarification
Frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) production
From the buffer/blending tanks and after clarification, the juice goes to the evaporator. Within
the evaporator circuit, the juice is first pre-heated and held at pasteurization temperature. It then
passes through the evaporation stages of the process, where it is concentrated up to 66 °Brix.
During the evaporation process, volatile flavour components flash off and can be recovered in an
essence recovery unit.
Juice concentrate is cooled and blended with other production batches as required to level out
fluctuations in quality. It then goes to frozen storage in tanks or drums as FCOJ, sometimes for
several years.
Not-from-concentrate juice (NFC) production
An alternative to concentrate production is to process the juice at single strength as an NFC
product. Clarified juice is pasteurized before storage. Deoiling may be required to reduce oil
levels in the juice, and deaeration to remove oxygen is part of good practice.
NFC is stored in bulk either frozen or in aseptic conditions. Storage may be up to a year because
while consumption is year-round, production is seasonal.
Pulp production
Pulp wash
Peel oil recovery
Recovered peel oil represents some 0.3% of the fruit intake. The emulsion of oil and water from
the extractor section is clarified by centrifugation in two steps. The purified oil contains
dissolved waxes that are removed by winterization (refrigeration) of the oil for a specific time.
Feed mill
It is economically feasible to include a feed mill operation in larger processing plants. Rejected
fruit from grading, peel and rag from extraction, and washed pulp and other solid waste is sent to
the feed mill where it is dried and pelletized for animal feed. Smaller plants usually truck their
solid waste to a plant with a feed mill or dispose of it in other ways, such as landfill.
5.2 orange juice production steps
All production steps for orange juice, from orange fruit to packaged product, are shown in
Figure 5.2. The steps carried out in the fruit processing plant, as highlighted in the diagram, are
discussed in further detail during the chapter.
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Figure 5.2
Production steps for orange juice
5.3 Fruit reception
After harvesting, fruit picked in the groves is loaded onto trucks (typically 20 tonnes in Florida)
and taken to the processing plant. Figure 5.3 shows the subsequent processing flow at the fruit
reception.

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Figure 5.3
Processing flow for fruit reception
Truck unloading
The trucks are unloaded onto a specially designed tipping ramp. The ramp lifts the front of the
truck to allow the fruit to roll off the rear of the trailer directly onto a conveyor. The fruit is then
conveyed to the prewash station. Alternatively, the truck may be reversed down a ramp so that
the fruit is unloaded directly onto a conveyor.
Prewashing, destemming and pregrading
The fruit may undergo initial washing to remove dust, dirt and pesticide residues. Many
processors have discontinued washing the fruit before bin storage because wet fruit in the bins
can make downstream sanitation more difficult. The fruit then moves on to destemming and
pregrading.
The roller conveyor of the destemming and pregrading tables allows any leaves or twigs to fall
through the conveyor bed. Pregrading by manual inspection removes rotten and visibly damaged
fruit. Rejected fruit, known as culls, may be sent to the feed mill.
There is a strong desire to reduce total water consumption in orange processing plants. Water
used for prewashing is often condensate recovered from the evaporation process. The condensate
is cooled and/ or treated with a sanitizing agent to limit microbial contamination, in particular of
Alicyclobacillus.
Sampling
A sample of fruit is taken from each truck for analysis. The main parameters analyzed are juice
yield, °Brix, acidity and colour. This gives the processor an indication of fruit ripeness. As the
fruit goes into bin storage, each load can be tagged and identified. It is then possible to select
suitable fruit from various sources for blending during the extraction process to achieve the
desired final product quality. The measured juice yield may also form the basis for payment to
the fruit supplier.
Fruit storage
The pregraded fruit is stored in bins specially designed with inclined multilevel internal baffles.
These distribute the fruit evenly in the bin to prevent too much weight pressing on it. The
procedure of holding the fruit in storage bins in order to reduce juice acidity and increase the
final juice ratio needs to be applied with care because passing fruit through bins usually reduces
the final juice yield compared to direct processing.
Besides the main function of storing fruit with different characteristics to give processing options
and yield the desired juice quality, correct management of stored fruit also makes it possible to
avoid wide fluctuations in the Brix/acid ratio of raw juice. Such fluctuations are usually the main
cause of hesperidin-related defects formed during evaporator operation and found in the final
juice concentrate. A good procedure is to minimize the time fruit stays in storage bins, preferably
to less than 24 hours. Storage for longer times, however, does occur.
Surge bin
Fruit is drawn from the storage bins into the surge bin, where fruit from one or more storage bins
may be combined.
Final fruit washing
The fruit is thoroughly washed immediately prior to the extraction process. The wash water may
include a mild disinfectant to help reduce microbial presence on the fruit surface. Fresh water or
condensate recovered from the evaporators is used for final washing.
Final grading
The fruit passes over a series of grading tables for final visual inspection where damaged or
unsuitable fruit is removed.
5.4 Juice extraction

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Figure 5.4
Juice extraction process
The aim of the juice extraction process (see Figure 5.4) is to obtain as much juice from the fruit
as possible while preventing rag, oil and other fruit components from entering the juice. These
may lead to bitterness in taste or other defects during subsequent juice storage.
The extraction operation determines product quality and yield and thus has a major effect on the
total economics of the fruit processing operation. Once the fruit has been washed and graded
(inspected), it is ready for the extraction process. To optimize extractor performance, the raw
fruit must be sorted according to size because individual extractors are set to handle fruit of only
a certain size range.
Fruit sizing
After grading, the fruit passes over the sizing table, which divides the fruit into different streams
according to fruit diameter. A sizing table is generally made up of a series of rotating rollers over
which the fruit passes. The distance between the rollers is preset, and increases as the fruit travels
over the table. Over the first set of rollers, the smallest fruit drop between the gap onto a
conveyor that carries them to an extractor set for their particular size range.
As the gap increases, larger fruit will pass through the rollers onto extractors set for their defined
size range. In this way, all the fruit is selected to suit the individual settings of the extractors.
There are normally two to three different size settings in an extractor line.
A fully functional fruit sizer is essential for producing juice of high quality and/or yield. If the
fruit is too big or small, then (depending on the extractor type) it will be over-squeezed and
excessive rag and peel will get into the juice with resulting bitterness. If the fruit is under-
squeezed, insufficient yield will result.
Three streams result from the extraction section
Oil emulsion, containing oil from the peel and water, goes to peel oil recovery.
Wet peel, along with pulp, rag and seeds, flows directly to the feed mill.
Pulpy juice goes to clarification and then production of concentrate or NFC. Pulp intended for
sale as pulp goes to pulp production. Residual pulp goes to pulp washing or the feed mill.
5.4.1 Extractor types
Two types of extractor dominate in orange processing plants, the squeezer type and the reamer
type. For these two types there are two major brands: JBT (formerly FMC) for squeezer type and
Brown for reamer type. Both extraction systems are dedicated to citrus fruit.
The reamer-type extraction system provides excellent separation of the orange components juice,
oil and peel.
Squeezer-type extractors are the most common at global level. In Florida, however, the installed
extraction capacity is about equal for both types of extractor. A majority of the NFC produced in
Florida is extracted using reamer-type extractors.
The rotary press extractor is another type of extraction equipment – a multi-purpose machine that
can also be used to process other types of fruit.
A rotary press extractor slices the fruit in half and passes the halves between rotating cylinders
that press out the juice. Oil is extracted from the peel in a separate step prior to extraction.
Although the extraction process is simple, both juice yield and quality are less optimal compared
to squeezer-type and reamer-type extractors.
Rotary press extractors, which have high per-unit capacity and require lower investment, are
popular in the Mediterranean region. Globally, however, they are of minor importance compared
to squeezer- and reamer-type extractors.
Once installed in a plant, extraction systems are not easily interchangeable due to the different
demands on the surrounding equipment.
5.4.2 The squeezer-type extractor
Figure 5.5
 Zoom
Figure 5.5
A squeezer-type orange juice extractor
The head of an extractor comprises an upper and a lower cup (see Figure 5.6). The cups have
metal fingers that mesh together as the upper cup is lowered onto the lower cup. A cutter comes
up through the centre of the lower cup to cut a hole through the skin in order to allow the inner
parts of the orange to flow out. The cutter is part of the perforated strainer tube, sometimes
referred to as the pre-finisher.

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Figure 5.6
Operation of squeezer-type orange juice extractor
Eventually, the downward pressure causes the peel to break up, disintegrate and pass up through
the fingers of each cup. Juice flows through the strainer tube into the juice manifold. The core
material is discharged from the bottom of the strainer tube through the orifice tube.
As the peel is forced through the fingers in the cup during the last step of the extraction cycle, oil
is released from the peel. The fragments of peel are washed with recycled water to extract the oil
from the oil sacs. The oil is discharged from the extractors as an emulsion with water.
The squeezer-type extractor separates the fruit into four principal product streams in one basic
step. It is claimed that contact is avoided between the juice and oil, and the juice and peel.
For successful operation of this equipment, correct cup size selection and adjustment of cup and
cutter operation are paramount. When undersize cups are used, excess pressure is applied to the
fruit,and the fruit may be blown out and/or peel may enter the juice stream. If too little pressure
is applied, the yield will drop.
The throughput of a five-head extractor will vary according to fruit quality and size. The
standard operating speed is 100 rpm, or 500 oranges per minute. Fruit will not always flow to
each cup: 90% utilization is a high figure. A typical capacity for medium-sized fruit is 5 tonnes/h
of fruit per extractor, corresponding to about 2,500 l/h of juice.
Because extractors operate at a fixed number of oranges processed per minute, the citrus
processing plant throughput is very sensitive and dependent on fruit size. Processing small fruit
(350 oranges/box) will result in 1,500 l/h juice flow rate instead of 3,000 l/h when processing
large fruit (180 oranges/box). This difference means a doubling of juice volume and by-products
to be handled by downstream equipment. These figures show the importance of correct storage
bin management and fruit size in smooth factory operations.
There are two major types of extractor system, squeezer type and reamer type
Modifications for premium pulp
Premium juice “low-oil” extractor
Certain fruit varieties, such as the Florida Valencia, will express more oil into the juice stream
than other varieties. This can lead to oil content in the juice exceeding acceptable levels (such as
0.035%, the maximum level permitted in Florida for grade A juice).
This is a problem with NFC but less so with juice intended for concentrate because most of the
oil will flash off in the evaporator. In the low-oil version of the squeezer-type extractor, the
design of the strainer tube and orifice tube area are modified. This unit cuts a smaller core and
puts less pressure on the fruit during extraction, thereby reducing the amount of peel oil that
enters the juice. These modifications may also lead to a reduction in juice yield. Stopping the top
spray of water reduces the amount of peel oil to be recovered.
Alternatively, hermetic centrifuges or vacuum flashing can be used in conjunction with standard
extractors to deoil the single-strength juice. This allows a higher juice yield to be maintained
during extraction, while excess oil is removed after the extraction process.
5.4.3 The reamer-type extractor
The reamer-type extractor is based on the same principle as a typical manual kitchen squeezer
used for making orange juice at breakfast. An extraction line comprises several extractors, and it
is very important to set up each extractor to suit the size of fruit fed into it. A reamer-type
extractor is illustrated in Figure 5.7.
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Figure 5.7
A reamer-type orange juice extractor
Fruit is fed into the feed wheel and cut in half. The halves are oriented and picked up in synthetic
rubber cups mounted on a continuous belt system. A series of nylon reamers (cone-shaped
inserts that have ridges moulded into the form from tip to base of the reamer) are mounted on a
rotating turntable.
The oil extraction system
Peel oil can be recovered from orange peel using a separate oil extraction system that is placed
upstream of the juice extractors. It operates on the principle of puncturing oil sacs in the flavedo
and washing the oil out to make an emulsion (see Figure 5.8). In the first stage of the oil
extraction system, whole fruit passes over a series of rollers with small but sharp needle-like
projections. The oil glands are pricked rather than scraped open so that little damage is done to
the peel. Hence, the amount of non-oil material washed away with the oil is minimal. This, in
turn, makes the water stream separated from the emulsion cleaner and easier to recycle.
 Zoom
Figure 5.8
An oil extraction system
The rollers conveying fruit are placed in a water bath and the oil from the pierced glands is
washed out with water. After a finishing (straining) stage to remove any large particles of peel,
the oil-water emulsion can be concentrated and polished in a series of centrifuges (see subsection
5.8 on peel oil recovery). The water is largely recycled.
The reamer-type extraction system requires two separate steps to extract juice and oil from the
fruit. Nevertheless, the oil emulsion is often considered cleaner, easier to centrifuge compared to
other types of oil recovery system, and the extracted juice has less contact with the oil.
5.4.4 Downstream of the juice extractors
The juice streams from a squeezer-type extractor line or reamer-type extractor system flow to
clarification and then evaporation, or pasteurization if the end-product is NFC. The oil emulsion
flows to peel oil recovery for separation by centrifugation. Peel, rag, seeds and other solid
material are conveyed to the feed mill.
5.5 Clarification
Figure 5.9 shows the typical process steps for juice clarification.

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Figure 5.9
The clarification process
Figures 5.10 and 5.11 illustrate how they work.
Screw-type finishers
Paddle finishers
Two finishers are often placed in series at the end of the extraction line. The upstream primary
finisher is not set as tightly as the downstream secondary unit and thus will have a higher flow
capacity.
The standard squeezer-type extractor includes a pre-finishing tube in the extractor and the pulpy
juice flows directly to the primary finisher.
Centrifugal clarification
Turbofilters
Blending
After clarification, the juice often undergoes some degree of blending with juice from other
batches to balance its flavour, colour, acidity and °Brix levels before further processing. If
intended for NFC production, the juice leaving the clarification section should be cooled to 4°C
to minimize potential microbiological activity before being passed into the buffer/blending tanks.

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Figure 5.12
NFC production through to bulk storage
5.6 NFC production
The aim of NFC processing is to produce orange juice using the minimum of thermal processing.
Nevertheless, the thermal treatment should be sufficient to ensure that the product is physically
and microbiologically stable. Because fruit harvesting is seasonal and juice consumption is year-
round, the product must be stable enough to be stored for several months up to one year so that
seasons can be bridged.
More commonly, the juice is processed and stored in bulk under aseptic or frozen conditions for
some months until it is reprocessed and packaged. For large-volume NFC production, as in
Florida and Brazil, aseptic tank farms are the most common form of NFC storage.
5.6.1 Oil reduction
Oil content in the juice from extraction may exceed acceptable amounts, depending on fruit
variety and extractor operation. The levels may be dictated by regulatory standards. For example,
Florida grade A juice may have a maximum oil content of 0.035%. Alternatively, oil content
may be decided on the basis of consumer preference. Acceptable levels of oil in ready-for-
consumption juice range from 0.015 to 0.030%.
Oil content can be reduced in different ways:
Adjusting the extractor
Less pressure is applied to fruit during extraction or a low-oil extractor (squeezer-type) is used.
Both alternatives are likely to reduce juice yield.
Vacuum flashing of preheated juice
This method is based on the vapour pressure equilibrium between water, d-limonene and volatile
flavour compounds. When the pre-heated juice enters the vacuum chamber it starts to boil,
evaporating low boiling point compounds, oil and 1-2% water. The vapours are condensed in an
external plate heat exchanger and the chilled condensate flows to a decanter vessel. Here the
water phase essence is separated from oil by gravity and returned back to the main juice stream.
The oil phase (d-limonene) is collected in a different stream for other uses.
Centrifugal separation of the oil phase from the clarified juice
This method allows juice yield from the extractors to be maintained at a high level and there is
no heating of the juice.
Deoiling with centrifuges
Removal of oil from single-strength juice with centrifuges has been practised for years. It is a
difficult separation task because the oil droplets are well emulsified, particularly in juice from
squeezer-type extractors. Hermetic centrifuges give good results in separating oil even from juice
processed by squeezer-type extractors.
In a hermetic centrifuge the rotating bowl is completely filled with liquid. This avoids air pockets
and any free liquid surfaces in the bowl, which in turn avoids air entrainment and high shear
forces.
The feed enters the centrifuge bowl from underneath through a hollow spindle (see Figure 5.13).
The smooth acceleration of the product as it enters the centrifuge prevents scattering of the oil
globules, thereby enhancing separation. The hermetic (gas-tight) design also prevents loss of
volatile components in the juice and oxygen ingress.
 Zoom
Figure 5.13
Operational principle of a hermetic centrifuge for deoiling juice
Deoiling single-strength juice with hermetic centrifuges can typically reduce oil concentrations
from 0.04- 0.08% to 0.02-0.035%. In terms of juice yield, the use of a deoiling centrifuge in
combination with standard extractors gives a yield increase of 2-4% compared to an extractor
fitted with low-oil components.
The deoiled juice is buffer-stored for a short period prior to pasteurization. Some blending to
balance quality variations may be carried out.
5.6.2 Primary pasteurization
The long shelf life required for NFC destined for bulk storage demands strict attention to
hygiene. Single-strength juice is more sensitive to microbial contamination than concentrate
(where the high osmotic pressure resulting from high sugar content retards microbial growth).
The use of chilled storage instead of frozen storage also imposes much stricter hygiene
requirements for NFC production than what FCOJ producers may be accustomed to.
Good manufacturing practice demands that the pasteurizer system is pre-sterilized at 95°C or
higher prior to production and that a CIP programme is integrated with the control system. NFC
volumes for processing are normally large, so a high degree of energy recovery is advisable.
Dissolved oxygen in juice causes loss of vitamin C during storage
Thermal treatment is a concern among many NFC producers. Excessive heat load on the juice
should be avoided. Careful control of temperature and residence time using well-designed heat
exchangers is important. Low temperature differentials between the heating medium (hot water)
and product minimizes “shock” to the product.
The purpose of primary pasteurization is two-fold
 To deactivate enzymes
 To make the juice microbiologically stable
5.6.3 Deaeration
Air tends to get mixed into the juice in the extractors and finishers. Some of the entrained air
may escape during buffer storage, but juice going to pasteurization is normally saturated with
dissolved oxygen. It also contains some free air. During product storage, dissolved and free-
bubble oxygen in the juice may destroy a significant amount of the available vitamin C by
oxidation (see section 4). Air bubbles present in the product during pasteurization may also lead
to insufficient heat treatment.
Inclusion of deaeration as part of the pasteurization process is therefore recommended when
producing NFC. Deaeration is usually carried out by passing the product through a vacuum
chamber. Free air bubbles expand in a vacuum and tend to escape quite easily from the juice,
though dissolved oxygen is more difficult to remove.
The deaeration efficiency, or reduction of dissolved oxygen, depends on several operating factors
including the vacuum applied and juice surface area in the deaerator. Deaerator operation and
equipment are described in subsection 7.5.
Volatiles that flash off during deaeration are condensed and returned to the juice stream.
Alternatively, they are sometimes removed and stored separately from the bulk juice.
5.6.4 Long-term frozen storage
After primary pasteurization, orange juice is stored in bulk under either frozen or aseptic
conditions. NFC production involves large product volumes. For the same amount of final juice,
NFC volumes are five to six times higher than FCOJ.
Freezing minimizes vitamin degradation and changes in flavour during the storage period, but
the energy and warehouse costs of freezing and storing frozen NFC are high.
Freezing of NFC leads to handling problems because it freezes solid, whereas frozen orange
concentrate is very viscous but still pumpable. Frozen NFC storage is more appropriate to low
NFC volumes. High-volume producers store NFC aseptically in very large tanks.
Juice to be stored frozen is filled in mild steel 200 litre (55 US gallon) drums lined with a
polyethylene plastic bag. As the product is to be frozen, the net filling volume is about 170 litre
(45 US gallon).
Alternatively, the juice can be poured into block formers and then frozen (mainly for on-site
storage).The frozen product is usually kept at -18°C or lower.
Thawing of NFC to make it ready for final processing also leads to some logistical and handling
difficulties. It takes several days or weeks for bulk product in drums to thaw at ambient
temperature. The outer layer of juice may be exposed to microbiological contamination during
thawing, with a negative impact on product quality. Crushing systems enable more rapid
handling but require higher energy consumption and capital investment.
Systems for freezing larger blocks of juice incorporating novel techniques for rapid freezing and
thawing have been introduced, but so far have limited commercial use.
There are three major options for long-term storage of nfc juice
Frozen storage
Aseptic storage in tanks
Aseptic storage in bag-in-box bulk containers
5.6.5 Aseptic storage in tanks
As an alternative to frozen storage, NFC may be stored chilled in aseptic tanks. Technology
exists to build very large tanks with capacity of up to 6 million litres for aseptic juice storage.
Unique production techniques are employed to coat the internal surfaces of the carbon steel tanks
with an epoxy lining. While lined tanks are common in Florida, Brazilian producers use mainly
stainless-steel tanks for NFC storage.
The tanks are sterilized prior to filling by flooding them with a sterilizing fluid such as iodoform.
To reduce water consumption, Brazilian processors are also adopting an alternative sterilization
method where the sterilant (peracetic acid) is injected as a fine mist into the tank. The micro-
sized particles reach the stainless steel surfaces and provide the desired sterilization effect
usually after 24 hours contact time.
The preferred storage temperature is about -1°C, just above the juice’s freezing temperature.
Instead of being fitted with cooling jackets, the tanks are housed in a large refrigerated building.
The technology to operate very large aseptic tanks was pioneered in Florida and gave rise to
rapid growth in storage capacity during the 1990s and early 2000s. Growth in NFC production in
Brazil after 2000 has also led to the construction of large storage tanks. In Florida, the NFC is
mainly stored and utilized on a processor’s site. NFC produced in Brazil, however, is primarily
intended for export. The first aseptic tank farms were therefore installed dockside at the export
terminal. Port space restrictions mean that additional aseptic storage required to meet increased
NFC production is now built at the juice plants.
Clarified juice intended for storage at the export terminal is pre-pasteurized and cooled to 0°C at
the processing site. It is then transported by road tanker to the port. (The distance from one of the
major citrus processing sites to Port of Santos is 450 km.) Full juice pasteurization takes place at
the terminal before the juice is transferred to the large aseptic storage tanks for long-term storage
to bridge the seasons.
Technology has been developed to avoid repasteurization prior to export. The technology allows
the aseptic transfer of juice from on-land storage to sea vessels fitted with bulk aseptic tanks.
Juice is transported to the US and Europe under chilled aseptic conditions on specially designed
ships (see subsection 6.3.3). On arrival at its destination, the juice is aseptically transferred to
aseptic dockside tanks at the reception terminal using similar technology to that at the export
facilities.
Large aseptic tank storage facilities now exist in other NFC-producing regions, for instance in
Spain. Road tankers transport chilled NFC year-round in bulk from Spanish fruit processors to
juice packers across Europe.
Aseptic NFC technology requires a substantial upfront investment, and the value of product at
risk when stored in such large tanks is considerable. Today, however, risks are minimized by
field-proven designs, advanced aseptic technology and more than 20 years’ experience of the
many large tank systems installed.
As an alternative to frozen storage, NFC may be stored chilled in large aseptic tanks
5.6.6 Aseptic storage in bag-in-box bulk containers
As an alternative to aseptic tanks, the juice may be filled in 1,000 litre (300 gallon) aseptic bag-
in-box containers (see Figure 5.14). The bags, placed in bins usually made from wood, are then
stored under refrigerated conditions. After storage, the product is accessed by opening the bag
and pumping out the product. Alternatively, the bag can be emptied and the juice transferred
aseptically to the filler.
 Zoom
Figure 5.14
A filler for bag-in-box containers
The use of “one tonne” aseptic bag-in-box containers for NFC storage requires more labour for
filling and emptying the containers compared to large tanks. However, it gives added flexibility
regarding storage capacity due to the moderate level of investment required to store additional
juice volumes. A drawback of the aseptic tank approach is finite storage volume in the absence
of a major investment in reserve capacity. Consequently, the bag-in-box solution is often
preferred for start-up operations for NFC production. NFC processors who already have aseptic
tanks installed may also use bag-in-box containers to provide additional storage capacity and
shipment of NFC.
Aseptic security during product filling and storage in the bag must be high. Any contamination
may lead to blown bags during storage and shipment. Needless to say, a single blown bag during
shipment can cause significant trouble.
For long-term juice storage (six months or more), bag material with a very effective oxygen
barrier is recommended. Bags made with foil-based aluminium laminate offer higher protection
against oxygen than metallized laminates in which the aluminium layer is much thinner.
Several filling systems are in operation for aseptic bag-in-box (BiB) containers. Some evolved
from conventional (non-aseptic) BiB systems. A sterile chamber surrounds the filling head and
chemical sterilants are used for sterilization.
Other systems were developed specifically for aseptic filling, an example of which is shown in
Figure 5.14. It incorporates a simple filling system (spout and filling valve) and uses steam as the
sterilizing agent.
5.6.7 NFC reprocessing
In the US, some NFC is moved in bulk by road and rail tanker to juice packers across the
country, but most NFC is filled in retail packages in Florida and distributed from there. Shipping
from Florida to Europe in bulk is done in frozen drums and aseptic bag-in-box containers. For
Brazilian NFC, overseas shipping also occurs by bulk sea tanker. Overseas shipping of packaged
product is at a cost disadvantage compared to shipping bulk juice. Moreover, the additional delay
in transport time adds to difficulties with logistics and forecasting for the packaged product.
Alternatively, specially designed equipment can be used to transfer juice from aseptic bulk bags
to consumer packages via an aseptic tank, without the need for repasteurization.
5.7 Concentrate production
Globally, the majority of orange juice is produced as concentrate. Juice from the clarification
step is evaporated to remove most of the water (see Figure 5.15). Currently, the citrus
evaporators in widest use are of tubular design, though some citrus plants use plate and cassette
evaporators.

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Figure 5.15
Flow chart of concentrate production
Evaporators are designed to handle the huge juice volumes commonly processed in large citrus
plants. Evaporator capacities can exceed 100,000 kg/h (about 220,000 lbs/h) of water evaporated.
Versions with as many as seven effects are in operation (seven effects means essentially that the
steam is reused to evaporate water in seven steps). Such systems have a very low specific steam
consumption: only 1 kg (2.2 lbs) of steam is used to evaporate 6 kg (13.2 lbs) of water. However,
additional effects increase the residence time of the product in the evaporator.
The 1970s and 1980s saw a large expansion of concentrate capacity in the major citrus markets
of Brazil and Florida. Today, little increase in evaporator capacity is needed in these regions, but
new evaporators are being installed to satisfy the requirements of other expanding orange-
producing regions.
5.7.1 Tubular evaporator systems
The most common type of tubular evaporator system used for orange juice is the thermally
accelerated short-time evaporator (TASTE). It is generally described as a continuous, high-
temperature short-time evaporator of the long, vertical tube falling-film type. It was designed and
developed in Florida but is today manufactured in many different countries. These evaporator
systems are dedicated to citrus fruit.
Figure 5.16 shows a flow diagram of an evaporator with seven product stages. The juice is first
preheated to 95-98°C. Holding at pasteurization temperature stabilizes the juice by means of
microbial and enzyme inactivation. The product then passes through a number of stages under
vacuum until a concentration of up to 66 °Brix is achieved. By this time the product temperature
has fallen to about 40°C. The residence time in the evaporator is typically 5-7 minutes or longer.

Zoom
Figure 5.16
A simplified flow diagram of a tubular evaporator
Good distribution is of primary importance in evaporator design. It ensures that all the product is
uniformly treated and that the heat exchange surface is used to its maximum potential.
A special feature of the TASTE evaporator is the way in which the product is distributed across
the tube bundle. The juice is fed into the distribution section at a temperature and pressure
greater than in the entry zone of the tube bundle. It enters through a diverging expansion nozzle
that converts all of the product into a liquid/vapour mixture. The expanding vapour accelerates
the liquid/vapour mixture through a second nozzle and cone assembly. Further flash expansion of
the vapour causes atomization of the liquid phase into a turbulent mist. The acceleration effect
can cause mist velocities to exceed 50 metres/second on leaving the tube bundle! The high
degree of turbulence increases heat-transfer rates and reduces burn-on, which helps to achieve
long operating runs.
Other tubular evaporation systems
There are also other tubular evaporator systems of similar design for citrus plants, including a
conventional mechanical method of distributing product across the tube bundles. They
incorporate thermal recompression to increase steam economy without increasing residence time.
Relatively few of these evaporator systems have been installed for high product capacities.
5.7.2 Plate and cassette evaporator systems
In addition to tubular systems, plate and cassette evaporators are also used to concentrate orange
juice. As the name implies, plate evaporators consist of plates clamped together in a frame with
gaskets between them. It is more common to use cassettes (welded double plates) instead of
single plates because they simplify maintenance. The heating medium (steam or vapour) flows
through the space between the welded plates that make up the cassette.
Product channels are formed between individual cassettes separated by gaskets. This
configuration allows ready inspection of product surfaces.
Some advantages of plate/cassette evaporators compared to other types are easy capacity
increases by adding more cassettes, and simplified maintenance and inspection by opening the
frame. Also, the compactness of cassette evaporators eliminates the need for several access
walkways on different levels, as are required for tubular systems. The one-level configuration
offers easy operator control and ready access for maintenance activities.
A small temperature difference between the product and heating medium is sufficient in this type
of evaporator. This allows lower operating temperatures to be used than with traditional tubular
evaporators. The main type of cassette evaporator is the rising film unit.
Rising film cassette evaporator
In a rising film cassette evaporator the product enters the bottom of the cassette and rises over
the heating surface as it boils (Figure 5.17). No mechanical feed distribution device is needed
and even distribution is achieved through gravity.

Zoom
Figure 5.17
A rising film cassette evaporator
As plate systems can be designed for flexibility, some installations installed in citrus plants are
used to process other types of juice outside the orange juice season.
5.7.3 Homogenization
Homogenization of concentrate sometimes takes place in the evaporator system. Product then
normally passes through a homogenizer before the seventh and last concentration step. At this
stage the concentration is approximately 40-42 °Brix. Homogenization breaks down the pectin,
thereby lowering the viscosity of the concentrate. This increases the efficiency of the final stage
of the evaporator.
Another important benefit of homogenization is the disintegration of hesperidin flakes that may
be present in the concentrate. Hesperidin is a flavonoid that forms white crystals in juice (and is
part of the juice cloud). During evaporation the crystallization rate increases, resulting in large
white flakes. These tend to build up a fouling film on the evaporator surfaces and may be
released into the concentrate during production. It is known that changes in the Brix/acid ratio of
the processed juices cause white flakes to loosen from the metal surfaces. This necessitates
cleaning-in-place (CIP) of the evaporator. The presence of hesperidin flakes in concentrate is a
defect and results in a lower USDA quality score.
5.7.4 Essence recovery
During the evaporation process, volatile juice components are stripped from the juice along with
water. These components are often recovered in an essence recovery system connected to the
evaporator. The essence process usually forms an integral part of the mass and thermal balance
of the evaporator system. Dr James Redd of Florida pioneered the design development of
essence recovery units, with the first commercial system being installed in 1963.
The vapours from the early product stages of the evaporator contain most of the volatiles from
the juice. These are captured and sent to a still mounted on the evaporator. The important
volatiles are separated from the water by distillation under vacuum and condensed by chilling.
The product essence is a concentrated mixture of aqueous and oil-soluble aroma compounds.
This essence is separated into oil and aqueous phases either by decantation or centrifugation.
A more recent design of essence recovery systems use structured packing in the distillation
column instead of the traditional perforated plate device. This new approach results in less aroma
liquid hold-up volume and residence time as well as increased separation efficiency. These
features help to improve the yield of both water phase aroma components and essence oil.
Water phase aroma and essence oil
The aqueous phase (called water phase aroma or essence aroma) contains the flavour top-notes.
It has an alcohol strength typically standardized at 12-15%. The oil phase (essence oil) holds the
fruity and sweet-tasting flavours of fresh juice. Its flavour properties differ from those of peel oil
(see section 8). Add-back of water phase aroma and essence oil to concentrate has replaced the
previous practice of adding single-strength juice (called cut-back) to improve concentrate
flavour.
In Florida, Valencia oranges, a late variety, are used to produce the best essence. By contrast,
orange varieties harvested early in the season yield little essence, and it is often of poorer quality.
Aroma and essence oil are either sold as separate products to concentrate blending houses and
juice packers or sold on contract to specialty flavour manufacturing companies.
5.7.5 Concentrate storage
Concentrate is traded as FCOJ. The term “frozen” may be misleading as concentrate at 65 °Brix
does not freeze solid at -10°C due to its high sugar content. The most common FCOJ
concentration is 65-66 °Brix, but bulk concentrates of lower °Brix are also available. FCOJ of
55-58 °Brix is typically supplied to dairies.
5.7.6 Alternative concentration methods
Alternatives to evaporation for concentrating orange juice have been developed and tested, but so
far have enjoyed limited commercial application. Lower concentrate Brix levels and high
operating costs compared to standard evaporator systems have hindered the commercialization of
the new systems.
Two methods that do not use heat for concentration are freeze-concentration and membrane
filtration.
Freeze-concentration
This method is based on the fact that water forms ice crystals during the freezing of sugar
solutions. These can be separated from the solution, thereby increasing sugar concentration. It is
necessary to inactivate enzymes when applying freeze-concentration to juice. Enzyme
inactivation can be achieved by pasteurizing the juice before freezing or pasteurizing the
resulting concentrate.
Membrane filtration
The enzyme-rich pulpy stream is pasteurized before being recombined with the serum
concentrate. Mixing back the insoluble solids stream, essentially at single-strength juice
concentration, reduces the Brix value of the concentrate. Concentrations of up to 42 °Brix have
been reported.
Concentration systems using other membrane processes have also been tested. However, the
necessity of retaining the sugars, acids and aroma compounds to maintain a balanced citrus juice
flavour puts heavy demands on potential membrane systems.
5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery
Peel oil is commonly referred to as cold-pressed oil.
5.8.1 Straining and concentration step
The first step involves using a finisher as a straining method to remove large pieces of peel and
other orange parts that need to be excluded from downstream centrifuges (see Figure 5.19).
After straining, the oil emulsion – containing about 0.5-2.0% oil – enters the first stage
centrifuge (also called a desludger or concentrator). The centrifuge concentrates the oil up to 70-
90%.
 Zoom
Figure 5.19
Flow chart of peel oil recovery
The first centrifuge is a three-phase machine. The light phase is concentrated oil, the heavy phase
is water, and the third phase is residual particulate matter. The control of solids discharge from
the sludge space is critical to the overall performance of the oil recovery system. Product is lost
if the discharge frequency is set too high. Conversely, separation efficiency is lost if the sludge
space is allowed to fill up.
The water stream is often recycled back to the oil extraction system as spray water, though it is
important that some water is removed from the system to allow additional fresh water to enter.
Microbiological problems may occur if the same water is continuously recycled. Moreover, the
centrifuged water contains undesirable components such as soluble pectin.
As the concentration of these components builds up in the emulsion, oil separation efficiency
decreases and oil yield declines. Again, this limits the amount of water recycling possible.
The centrifuged water also contains microscopic oil globules that are too small to be separated
by the centrifuge. As this level of oil builds up with water recycling, the effectiveness of the
water to extract oil from the peel decreases. This will also lead to an overall drop in oil recovery
efficiency.
The type of oil extraction used and the performance of the centrifuges will determine the amount
of water that can be recycled. The cleaner the peel oil emulsion is, the higher the oil yield is from
the peel oil recovery system and the higher the volume of recycled water will be. The oil
extraction system upstream of the reamer-type juice extractor is said to give a purer oil emulsion
than the one-step squeezer-type extraction system.
For oil recovery, a hermetic centrifuge has several advantages over open-bowl-type design. The
fully flooded bowl in the hermetic machine ensures that oil does not come into contact with air.
The precise control of the oil-water interface leads to higher separation efficiency.
Figure 5.20 shows a hermetic centrifuge for concentration of peel oil emulsion.

Zoom
Figure 5.20
Hermetic centrifuge for peel oil concentration
5.8.2 Polishing
The concentrated oil stream then passes to a second-stage centrifugation process (polishing).
Here, the oil is further concentrated to >99% purity. The flow rates are extremely small (1-2%)
compared to flow rates in the first stage or in juice clarification and deoiling of single-strength
juice.
Having already undergone one centrifugation process, the product is virtually free from solid
particles. For smaller capacities, a solid bowl machine is used from which water and oil are
continuously discharged. Periodic takedown removes any solid material that collects in the bowl
periphery. For larger flow rates, a solids-ejecting polisher is used in which water and oil leave
the machine under pressure. Accumulated solids are discharged about once or twice per hour.
One tonne of fruit typically yields 200-300 litres of emulsion to the first centrifuge and 3-6 litres
of concentrated oil to the polisher.
5.8.3 The winterization process
The polished oil contains trace amounts of dissolved wax derived from the peel of the fruit. At
temperatures above 15 or 20 °C, the wax is totally dissolved. However, at lower temperatures it
may give a haze to the product. To avoid this problem the polished oil is dewaxed, or
“winterized” as it is called.
The winterization process involves precipitating the wax by causing it to crystallize and then
settle. The oil is stored in tanks at 1°C or lower, which causes the waxes to precipitate and
sediment. The process typically takes 30 days or more, though at lower temperatures this period
may be considerably shorter. The winterized oil is then decanted from the tank. Larger
processors collect the sludge from different winterizing tanks so that once sufficient material has
accumulated the waxes can be removed by centrifugation to recover residual oil.
The winterized oil is packed in 200 litre (55 US gallon) drums or road tankers. Normally the oil
is stored under refrigeration (-10°C) and is traded as cold-pressed oil (CPO). Sometimes it is
called cold-pressed peel oil (CPPO). It is used as a raw material in the flavour manufacturing
industry and by concentrate blending houses and drinkbase manufacturers.
5.8.4 D-limonene recovery systems
The heavy phase from the peel oil first-stage centrifuge is usually recirculated to extractors as
“yellow water”. Part of this flow (10-50%) needs to be replaced with fresh water to avoid excess
concentrations of insoluble substances like pectin before this poor oil emulsion is sent back to
the juice extractors.
The non-recirculated fraction of the yellow water has some residual oil content (0.5-1.0%) that
instead of being sent to the feed mill or wastewater treatment is separated using equipment
dedicated to recovering the residual oil. A traditional d-limonene recovery system heats the
yellow water and further vaporizes a mixture of water vapour and d-limonene in one or more in-
series flash chambers. The vapour is subsequently condensed to recover the terpenic fraction.
A more efficient new design eliminates the individual flash stages by incorporating a specially
designed fractionation column to perform the vapour enrichment. This results in better d-
limonene yields and quality and a more compact recovery unit. Both systems can usually be fed
with sludge discharge from the first-stage centrifuge as well as from the polisher (second-stage)
centrifuge in the peel oil recovery unit.
5.9 Feed mill operations
Most larger processing plants have a feed mill that further processes this waste and recovers by-
products.
Feed mill operations (see Figure 5.21) represent a significant part of total plant running costs.
Solids drying and liquid stream evaporation are energyintensive. Less waste and increased
liquids recycling in other parts of the plant are desirable both for financial and environmental
reasons. Regulatory pressure for environmental control in citrus plants continues to increase.
 Zoom
Figure 5.21
Flow chart of feed mill operations
Revenue from the sale of feed mill by-products makes a significant contribution to orange
processors’ overall profitability. Efforts are constantly being made to identify additional products
that can be recovered from peel and other waste streams.
Feed mill process steps
The feed mill receives rejected fruit from the grading tables in the reception area and waste
material from juice processing. This combined material, with moisture content of about 80%, is
taken by screw conveyors to the wet peel bins of the feed mill. Hammer mills then break it down
into small pieces. Small amounts of lime (0.15-0.25%) are added after this step to aid the
dewatering process. After a dwell time of 10-15 minutes the mixture is conveyed or pumped to
the peel presses.
The primary peel presses remove some 10% of the moisture. Continuous screw presses have
largely replaced hydraulic batch presses for this task. Further addition of lime and secondary
pressing can remove 2-3% extra moisture.
The liquid from the presses – press liquor – contains approximately 9-15% soluble solids, much
of which are sugar solids. The oil content can be 0.2-0.8%. The press liquor normally flows over
static screens to remove peel solids and then on to the waste heat evaporator.
Press liquor is usually concentrated to 50 °Brix and added back to the peel residue prior to
pressing. Alternatively, it can be concentrated up to 72 °Brix and used as raw material for a
fermentation process to make citrus alcohol.
Press liquor contains a high concentration of suspended materials and often includes sand-like
matter. Decanter centrifuges that are used to clarify press liquor should be equipped with special
internal tiles to minimize erosion. Clarification of the press liquor can prolong the running time
of the waste heat evaporator and reduce cleaning time substantially, thereby enhancing feed mill
cost-efficiency. The waste heater strips off d-limonene, which can be recovered as a separate
stream from the vapour phase.
The pressed peel is dried in a rotary drier to a moisture content of about 10% and then pelletized
to make animal feed. Vapour from the peel drier is used as a heating medium in the waste heat
evaporator.
5.10 Pulp production
 Recovery for production of commercial pulp. Pulp is used as add-back in juice and juice
drinks.
 Production of pulp wash – the juice sugars obtained by washing pulp with water. The
remaining material is sold as “washed pulp” or taken to the feed mill.
 Routing to the feed mill for drying into pellets for animal feed.
 Zoom
Figure 5.22
Figure 5.22
5.10.1 Production factors that affect commercial pulp quality
5.10.2 Process steps in pulp production
Figure 5.23.
Zoom
Figure 5.23
Extraction
Defect removal
Table 5.1 Influence of process conditions on pulp properties
Pulp properties Process conditions
Cell length and fragmentation degree • Fruit variety and maturity
• Size of the holes in the strainer tube (squeezer-type
Oil content
extractors)
Defects in final product • Extraction pressure
Pulp concentration (prevalence of
• Use of paddle or screw finisher
pulp particles in pulp slurry)
• Back-pressure applied to the primary and final finishers
(screw type)
• Equipment and operating conditions for the pulp
stabilization step
• Extraction pressure. High pressure gives higher juice
yield but also higher oil content in the pulpy juice stream
• Depends on what type of equipment is used to separate
defects from the pulpy juice stream
• Tightness applied in the finishers
Figure 5.24 shows the liquid and particle flow in a cyclone. The infeed, which is tangentially
introduced into the cone, starts moving in a downward spiral along the cyclone wall. As it nears
the cone outlet, some of the product exits through the underflow orifice while th e majority
changes direction and flows upward to the cyclone overflow, taking an inner spiral path. If the
density of the particles exceeds that of the liquid, the centrifugal force presses the particles
against the cyclone wall from where they are pushed down and out through the bottom opening.
 Zoom
Figure 5.24
A hydrocyclone used for removing defects
Concentration (primary finishers)
 Heating/chilling less product saves energy
 Less juice is subjected to additional heat treatment
Heat treatment
 Inactivate enzymes
 Destroy relevant microorganisms
 Is stable during bulk storage
 Will not lead to cloud separation in reconstituted juice.
Which heat exchanger?
Concentration (drying or final finisher)
Packing in boxes/drums for frozen storag

PACKING IN ASEPTIC BAG-IN-BOX CONTAINERS FOR CHILLED STORAGE

5.11 Pulp wash production
Figure 5.25.

Zoom
Figure 5.25
Flow chart of pulp wash production
Debittering
Pulp wash is high in limonin, which causes bitterness. Non-treated pulp wash is therefore of
limited use as add-back into high quality juice drinks. However, the bitter taste can be removed
by a debittering process in which clarified pulp wash passes through a bed of polymeric resin
that adsorbs the bitter components.
The resin bed has a defined adsorption capacity. When debittering efficiency slows or a high
pressure drop has built up, the reactor is stopped for back-flushing and to regenerate the resin
bed with caustic solution. Parallel use of two debittering reactors ensures continuous operation:
while one reactor is in production, the other is in cleaning/regeneration mode.
Enzyme treatment
Washed cells
Washed cells can either be sent to the feed mill or bulk packed in 25 kg cardboard boxes or 200
litre drums, which are stored frozen. The product is traded as washed pulp or washed cells and
used in some drink applications.
Regulations for and use of pulp wash
Nevertheless, the quality standards and marketing approach of some processors or organizations
may still preclude the addition of pulp wash in concentrate. Pulp wash may not be added to NFC.
Pulp wash is also referred to as water-extracted soluble orange solids (WESOS).
5.12 Core wash
Core wash “juice” is very opaque and provides high capacity cloud. It is a desirable ingredient
for cloudy beverages, both still and carbonated, and replaces synthetic clouding agents such as
brominated vegetable oils and ester gum.
5.13 Reduced acid orange juice
Orange juice acidity can be reduced by removing some of the citric acid in the juice. Acid
reduction, which is primarily deployed in the US, enables the citrus industry to:
 Serve the growing number of consumers who are sensitive to acid foods and therefore
refrain from drinking orange juice
 Use more fruits with a low Brix/acid ratio for juice production
Development of deacidification began in the late 1970s in Florida. In 1992 “reduced acid frozen
concentrated orange juice” became an approved juice product in the US and was included in the
Federal Standards of Identity. Ten years later, reduced-acid NFC was introduced in the US
market.
Elsewhere, regulatory bodies have been more reluctant to accept acid-reduction in orange juice
manufacturing. In Europe, orange juice marketed as “low acid” is made from fruit with naturally
low acid content.
Deacidification
The deacidification process (see Figure 5.26) is similar to the debittering process in that juice
with very low suspended material (<1%) flows through a polymeric resin bed. Citric acid is
removed from the juice by ion-exchange, using a weak base anion resin. The resin basically
exchanges its hydroxide ions (OH-) for citrate ions (C6H5O73-) in the juice, leaving citrate on the
resin.

Zoom
Figure 5.26
The deacidification process
The efficiency of the resin drops as it becomes saturated with citrate. It requires regeneration
using a basic solution at regular intervals.
Besides citric acid, orange juice contains highly desirable nutritional acids. Fortunately, the weak
base anion resins used in deacidification favour removal of citric acid (being a strong acid) over
the weak nutritional acids. Analyses show that ascorbic acid and folic acid content is little
influenced by the process.
Juice pH – and microbiological risk – increase as acid is removed. It is therefore important to
blend deacidified juice with regular juice directly after the deacidification process to ensure a pH
below 4.6.