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micromachines

Article
Actively Tunable “Single Peak/Broadband” Absorbent, Highly
Sensitive Terahertz Smart Device Based on VO2
Baodian Fan 1 , Hao Tang 2 , Pinghui Wu 2 , Yu Qiu 1 , Linqin Jiang 1 , Lingyan Lin 1 , Jianzhi Su 2 , Bomeng Zhou 2
and Miao Pan 2, *

1 Key Laboratory of Green Perovskites Application of Fujian Provincial Universities, Fujian Jiangxia University,
Fuzhou 350108, China; fanbd@fjjxu.edu.cn (B.F.); yuqiu@fjjxu.edu.cn (Y.Q.); linqinjiang@fjjxu.edu.cn (L.J.);
lingyanlin@fjjxu.edu.cn (L.L.)
2 Key Laboratory of Information Functional Material for Fujian Higher Education, College of Physics and
Information Engineering, Quanzhou Normal University, Quanzhou 362000, China;
18350115109@139.com (H.T.); phwu@zju.edu.cn (P.W.); sujianzhi@126.com (J.S.); simonqz@foxmail.com (B.Z.)
* Correspondence: miaopan2021@163.com; Tel./Fax: +86-0595-22796091

Abstract: In recent years, the development of terahertz (THz) technology has attracted significant
attention. Various tunable devices for THz waves (0.1 THz–10 THz) have been proposed, including
devices that modulate the amplitude, polarization, phase, and absorption. Traditional metal materials
are often faced with the problem of non-adjustment, so the designed terahertz devices play a single
role and do not have multiple uses, which greatly limits their development. As an excellent phase
change material, VO2 ’s properties can be transformed by external temperature stimulation, which
provides new inspiration for the development of terahertz devices. To address these issues, this study
innovatively combines metamaterials with phase change materials, leveraging their design flexibil-
ity and temperature-induced phase transition characteristics. We have designed a THz intelligent
absorber that not only enables flexible switching between multiple functionalities but also achieves
precise performance tuning through temperature stimulation. Furthermore, we have taken into con-
sideration factors such as the polarization mode, environmental temperature, structural parameters,
and incident angle, ensuring the device’s process tolerance and environmental adaptability. Addi-
tionally, by exploiting the principle of localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) accompanied by
Citation: Fan, B.; Tang, H.; Wu, P.;
local field enhancement, we have monitored and analyzed the resonant process through electric field
Qiu, Y.; Jiang, L.; Lin, L.; Su, J.; Zhou,
characterization. In summary, the innovative approach and superior performance of this structure
B.; Pan, M. Actively Tunable “Single
Peak/Broadband” Absorbent, Highly provide broader insights and methods for THz device design, contributing to its theoretical research
Sensitive Terahertz Smart Device value. Moreover, the proposed absorber holds potential for practical applications in electromagnetic
Based on VO2 . Micromachines 2024, 15, invisibility, shielding, modulation, and detection scenarios.
208. https://doi.org/10.3390/
mi15020208 Keywords: terahertz; heat regulation; vanadium dioxide; metamaterial; local surface plasmon resonance

Academic Editor: Andrey V. Novitsky

Received: 14 December 2023


Revised: 26 January 2024 1. Introduction
Accepted: 26 January 2024
In recent years, the development of terahertz technology has attracted widespread
Published: 30 January 2024
attention [1–3] due to its significant potential in areas such as communication, imaging,
and sensing [4,5]. Various tunable devices for terahertz waves (0.1 THz–10 THz) have been
proposed, including devices that modulate the amplitude, polarization state, phase, and
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
absorption [6–8]. However, because most natural materials maintain a stable state in the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. natural environment for a long time, they do not have any response to terahertz waves, and
This article is an open access article a few materials such as “gold” can achieve solid absorption of terahertz waves through a
distributed under the terms and resonator, but they are not tunable. The emergence of artificially designed metamaterials
conditions of the Creative Commons and phase change materials breaks this limitation, and they not only have a high absorption
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// but also a good tunability, such as metamaterial graphene, which can achieve dynamic
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ tunability by the application of an external bias voltage, so that terahertz devices can be
4.0/). rapidly developed [9–11].

Micromachines 2024, 15, 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15020208 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines


Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 2 of 13

Metamaterials, artificially designed composite materials with unit structures tailored


to exhibit extraordinary physical properties not found in natural materials, have been
extensively studied since the concept was introduced by Soviet physicist Victor Veselago in
1968 [12–14]. Among the various applications of metamaterials, electromagnetic metama-
terials have been widely employed, offering unique advantages in electromagnetic wave
manipulation, electromagnetic invisibility, communication, the design of terahertz devices,
and other fields [15–18]. Some metamaterials regulate terahertz devices by changing the
Fermi level, such as two-dimensional materials like graphene and Dirac semi-metals, by ap-
plying an external bias voltage and chemical doping, respectively [19–22]. However, some
metamaterials’ internal structures change through light, heat, and electricity to achieve
changes in material properties, thus realizing the regulation of terahertz devices [23,24].
VO2 is such a material; its internal structure can be changed by external temperature
changes, and it shows different properties (an insulating state and a metallic state) at low
and high temperatures. These properties can change the structural composition of terahertz
devices, and the structure determines the properties, so reasonable design and scientific
research can realize the regulation of terahertz devices [25–28].
Since the first terahertz metamaterial absorber was designed by N. I. Landy in 2008, the
investigation of terahertz metamaterial absorbers has become a research hotspot [29–31]. In
this paper, we propose a phase-change-material-based metasurface terahertz absorber. By
controlling the temperature, the absorber can freely switch between wideband absorption
and narrowband absorption. It consists of a simple sandwich structure, including a bottom
reflective layer, an intermediate dielectric layer, and a patterned resonant layer (absorption
layer) on the surface. The design is supported by an electromagnetic, effective medium
and VO2 phase transitions, and is simulated using the finite element method. During the
design process, by controlling the patterns (boundary states), we achieve perfect absorption
in the terahertz range based on the principle of localized surface plasmon resonance.
The broadband absorption is attributed to the coupling between the ring structure and
the electromagnetic modes of the metallic VO2 square disk structure, while narrowband
absorption is achieved via the disruption of the coupling due to the phase transition of VO2
from the metallic state to the insulating state and the matching of the ring structure with
the external terahertz wave resonance frequency.

2. Structure and Design


The proposed terahertz intelligent absorber (TIA) structure is illustrated in Figure 1.
The unit structure with a side length of P is periodically repeated in the xy plane. Using
COMSOL(6.1) simulation software, the arrangement of this infinite array can be achieved
in simulations by setting periodic boundary conditions in the x and y directions of one
unit cell. In addition, an open boundary condition is set in the z direction, allowing the
electromagnetic wave to incident in the negative direction of the z axis. The device consists
of three layers, including a bottom layer of gold thin film, an intermediate layer of dielectric
silicon dioxide, and a top layer composed of a combination of metal and VO2 . The relative
permittivity of nondestructive silica is 2.13. The top layer consists of a gold ring and four
VO2 square blocks connected to it, all having a uniform height of t. The inner and outer
radii of the ring are denoted as r and R, respectively, while the channel width between the
blocks is represented as w.
The Drude model allows characterization of the dielectric parameters of vanadium
dioxide in the terahertz band, as shown in Equation (1) [32–34]:

ω P2
ε(ω )VO2 = ε ∞ − (1)
ω (ω + iγ)
σ 2
ω P2 = ω (2)
σ0 P0
Micromachines 2024, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 𝜎 2


𝜔𝑃2 = 𝜔 3 of 13
(2)
𝜎0 𝑃0

Figure
Figure1. 1.(a)(a)Structure
Structurearray
arraydiagram
diagramofof
the TIA;
the (b)
TIA; xyxy
(b) plane
plane diagram
diagramofof
periodic unit;
periodic (c)(c)
unit; periodic
periodic
unit yzyz
unit plane
plane diagram;
diagram;(d)(d)
TIA
TIAdevice preparation
device preparationprocess flow
process flowchart.
chart.

Here,
Here,ε ∞𝜀is the dielectric parameter at a high frequency, which has a value of 12, and
∞ is the dielectric parameter at a high frequency, which has a value of 12, and
ω𝜔P 𝑃is is
the
the plasmafrequency
plasma frequencyrelated
relatedtoto conductivity,
conductivity, as illustrated in
as illustrated in Equation
Equation(2). (2).The
Thein-
initial × 15 −1 5 5 −1−1
15s −1, σ0 = 3 × 10 Sm
itial value of the plasma frequency is 𝜔𝑃0 = 1.45 × 10 s , 𝜎0 = 3 × 10 Sm , andthe
value of the plasma frequency is ω P0 = 1.45 10 , and the
13 −1
collision frequencyγ 𝛾==5.75
collisionfrequency 5.75×× 101013 ss −1.. The
The conductivity
conductivity σ𝜎 willwillvary
varywith
withthe thephase
phase
change
change ofof
thethe
vanadium
vanadium dioxide film.
dioxide From
film. the relationship
From between
the relationship the dielectric
between constant
the dielectric con-
and the conductivity of the material, we are able to obtain the relational equation
stant and the conductivity of the material, we are able to obtain the relational equation for the
for
conductivity of vanadium dioxide films at various temperatures in the phase transition
process, as shown in Equation (3) [35,36].

σ = −iε 0 ω (ε c − 1 ) (3)
Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 4 of 13

where σ is the conductivity of the compositesystem, ε 0 is the dielectric constant of the


vacuum, and ω is the angular frequency. The dielectric coefficient of the composite system
ε c is a temperature-dependent function.
When the VO2 disk is in the metallic state (σ = 200,000 S/m, T = 345 K), the VO2
blocks, together with the gold ring, form the resonator of the absorption layer. However,
when VO2 is in the insulating state (σ = 100 S/m, T = 312 K), the absorption layer is solely
composed of the metal ring, while the four VO2 blocks are treated as the dielectric layer. The
structure is simulated using finite-element-method-based simulation software (COMSOL);
the surrounding environment is set to normal, the electromagnetic wave is set to normal
incidence, and the simulation range is 7–11 THz. And the end of optimization, structural
data were obtained as follows: P = 35 µm, h = 8 µm, d = 5.75 µm, t = 0.1 µm, r = 12 µm,
R = 13.5 µm, and w = 1.5 µm.
The fabrication process of the TIA device is illustrated in Figure 1d. Following a
bottom-up approach, an 8 µm-thick gold film was sputtered onto a prepared substrate,
followed by the growth of a 5.75 µm-thick SiO2 dielectric layer using chemical vapor
deposition (CVD). Subsequently, another layer of gold film with a thickness of 0.1 µm was
sputtered, and the desired metal ring structure was obtained through processes such as
photolithography. Finally, the vanadium dioxide film was sputtered on the surface of the
dielectric layer using the magnetron sputtering method, and the array structure of the TIA
was obtained by repeating the lithography process [37,38]. In this way, we present the
process of preparing the proposed absorber, showing its feasibility in theory, but its specific
experimental data need to be measured in practice. Since this is not the focus of our paper,
it is not described in detail in this paper.

3. Simulation Results and Discussion


Using numerical simulations, we calculated the S11 parameter, and we used the S11
parameter to calculate the absorption rate. The absorption rate A = 1 − R − T, where T
represents transmission. As a result of the bottom metal plate, an electromagnetic wave
cannot be transmitted, so T = 0 and R represents a refraction, where R = |S11|2 , and so
A = 1 − |S11|2 [39–41]. We performed simulations to calculate the absorption properties
of the absorber under different polarization modes (TE and TM) and temperatures (where
the vanadium dioxide square undergoes a phase transition), as illustrated in Figure 2. The
results revealed that the absorber device exhibits an average absorption rate exceeding
96.2% across an ultra-wideband range of 7.5–11 THz. Notably, this device demonstrates
a remarkable absorption bandwidth of 3.5 THz and possesses polarization-insensitive
characteristics [42,43]. Moreover, by leveraging temperature control, the absorber can
flexibly switch between narrowband and ultra-wideband absorption modes. Specifically,
when the vanadium dioxide disk is in the metallic state (T = 345 K), we propose the absorber
achieves an average absorption rate exceeding 99% within the ultra-wideband range of
8.6–11 THz. In contrast, when the carbon dioxide disk is in the state of insulation (T = 312 K),
the absorber forms a narrowband absorption peak with a high quality factor. Remarkably,
at an electromagnetic wave frequency of f = 7.44 THz, the absorptivity surpasses 99.7%,
with a quality factor of 74.4.
To investigate the intrinsic mechanism behind the ultra-wideband absorption exhibited
by the absorber when vanadium dioxide is in its metallic state, we conducted simulations
and plotted the surface electric field and its components at different frequencies, as illus-
trated in Figure 3. The observations revealed a distinct distribution of the internal electric
field within the absorber on both the gold ring and the vanadium dioxide square at lower
and mid-range frequencies. However, as the frequency transitioned from the mid-range
to high frequencies, the field strength inside the absorber shifted towards the center, with
a more concentrated and stronger electric field on the vanadium dioxide disk compared
to the gold ring. This indicates that the resonant response at high frequencies is primarily
contributed by the vanadium dioxide square. In fact, the combination of the gold ring and
the four vanadium dioxide squares forms a resonant structure, which is responsible for the
Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 5 of 13

broadband absorption. When the absorber interacts with external electromagnetic waves,
the resonant structure resonates with specific frequencies of the external electromagnetic
waves.
Figure 2.This resonance
Schematic results
diagram in the
of the generation
spectral curve ofofthe
absorption peaks at certain
TIA. (a) Absorption curves offrequencies.
vanadium
dioxide
The cube in thedesign
appropriate metallicofstate (T = 345 K)structure
the resonant and the insulating
enables the state (T = 312 to
absorber K);possess
(b) absorption
multi-
spectra
ple of TIA devices
resonance in TE and
frequencies, eachTMleading
modes. to a strong absorption. Furthermore, under the
excitation of external terahertz waves, the interaction and coupling between the excited
To investigate
electromagnetic the intrinsic
modes on the TIA mechanism
structure behind
cause the theresonance
ultra-wideband absorption
frequencies exhib-
to be closely
ited by the absorber when vanadium dioxide is in its metallic state,
spaced, resulting in overlapping and coinciding absorption peaks, ultimately achieving we conducted simu-
lations
REVIEWand absorption
Micromachines 2024, 15, x FOR PEERbroadband plotted the[44].surface electric field and its components at different
Thus, it can be concluded that the combination of the circular frequencies,
5 of 14
as illustrated
ring in Figure
and the square disk3.constitutes
The observations revealed
a successful a distinct
resonant distribution of the internal
structure.
electric field within the absorber on both the gold ring and the vanadium dioxide square
at lower and mid-range frequencies. However, as the frequency transitioned from the
mid-range to high frequencies, the field strength inside the absorber shifted towards the
center, with a more concentrated and stronger electric field on the vanadium dioxide disk
compared to the gold ring. This indicates that the resonant response at high frequencies
is primarily contributed by the vanadium dioxide square. In fact, the combination of the
gold ring and the four vanadium dioxide squares forms a resonant structure, which is
responsible for the broadband absorption. When the absorber interacts with external elec-
tromagnetic waves, the resonant structure resonates with specific frequencies of the exter-
nal electromagnetic waves. This resonance results in the generation of absorption peaks
at certain frequencies. The appropriate design of the resonant structure enables the ab-
sorber to possess multiple resonance frequencies, each leading to a strong absorption. Fur-
thermore, under the excitation of external terahertz waves, the interaction and coupling be-
tween the excited electromagnetic modes on the TIA structure cause the resonance frequen-
Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematic diagram
diagram of ofthe
thespectral
spectralcurve
curveof
ofthe
theTIA.
TIA.(a)
(a)Absorption
Absorptioncurves
curvesofofvanadium
vanadium
cies to be closely spaced, resulting in overlapping and coinciding absorption peaks, ulti-
dioxidecube
dioxide cubeininthe
themetallic
metallicstate
state(T(T==345
345K)K)and
andthe
theinsulating
insulatingstate
state(T(T==312
312K);
K);(b)
(b)absorption
absorption
mately achieving broadband absorption [44]. Thus, it can be concluded that the combination
spectraof
spectra ofTIA
TIAdevices
devicesininTE
TEand
andTM TMmodes.
modes.
of the circular ring and the square disk constitutes a successful resonant structure.
To investigate the intrinsic mechanism behind the ultra-wideband absorption exhib-
ited by the absorber when vanadium dioxide is in its metallic state, we conducted simu-
lations and plotted the surface electric field and its components at different frequencies,
as illustrated in Figure 3. The observations revealed a distinct distribution of the internal
electric field within the absorber on both the gold ring and the vanadium dioxide square
at lower and mid-range frequencies. However, as the frequency transitioned from the
mid-range to high frequencies, the field strength inside the absorber shifted towards the
center, with a more concentrated and stronger electric field on the vanadium dioxide disk
compared to the gold ring. This indicates that the resonant response at high frequencies
is primarily contributed by the vanadium dioxide square. In fact, the combination of the
gold ring and the four vanadium dioxide squares forms a resonant structure, which is
responsible for the broadband absorption. When the absorber interacts with external elec-
tromagnetic waves, the resonant structure resonates with specific frequencies of the exter-
nal electromagnetic waves. This resonance results in the generation of absorption peaks
at certain frequencies. The appropriate design of the resonant structure enables the ab-
sorber to possess multiple resonance frequencies, each leading to a strong absorption. Fur-
thermore, under the excitation of external terahertz waves, the interaction and coupling be-
tween3.the
Figure excited
(a–c) electromagnetic
and (d–f) modes
show the electric on the TIAand
field distribution structure cause
the electric the
field resonance
component Ezfrequen-
distribu-
ciesontothe
tion besurface
closely spaced,
of the resulting
absorber in overlapping
at frequencies f = 7.74 THz,and coinciding
f = 9.0 THz, and fabsorption peaks, ulti-
= 10.5 THz, respectively.
mately achieving broadband absorption [44]. Thus, it can be concluded that the combination
Subsequently,
of the the the
circular ring and intrinsic
squaremechanism behind
disk constitutes the narrowband
a successful resonant absorption
structure. of the
absorber in the insulating state of vanadium dioxide was investigated. Figure 4a,b depict
the absorption characteristics of the absorber with and without the vanadium dioxide disk,
respectively (with the vanadium dioxide disk in the insulating state). It is evident that
both structures exhibit a resonance frequency at f = 7.45 THz. The first structure achieves
a peak absorption rate of >99.4%. The absorber consists solely of a gold ring, which acts
as a resonator. Upon interaction between the terahertz wave at f = 7.44 THz and the gold
layer. The structure of the absorber is analogous to the scenario when only the gold ring
is present. The absorption peak can be explained in the same way, but the overall absorber
performance in the second structure surpasses that of the first structure. By comparing the
absorbers in both structures presented in Figure 4, it is evident that the surface current
Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 density and electric field intensity in the second structure surpass those in the first struc- 6 of 13
ture. This enhancement is attributed to the presence of the vanadium dioxide disk, which
amplifies the resonance effect of the gold ring to a certain extent [45]. According to the
ring structure,
classical a resonance
three-layer structureeffect manifests,
of the absorber,resulting in localizedcoupling
the electromagnetic field enhancements,
caused by the as
illustrated
reverse in Figure
current on the4c. This and
upper resonance effectively
lower surfaces establishes
will a dipole
limit the ability ofoscillation mode,
the electromag-
tightly
netic confining
wave to reachthe energy
the middleof dielectric
the incident terahertz
layer, so thatwave intemperatures,
at low the near field, VO
substantially
2 exhibits
depleting the incident wave’s energy and thereby generating a resonance absorption
an insulating state and works with the middle dielectric layer so that more energy is lim- peak
at f = 7.44 THz.
ited and a higher absorption peak is generated.

Figure 4. (a,b) are the absorption spectra of the two structures at T = 312 K, respectively. (c,d) are the
surface electric field distributions of the two structures |E| when f = 7.44 THz.

The second structure achieves a peak absorption rate of >99.7%. In this case, as the
vanadium dioxide disk is in the insulating state, its role is equivalent to that of a dielectric
layer. The structure of the absorber is analogous to the scenario when only the gold ring is
present. The absorption peak can be explained in the same way, but the overall absorber
performance in the second structure surpasses that of the first structure. By comparing
the absorbers in both structures presented in Figure 4, it is evident that the surface current
density and electric field intensity in the second structure surpass those in the first structure.
This enhancement is attributed to the presence of the vanadium dioxide disk, which
amplifies the resonance effect of the gold ring to a certain extent [45]. According to the
classical three-layer structure of the absorber, the electromagnetic coupling caused by the
reverse current on the upper and lower surfaces will limit the ability of the electromagnetic
wave to reach the middle dielectric layer, so that at low temperatures, VO2 exhibits an
insulating state and works with the middle dielectric layer so that more energy is limited
and a higher absorption peak is generated.
In addition, we introduce the equivalent circuit diagram to explain the two absorption
modes, as shown in Figure 5. When the external electromagnetic wave is incident, the
induced current of the device is excited by the upper and lower metal layers. Treating the
underlying metal layer as a wire, the equivalent impedance of the intermediate dielectric
layer is regarded as Zd , which is related to its dielectric constant. The equivalent resistance
of the top microstructure is regarded as Zg , and Zg is expressed as Zg = R + jωL − j/ωc,
ω = 2π f . This indicates the frequency, and the value of Zg is affected by the structure and
size of the microstructure. Because the external free impedance Z0 is 377 Ω, when the
overall impedance of the device is equal to the external free impedance, the impedance
layer is regarded as Zd, which is related to its dielectric constant. The equivalent resistance
of the top microstructure is regarded as Zg, and Zg is expressed as Zg = R + jωL − j/ωc, ω =
2𝜋𝑓. This indicates the frequency, and the value of Zg is affected by the structure and size
of the microstructure. Because the external free impedance Z0 is 377 Ω, when the overall
Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 impedance of the device is equal to the external free impedance, the impedance matching 7 of 13
condition of the absorber can be achieved, and the maximum absorption benefit is formed.
We can adjust the size of Zg by changing the formation of the top microstructure and the
matching
propertiescondition of the absorber
of the internal structure,cansobethat
achieved, and the
the overall maximum
absorption absorption
system can meet benefit
the
isimpedance
formed. We can adjust
matching conditions. Zg by changing
the size ofAccording the formation
to transmission lineof the topthe
theory, microstructure
transmission
and theof
matrix properties
the top VO of2 the internal structure,
microstructure and theso that the
middle overalllayer
dielectric absorption system can
can be expressed as
meet the
[46,47]: impedance matching conditions. According to transmission line theory, the
transmission matrix of the top VO2 microstructure and the middle dielectric layer can be
1 0
expressed as [46,47]: 1
( ! ) (4)
1 0 1
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿1
− 𝑗/𝜔𝐶 (4)
R+ jωL− j/ωC 1
 cosℎ 𝛾ℎ −Z sinh 𝛾ℎ 
(cos 1hγh − Zsinhγh ) (5)
(5)
− Z−
1
sinsinℎ
𝑍
hγh𝛾ℎ coscosℎ hγh𝛾ℎ

whereZZrepresents
where representsthethenormalized
normalized characteristic
characteristic impedance,
impedance, γ represents
𝛾 represents the transmission
the transmis-
coefficient
sion coefficient of the material, which is related to the free space permeabilityand
of the material, which is related to the free space permeability andits itsown
own
dielectric constant, and h represents the thickness of the material.
dielectric constant, and h represents the thickness of the material. When the impedance When the impedance
matching
matchingcondition
conditionisisreached,
reached,the therelative
relativeimpedance
impedancewill willbebe1.1. Finally,
Finally,we wecancanseeseefrom
from
simple observations that the impedance value of the top VO layer
simple observations that the impedance value of the top2 VO2 layer can be adjusted be- can be adjusted between
10 to the10fourth
tween to thepower
fourthand power 10 the
andfirst power.
10 the firstNow
power. that our that
Now structure is fixed, the
our structure process
is fixed, the
isprocess
regulated by changing the internal structural properties of VO 2 .
is regulated by changing the internal structural properties of VO2. At both low andAt both low and high
temperatures,
high temperatures, it canitbe
cancombined
be combined withwithZd Ztod to
achieve
achieve impedance
impedancematchingmatchingconditions,
conditions,
resulting in an electromagnetic response and perfect
resulting in an electromagnetic response and perfect absorption. absorption.

Figure5.5.Equivalent
Figure Equivalentresonant
resonantcircuit
circuitof
ofthe
thestructural
structuralunit.
unit.

In the preceding discussion, we delved into the absorption efficiency and underlying
mechanisms of the absorber under ideal conditions. However, in practical applications,
there often exists a discrepancy between the structural parameters and theoretical models,
which can potentially impact the absorption efficiency of the absorber [48–50]. To better
adapt the absorber to real-world production, we have conducted separate investigations
of the influence of structural parameters on the absorption efficiency at temperatures of
T = 345 K and T = 312 K. At T = 345 K, based on an analysis of Figure 6a,b,d, it can be
observed that the absorption efficiency at high frequencies remains largely unaffected by
variations in the outer ring radius ‘R’ and the gap distance ‘w’ between the metal outer ring
and VO2 , as well as their thickness ‘t’. This behavior can be attributed to the dominant
contribution of the VO2 square in the high-frequency resonance response. However, in
the case in Figure 6c, the high-frequency absorption efficiency exhibits an initial increase
followed by a decrease with an increasing gap distance ‘d’. This can be attributed to
Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 8 of 13

the enhanced energy confinement with the introduction of an additional intermediate


dielectric layer, but when the thickness reaches a certain threshold, the coupling efficiency
between the dielectric layer and external specific electromagnetic waves starts to affect
the resonance of the top structure. Furthermore, it is also observed that increasing the
outer ring radius ‘R’ and the gap distance ‘d’ leads to a redshift in the absorption spectrum
at mid-to-low frequencies, while increasing the VO2 thickness t and the gap distance ‘w’
results in a blueshift of the absorption peak at mid-to-low frequencies. These findings
provide additional avenues for optimizing the structure of our absorber. At T = 312 K, it
is evident from Figure 6e,f that with an increasing gap distance d and outer ring radius
‘R’, a noticeable redshift is observed in the mid-to-low frequency absorption spectrum,
while the absorption peak at high frequencies also exhibits an increase. At this temperature,
the vanadium dioxide (VO2 ) disc is in an insulating state, acting as a dielectric layer. The
absorption efficiency of the absorber primarily depends on the top gold ring, and the
enlargement of the outer radius enhances the localized surface plasmon resonance, leading
to a rapid increase in the absorption peak at high frequencies [51,52]. Furthermore, the
increase in the thickness of the dielectric layer can still be explained using classical9 magnetic
Micromachines 2024, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 14
resonance theory.

Figure 6. (a–d) are the scanning graphs of four main parameters affecting the broadband absorption
Figure 6. (a–d) are the scanning graphs of four main parameters affecting the broadband absorption
performance of TIA devices at T = 345 K. (e,f) are the scans of two main parameters affecting the
performance of TIA devices at T = 345 K. (e,f) are the scans of two main parameters affecting the
narrowband absorption performance of TIA devices at T = 312 K.
narrowband absorption performance of TIA devices at T = 312 K.
In addition to considering the geometric parameters, we also studied the absorption
performance of the absorber at different temperatures, as shown in Figure 7. It can be
observed from the figure that when the conductivity ‘σ’ of the vanadium dioxide (VO2)
square varies in the range of 50,000–200,000 S/m, the absorber achieves broadband absorp-
tion in the range of 8.5–11 THz. Within this range of conductivity, the VO2 square behaves
as a metal. The absorber exhibits a traditional metal–dielectric–metal structure. By care-
Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 9 of 13

In addition to considering the geometric parameters, we also studied the absorption


performance of the absorber at different temperatures, as shown in Figure 7. It can be
observed from the figure that when the conductivity ‘σ’ of the vanadium dioxide (VO2 )
square varies in the range of 50,000–200,000 S/m, the absorber achieves broadband ab-
sorption in the range of 8.5–11 THz. Within this range of conductivity, the VO2 square
behaves as a metal. The absorber exhibits a traditional metal–dielectric–metal structure.
Micromachines 2024, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14
By carefully designing the structural parameters, the equivalent impedance of the TIA
matches that of free space, resulting in almost zero reflection of the incident terahertz waves.
As a result, the energy of the incident waves can only be continuously dissipated within
absorption
the peak.The
TIA device. Therefore,
absorptionby rate
controlling the temperature,
of electromagnetic waves is theclose
absorber
to 100%caninflexibly
a wide
switch between
frequency rangenarrowband
[53–55]. On theandother
ultra-broadband
hand, when absorption.
the conductivity ‘σ’ of the VO2 square
variesAtinthe
thesame
rangetime, we can also
of 100–10,000 S/m,observe from Figure
the absorber 7 that
achieves the absorption
narrowband rate ofnear
absorption the
TIA devices
7.44 changes
THz. Within thisgradually
conductivityin the process
range, of conductivity
the VO 2 disc acts as changes.
an When
insulator, the
playingconduc-
a role
tivity is 200,000,
equivalent the broadband
to a dielectric absorption
layer. The insulatingdisplayed
state of theby the
VO2TIA discwill gradually
disrupts transition
the impedance
to a perfect
matching absorption
condition at 7.44the
between THz TIAwith a gradual
device and freedecline
space,inresulting
the conductivity. In fact,
in the strong since
reflection
of incident
there is a 6 terahertz waves difference
K temperature and a decrease in thethe
between overall
heating absorption
and cooling performance of the
of VO2, this TIA.
transi-
However,
tion is alsosignificant
very stable.localized electric
This perfect resonances
regulatory still exist,
capability forming
enables a narrow absorption
the absorption rate from
peak.
0.1 to Therefore, by controlling
1 to be modulated the temperature,
in the wideband range, the absorber
enabling ourcan flexiblyTIA
proposed switch between
to detect ar-
narrowband
bitrary signals and ultra-broadband
between absorption.
the fixed frequency and the wideband range.

Figure 7. The absorber is affected by different temperatures. (a) Schematic drawings of absorption
curves at different temperatures; (b)
(b) the
the absorption
absorption curve
curve corresponding
corresponding to
to the
the contour.
contour.

At the same time,


Considering we can also
the practical observe from
application Figure 7 that
environment, the absorption
absorbers are oftenrateexposed
of the TIAto
devices changes gradually in the process of conductivity changes. When the
oblique incident waves rather than solely vertical plane waves. Therefore, it is necessary conductivity
is
to 200,000, the broadband
investigate the absorber’s absorption displayed
performance underbyinclined
the TIA incidence.
will gradually
Based transition
on this, to wea
perfect absorption at 7.44 THz with a gradual decline in the conductivity. In
studied the variations in the absorption spectra of the absorber at temperatures of T = 312fact, since there
is
K aand
6 KTtemperature difference
= 345 K for incident between
angles the from
ranging heating and
0° to cooling
40°, of VO
as shown , this transition
in2Figure is
8a,b. It can
also very stable. This perfect regulatory capability enables the absorption rate from 0.1 to
be observed that at lower temperatures, as the incident angle increases, the narrowband
1 to be modulated in the wideband range, enabling our proposed TIA to detect arbitrary
absorption peak exhibits a blueshift, while the overall absorption performance remains
signals between the fixed frequency and the wideband range.
relatively stable. This demonstrates the high sensitivity of the absorber in the field of sens-
Considering the practical application environment, absorbers are often exposed to
ing. At higher temperatures (T = 345 K), the TIA maintains a good performance within the
oblique incident waves rather than solely vertical plane waves. Therefore, it is necessary
range of 0° to 20°, but the absorption bandwidth and intensity gradually decrease with an
to investigate the absorber’s performance under inclined incidence. Based on this, we
increasing incident angle, indicating that the designed TIA device is angle-sensitive and
studied the variations in the absorption spectra of the absorber at temperatures of T = 312 K
requires attention in practical applications [56–58]. The rational use of this process can
and T = 345 K for incident angles ranging from 0◦ to 40◦ , as shown in Figure 8a,b. It can
realize the accurate inspection of the signal during the heating process and large-scale
be observed that at lower temperatures, as the incident angle increases, the narrowband
detection during the cooling process. However, compared to previous reports, the de-
absorption peak exhibits a blueshift, while the overall absorption performance remains
signed TIA exhibits significant advantages and improvements, as shown in Table 1 [59–
relatively stable. This demonstrates the high sensitivity of the absorber in the field of
62]. Not only
sensing. does temperatures
At higher the absorber have a significantly
(T = 345 K), the TIA broadened
maintains abandwidth, but it also
good performance has
within
an enhanced ◦absorption
◦ performance. Additionally, the absorber offers
the range of 0 to 20 , but the absorption bandwidth and intensity gradually decrease witha wide modula-
tionincreasing
an range andincident
can flexibly
angle,switch between
indicating ultra-broadband
that the designed TIA absorption
device isand narrowband
angle-sensitive
absorption.
and requiresThese characteristics
attention in practicalgreatly increase[56–58].
applications its potential applications
The rational use ofinthisareas such
process
as terahertz sensing and stealth technology.
can realize the accurate inspection of the signal during the heating process and large-scale
Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 10 of 13

detection during the cooling process. However, compared to previous reports, the designed
TIA exhibits significant advantages and improvements, as shown in Table 1 [59–62]. Not
only does the absorber have a significantly broadened bandwidth, but it also has an en-
hanced absorption performance. Additionally, the absorber offers a wide modulation range
and can flexibly switch between ultra-broadband absorption and narrowband absorption.
Micromachines 2024, 15, x FOR PEERThese
REVIEW 11 of 14
characteristics greatly increase its potential applications in areas such as terahertz
sensing and stealth technology.

Figure8.8.Absorption
Figure Absorptionspectra
spectraofofthe
theabsorber
absorberatat(a)(a)TT==312
312KKand (b)TT==345
and(b) 345K,K,where
wherethe
theincidence
incidence
angleofofthe
angle thelight
lightsource
sourceincreases from0◦0°toto4040°,
increasesfrom ◦ , and
andthe
thecorresponding
correspondingcontour
contourdiagram
diagramofofthe
the
absorption spectra.
absorption spectra.

Table1.1.Some
Table Somecoordinated
coordinatedterahertz
terahertzabsorbers
absorbersininrecent
recentyears.
years.

References Coordinated Type Absorption Range Absorption


References Coordinated Type Absorption Range Absorption
0.76–0.86 THZ
[59] Dual broadband coordination 0.76–0.86 THZ
THz More than 90%
[59] Dual broadband coordination 1.12–1.25 More than 90%
1.12–1.25 THz
[60] Two-band absorption 5.5 THz, 8.5 THz More than 95%
[60]
[61] Two-band
Broadband absorption
coordination 5.5 THz, 8.5
8.62–10 THz
THZ More than
More 95%
than 95%
[62]
[61] Three-band absorption
Broadband coordination 3.56 THz, 8.62–10
10.38 THz,
THz12.96 THz More
More than
than 95%95%
Ultra wideband and single-band 3.56 7.5–11
THz, 10.38
proposed
[62] Three-band absorption THz THz, More
More than
than 95%95%
coordination 12.96 THz
Ultra wideband and
proposed
4. Conclusions 7.5–11 THz More than 95%
single-band coordination
Based on a (metal + VO2)–dielectric–metal structure, we have designed a THz intelli-
gent absorber that combines ultra-wideband absorption and narrowband absorption. By
4. Conclusions
changing the temperature, the absorber can be arbitrarily adjusted between ultra-wide-
Based on a (metal + VO2 )–dielectric–metal structure, we have designed a THz intelli-
band and narrowband absorption. As a narrowband absorber, it achieves an absorption
gent absorber that combines ultra-wideband absorption and narrowband absorption. By
peak with a rate greater than 99.9% at f = 7.44 THz and a quality factor of 74.4. When used
changing the temperature, the absorber can be arbitrarily adjusted between ultra-wideband
as anarrowband
and broadband absorber,
absorption. it also
As aachieves
narrowbandperfect absorption
absorber, close to an
it achieves 100% in the range
absorption peakof
8.5–11 THz, exhibiting polarization insensitivity. To investigate the
with a rate greater than 99.9% at f = 7.44 THz and a quality factor of 74.4. When used as mechanism of broad-
aband absorption,
broadband we have
absorber, depicted
it also achievestheperfect
electricabsorption
field distribution
close toof100%
the absorber at differ-
in the range of
8.5–11 THz, exhibiting polarization insensitivity. To investigate the mechanism of the
ent frequencies. According to the LSPR principle, the reasons for formation of two
broad-
absorption
band modes
absorption, weare explained.
have depicted It theis electric
found thatfieldthe metallic vanadium
distribution dioxide
of the absorber disk and
at different
gold ring form a well-defined resonator. We simulated the effect of
frequencies. According to the LSPR principle, the reasons for formation of the two absorp- the structural param-
eters of the absorber on the absorption performance and observed
tion modes are explained. It is found that the metallic vanadium dioxide disk and gold that the absorber has
ring form a well-defined resonator. We simulated the effect of the structural parameters the
tolerance in the manufacturing process. The results also provide more direction for of
adjustability
the absorber on ofthe
theabsorption
absorber. By modifyingand
performance theobserved
absorber’s layer
that the structure,
absorber haswe tolerance
have ana-
inlyzed the reasons forprocess.
the manufacturing the narrowband
The resultsabsorption
also provide peak.
moreFurthermore,
direction forwe thehave explored
adjustability
ofthe
theperformance
absorber. Byof the absorber
modifying at differentlayer
the absorber’s incident angles
structure, weand
havediscovered
analyzed itsthehigh sen-
reasons
for the narrowband absorption peak. Furthermore, we have explored the performanceas
sitivity to angle variations. In summary, the proposed THz smart absorber, referred to
ofa the
TIA,absorber
exhibits at dynamic
different tunability, contactless
incident angles and adjustment,
discovered its multifunctionality,
high sensitivity to polariza-
angle
tion independence, and low-angle insensitivity, offering superior absorption bandwidth
and enhanced control capabilities compared to previous similar absorbers. Therefore, it
holds great potential for applications in the THz frequency range, such as sensing and
stealth technologies.
Micromachines 2024, 15, 208 11 of 13

variations. In summary, the proposed THz smart absorber, referred to as a TIA, exhibits
dynamic tunability, contactless adjustment, multifunctionality, polarization independence,
and low-angle insensitivity, offering superior absorption bandwidth and enhanced control
capabilities compared to previous similar absorbers. Therefore, it holds great potential for
applications in the THz frequency range, such as sensing and stealth technologies.

Author Contributions: B.F.: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation,


Writing—original draft, Writing—review and editing. H.T.: Conceptualization, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Data curation, Writing—review and editing. P.W.: Conceptualization, Formal anal-
ysis, Investigation, Data curation, Funding acquisition. Y.Q.: Conceptualization, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Data curation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review and editing. L.J.: Conceptual-
ization, Formal analysis, Investigation. L.L.: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data
curation. J.S.: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation. B.Z.: Conceptualiza-
tion, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Funding acquisition. M.P.: Conceptualization,
Data curation, Funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: The authors are grateful to the support from the Innovative Research Team in Science
and Technology at Fujian Province University (IRTSTFJ), the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (52102158), the Fujian Provincial Department of Science and Technology (2021H6011,
2023H6037), the Fujian Foreign Cooperation Science and Technology Program (2023I0022), the
Quanzhou high level Talents Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project (2023C012R), the Quanzhou
Science and Technology Plan Project (2021N052), and the College Student Innovation Training
Program Project (S202310399025).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Publicly available datasets were analyzed in this study. These data can
be found here: [https://www.lumerical.com/ (accessed on 1 January 2020)].
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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