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Process engineering fundamentals
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Process Engineering
Fundamentals
Kevin Harding
Acknowledgements
The lecturers from the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, whose notes, time
and/or other materials were considered in compiling this document, as well as the many,
many students that supplied, reviewed and checked solutions:
Disclaimer: This document is a draft of lecture notes compiled from various sources for use
in several chemical engineering courses at the University. The contents are continually
updated and are in no way guaranteed to be correct. Not all sections will be examinable in
the courses this document is made available to, and material not in these notes, but still
lectured, may be examined.
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) i

School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (South Africa)
ORCID - research profile ResearchGate - publications & lecture notes YouTube - lecture videos
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I
TABLE OF CONTENTS II
LIST OF TABLES VII
LIST OF FIGURES VII
LIST OF EXAMPLES IX
LIST OF EXCEL TEMPLATES XI
LIST OF VIDEOS XI
LIST OF TERMS XII
1 NUMERICAL METHODS 1
1.1 INTERPOLATION 1
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1.2 PIECEWISE CONSTANT INTERPOLATION 1
1.1.3 LINEAR INTERPOLATION 2
1.1.4 POLYNOMIAL INTERPOLATION 6
1.1.5 SPLINE INTERPOLATION 7
1.1.6 OTHER FORMS OF INTERPOLATION 8
1.2 EXTRAPOLATION 8
1.2.2 LINEAR EXTRAPOLATION 9
1.3 ROOT FINDING 9
1.3.2 DIRECT SUBSTITUTION 10
1.3.3 BISECTION METHOD 11
1.3.4 REGULA FALSI 12
1.3.5 ITP (INTERPOLATE, TRUNCATE, AND PROJECT) 16
1.3.6 NEWTON-RAPHSON (DERIVATIVE BASED METHODS) 16
1.3.7 SECANT METHOD 20
1.3.8 MS-EXCEL BASED METHODS 20
1.3.9 OTHER FORMS OF ROOT FINDING. 21
1.4 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION 22
1.4.2 PLOT AND COUNT 22
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) ii
1.4.3 RECTANGULAR RULE 24
1.4.4 TRAPEZOIDAL RULE 25
1.4.5 SIMPSON’S 1/3 RULE 26
1.4.6 SIMPSON’S 3/8 RULE 27
PROBLEMS 29
2 MASS BALANCES 31
2.1 INTRODUCTION 31
2.2 BATCH, CONTINUOUS AND SEMI-BATCH PROCESSES 31
2.3 STEADY STATE VS UNSTEADY STATE 32
2.4 BASIC MASS BALANCE EQUATION 33
2.5 MATERIAL BALANCES WITHOUT REACTION 35
2.6 MATERIAL BALANCES WITH REACTION 35
2.7 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR MULTI-COMPONENT SYSTEMS 36
2.7.1 RECYCLE SYSTEMS 36
2.7.2 PURGE STREAMS 36
2.7.3 CASCADES 37
2.8 SYSTEMS NEEDING ITERATIVE SOLUTIONS 37
2.9 UNSTEADY STATE MASS BALANCE 38
2.10 DEGREE OF FREEDOM ANALYSIS 39
2.11 GENERAL PROCEDURE TO SOLVE A MASS BALANCE 39
ADDITIONAL READING 40
PROBLEMS 42
3 HEAT TRANSFER 48
3.1 INTRODUCTION 48
3.1.1 WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER? 48
3.1.2 CONDUCTION 48
3.1.3 CONVECTION 48
3.1.4 RADIATION 49
3.2 CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER 50
3.2.1 FOURIER’S LAW 50
3.2.2 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY 52
3.2.3 CONDUCTION THROUGH A WALL 53
3.2.4 CONDUCTION THROUGH A CYLINDER 60
3.2.5 CONDUCTION THROUGH AN IRREGULAR SHAPE 63
3.2.6 CONDUCTION WHEN THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY IS NOT CONSTANT 65
3.2.7 THERMAL RESISTANCE 68
3.3 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER 70
3.3.1 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING 70
3.3.2 CONVECTION FROM A WALL 71
3.3.3 CONVECTION (AND CONDUCTION) THROUGH A CYLINDER 77
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) iii
3.3.4 LOG MEAN RADIUS AND LOG MEAN AREA 82
3.4 OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT 83
3.5 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE WALLS 84
3.5.1 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH SERIES CONFIGURATION 84
3.5.2 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH PARALLEL CONFIGURATION 85
3.5.3 CONTACT RESISTANCE 88
3.5.4 POROUS MATERIALS 89
3.6 HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACES 90
3.6.2 FINS OF UNIFORM CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA 91
3.7 RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER 94
BLACK BODY: A PERFECT IDEALIZED PHYSICAL BODY WHICH ABSORBS ALL INCIDENT ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND
IS ALSO THE BEST POSSIBLE EMITTER OF THERMAL RADIATION. 94
3.8 HEAT EXCHANGERS 95
3.8.2 TYPES OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS 97
3.8.3 CO-CURRENT HEAT EXCHANGERS 98
3.8.4 COUNTER CURRENT HEAT EXCHANGERS 98
3.8.5 DERIVATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER EQUATION 99
3.9 HEAT GENERATION 104
3.9.1 NUCLEAR REACTIONS 104
3.9.2 CATALYSTS 104
3.9.3 ELECTRIC CURRENT 105
3.10 UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER 107
PROBLEMS 110
4 ENERGY BALANCES 115
4.1 INTRODUCTION 115

4.1.1 HEAT 115
4.1.2 WORK 115
4.1.3 ENERGY 116
4.1.4 INTERNAL ENERGY 116
4.1.5 ENTHALPY 117
4.1.6 SPECIFIC HEAT 119
4.2 STEAM TABLES 121
4.2.2 SATURATED WATER AND STEAM 121
4.2.3 SUPERHEATED AND SUPERCRITICAL STEAM 121
4.2.4 FURTHER PROPERTIES OF WATER AND STEAM 121
4.2.5 OTHER PROPERTIES 122
4.2.6 H-S TYPE DIAGRAMS/MOLLIER DIAGRAMS 125
4.3 GENERAL ENERGY BALANCE EQUATION 125
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) iv

4.3.1 GENERAL DERIVATION ENERGY BALANCE 125
4.3.2 SPECIFIC ENERGY BALANCE EXAMPLES 127
4.4 ENERGY BALANCES FOR NON-REACTING SYSTEMS 128
4.4.2 HEAT OF FORMATION 129
4.4.3 HEAT OF MIXING 129
4.4.4 HEAT OF VAPORISATION 129
4.4.5 HEAT OF FUSION 130
4.4.6 HEAT OF SUBLIMATION 130
4.4.7 HEAT OF MELTING 130
4.4.8 EVAPORATION VS. BOILING 130
4.5 ENERGY BALANCES FOR REACTING SYSTEMS 130
4.5.1 HEAT OF REACTION 130
4.5.2 HEAT OF COMBUSTION 131
4.6 NON-FLOW PROCESSES 131
4.6.1 JOULE-THOMSON EXPANSION 131
4.7 PRESSURE CHANGES VS. ALTITUDE: 131
PROBLEMS 133
5 FLUID FLOW 136

5.2 PRESSURE DROP 136
5.2.2 GAUGE VS. ABSOLUTE PRESSURE 136
5.2.3 U-TUBE MANOMETER 136
5.3 BUOYANCY 138
5.3.2 ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE 138
5.3.3 FORCE BALANCES 139
5.4 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE 141
5.5 TERMINAL VELOCITY 142
5.5.2 COEFFICIENT OF DRAG, CD 142
5.6 FLOW THROUGH PIPES 143
5.6.1 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW 143
5.6.2 REYNOLDS NUMBER (RE) 144
5.6.3 VISCOSITY 145
5.6.4 DYNAMIC VS. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY 148
5.6.5 HAGEN-POISEUILLE EQUATION 148
5.7 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION 149
5.7.2 DERIVATION USING THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 149
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) v

5.7.3 THERMAL SYSTEMS 150
5.7.4 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 151
5.7.5 SIPHONING 156
5.8 FRICTION FACTOR 159
5.8.1 FINDING F 160
5.8.2 BENDS, VALVES, FITTINGS AND CONSTRICTIONS 163
5.9 FANNING VS. DARCY FRICTION FACTORS 167
5.10 FRICTION FACTOR APPROXIMATIONS 167
PROBLEMS 169
6 PUMPING 175

6.2 PUMPS 175
6.2.1 RECIPROCATING PUMP 176
6.2.2 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP 176
6.2.3 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 177
6.3 FLUID HEAD 177
6.4 MANUFACTURES’ PUMP CURVES 177
6.5 SYSTEM CURVES 178
6.6 GEOMETRICALLY SIMILAR PUMPS 179
6.7 PUMPS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL 181
6.7.1 PUMPS IN SERIES 181
6.7.2 PUMPS IN PARALLEL 183
6.8 CAVITATION 187
6.9 PRESSURE CHANGE ALONG A PUMPED SYSTEM 187
6.10 NETT POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH) 189
PROBLEMS 192
7 FLOW MEASUREMENT 199

7.2 FLOW THROUGH A CONSTRICTION 199
7.2.1 ORIFICE METER 200
7.3 FLOW THROUGH A VARIABLE AREA METER 207
7.3.1 ROTAMETER 207
PROBLEMS 213
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) vi

List of Tables
Table 3.1: Typical thermal conductivities ............................................................................................ 52
Table 3.2: Examples of contact resistance values................................................................................ 88
Table 5.1: Examples of drag coefficients (Cd) .................................................................................... 142
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Graphical representation of Piecewise Constant Interpolation (Part 1) .............................. 1
Figure 1.2: Graphical representation of Piecewise Constant Interpolation (Part 2).............................. 2
Figure 1.3: Graphical representation of Piecewise Constant Interpolation (Part 3).............................. 2
Figure 1.4: Graphical representation of linear interpolation................................................................. 3
Figure 1.5: Graphical representation of double linear interpolation .................................................... 4
Figure 1.6: Graphical representation of Polynomial Interpolation (Part 1) ........................................... 6
Figure 1.7: Graphical representation of Polynomial Interpolation (Part 2) ........................................... 7
Figure 1.8: Graphical representation of Spline Interpolation (Part 1) ................................................... 7
Figure 1.9: Graphical representation of Spline Interpolation (Part 2) ................................................... 7
Figure 1.10: Graphical representation of Spline Interpolation (Part 3) ................................................. 8
Figure 1.11: Graphical representation of linear extrapolation .............................................................. 9
Figure 1.12: Graphical representation for bisection method (Part 1) ................................................. 11
Figure 1.13: Graphical representation for bisection method (Part 2) ................................................. 12
Figure 1.14: Graphical representation for Regula-falsi root finding method (Part 1) ......................... 13
Figure 1.15: Graphical representation for Regula-falsi root finding method (Part 2) ......................... 14
Figure 1.16: Graphical representation for Newton Raphson root finding method ............................. 17
Figure 1.17: Situation when Newton-Raphson is not practical ........................................................... 20
Figure 1.18: Screenshot of the Goal Seek tool in MS-Excel ................................................................. 20
Figure 1.19: Screenshot of the Solver tool in MS-Excel ....................................................................... 21
Figure 2.1: Batch process. No material entering or exiting. ............................................................... 31
Figure 2.2: Continuous reactor. Both an inlet and outlet. .................................................................. 32
Figure 2.3: Semi-batch process. In this example, only an inlet. .......................................................... 32
Figure 2.4: Simple representation of a mass balance without reaction ............................................. 35
Figure 2.5: Simple representation of a mass balance with reaction................................................... 36
Figure 2.6: Simple representation of a mass balance with reaction and recycle ............................... 36
Figure 2.7: Simple representation of a mass balance with reaction, recycle and purge .................... 37
Figure 2.8: Simple representation of co-current cascade system with three units ............................ 37
Figure 2.9: Simple representation of counter current cascade system with three units ................... 37
Figure 3.1: Conduction – heat moves from the hot end to the cold end of a metal pole ................... 48
Figure 3.2: Convection – movement of water as it heats in a pot ....................................................... 49
Figure 3.3: Thermal conductivities of various materials ...................................................................... 53
Figure 3.4: Some examples of fins: Rectangular, Pins, Triangular, Parabolic, Annular. ....................... 90
Figure 3.5: Graphical representation of a rectangular fin protruding from a wall .............................. 91
Figure 3.6: Graphical representation of a circular pin protruding from a wall .................................... 91
Figure 3.7: Plate and frame heat exchanger (metal plates transfer heat between two fluids)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plate_frame_1.svg) ........................................................ 96
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) vii

Figure 3.8: Passive heat sink on a motherboard (metal pins act as fins to allow for cooling)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Harumphy.dg965.heatsink.jpg) ...................................... 96
Figure 3.9: Typical radiator found in a car (liquid inside the mechanism allows for conductive cooling
despite the contradictory naming)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Automobile_radiator.jpg) .............................................. 96
Figure 3.10: Various cooling tower designs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_tower) ............. 97
Figure 3.11: Double pipe heat exchanger (one pass tube side; one pass shell side; no baffles)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Double-Pipe_Heat_Exchanger.png) ............................... 97
Figure 3.12: Shell and tube heat exchanger (one pass tube side; one pass shell side; with baffles)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Straight-tube_heat_exchanger_1-pass.png) .................. 97
Figure 3.13: Shell and tube heat exchanger (two pass tube side; one pass shell side; with baffles)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Straight-tube_heat_exchanger_2-pass.png) .................. 98
Figure 3.14: U-tube heat exchanger (two pass tube side; one pass shell side; with baffles)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:U-tube_heat_exchanger.png) ........................................ 98
Figure 3.15: Temperature profile through a co-current heat exchanger ............................................ 98
Figure 3.16: Temperature profile through a co-current heat exchanger ............................................ 99
Figure 5.1: Nomograph for various gasses (Perry) ............................................................................ 145
Figure 5.2: Viscosity for various chemicals as a function of temperature (unknown source) ........... 147
Figure 5.3: Viscosity is a function of force (unknown source) ........................................................... 148
Figure 5.4: Fanning Friction factor chart ........................................................................................... 160
Figure 5.5: Roughness chart for friction factor chart......................................................................... 162
Figure 5.6: Le/D values for friction factor calculations ...................................................................... 165
Figure 6.1: Flow as obtained using a reciprocating pump ................................................................. 176
Figure 6.2: Centrifugal Pump ............................................................................................................. 177
Figure 6.3: Example of a pump curve as supplied by the manufacturer ........................................... 178
Figure 6.4: Example of a system curve .............................................................................................. 178
Figure 6.5: Pumps in series ................................................................................................................ 181
Figure 6.6: Pump curve for 2 pumps in series ................................................................................... 182
Figure 6.7: Pump curve for infinite number of pumps in series ........................................................ 182
Figure 6.8: Pumps in parallel ............................................................................................................. 183
Figure 6.9: Pump curve for 2 pumps in parallel ................................................................................. 183
Figure 6.10: Pump curve for infinite number of pumps in parallel.................................................... 183
Figure 6.11: Pump curve for different sized pumps; added in series ................................................ 184
Figure 6.12: Pump curve for different sized pumps; added in parallel.............................................. 184
Figure 6.13: Velocity profile across a pumping system ..................................................................... 188
Figure 6.14: Pressure profile across a pumping system assuming no friction ................................... 188
Figure 6.15: Pressure profile across a pumping system (including friction) ...................................... 189
Figure 6.16: Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH) ................................................................................ 189
Figure 7.1: CD graph for Orifice meters .............................................................................................. 203
Figure 7.2: CD graph for Rotameters .................................................................................................. 210
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) viii

List of Examples
Example 1.1: Interpolation for internal energy of water at different temperatures and constant
pressure ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Example 1.2: Linear interpolation to find specific volume ..................................................................... 5
Example 1.4: Regula Falsi (1) ............................................................................................................... 15
Example 1.5: Regula Falsi (2) ............................................................................................................... 15
Example 1.6: Newton Raphson – single solution ................................................................................. 18
Example 1.7: Newton Raphson – multiple solutions ............................................................................ 18
Example 1.8: Vapour pressure of 1-chlorotetradecane ....................................................................... 29
Example 1.9: Internal energy of water ................................................................................................ 29
Example 1.10: Newton-Raphson for a function involving e ................................................................. 29
Example 1.11: Enthalpy of steam at 17 bar ......................................................................................... 29
Example 1.12: Newton Raphson on a cubic function ........................................................................... 30
Example 1.13: Newton Raphson on a function with a natural log ...................................................... 30
Example 1.14: Newton Raphson on a function with e to the power of x ............................................. 30
Example 2.1: Steady state vs unsteady state ....................................................................................... 33
Example 2.3: ........................................................................................................................................ 36
Example 2.8: Ink in a tank .................................................................................................................... 38
Example 2.9: Combustion in a furnace ................................................................................................ 42
Example 2.10: Flow in a river ............................................................................................................... 42
Example 2.11: Formation of milk of lime ............................................................................................. 43
Example 2.12: Solid phase reaction with no recycle ............................................................................ 43
Example 2.13: Distillation of water and ethanol ................................................................................. 43
Example 2.14: Production of ethylene ................................................................................................. 43
Example 2.15: Production of Ammonia – Single Reactor and Single Separator .................................. 44
Example 2.16: Chlorination of ethane – Single Reactor and Multiple Reactions ................................. 44
Example 2.17: Manufacturing of ethylene oxide –single reactor, single reaction ............................... 44
Example 2.18: Mass balance with a reaction for removing impurities ................................................ 45
Example 2.19: Vibrating screen separator ........................................................................................... 45
Example 2.20: Formation of milk of lime ............................................................................................. 46
Example 2.21: Manufacturing of ethylene oxide –single reactor, single reaction ............................... 47
Example 3.1: Keeping a cup of coffee warm ........................................................................................ 50
Example 3.2: Conduction through a single slab ................................................................................... 54
Example 3.3: Conduction through two slabs ....................................................................................... 56
Example 3.4: Conduction through multiple layers ............................................................................... 59
Example 3.5: Conduction through a cylinder ....................................................................................... 62
Example 3.6: Conduction through a sphere ......................................................................................... 62
Example 3.7: Conduction when area is not constant ........................................................................... 63
Example 3.8: Conduction through irregular shape (1) ......................................................................... 64
Example 3.9: Conduction with variable conductive heat transfer coefficient (1) ................................ 66
Example 3.10: Conduction with variable conductive heat transfer coefficient (2) .............................. 66
Example 3.11: Conduction through an irregular shape (2) .................................................................. 69
Example 3.12: Conduction through an irregular shape (3) .................................................................. 69
Example 3.13: Convective heat transfer .............................................................................................. 72
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) ix

Example 3.14: Conduction and convection through a furnace wall..................................................... 74
Example 3.15: ...................................................................................................................................... 77
Example 3.16: ...................................................................................................................................... 77
Example 3.17: Conduction and convection through a cylinder ............................................................ 80
Example 3.18: Convective heat transfer, with conduction, across multiple layers (overall heat transfer
coefficient) ........................................................................................................................................... 84
Example 3.19: Radiative heat transfer ................................................................................................ 95
Example 3.20: Heat exchanger – log mean temperature vs. temperature difference ....................... 103
Example 3.21: Heat exchanger – log mean temperature undefined ................................................. 103
Example 3.22: Heat generation due to an electrical current ............................................................. 105
Example 3.23: Non-steady state heat transfer through sphere......................................................... 107
Example 3.24: [MCQ] Conduction: Definition of A ............................................................................. 110
Example 3.25: [MCQ] Definition of thermal insulator ....................................................................... 110
Example 3.26: [MCQ] Definition of 𝒒 ................................................................................................. 110
Example 3.27: [MCQ] Conduction: Proportionality ............................................................................ 110
Example 3.28: [MCQ] Units of k ......................................................................................................... 110
Example 3.29: [MCQ] Conduction through the walls of a cylinder .................................................... 110
Example 3.30: [MCQ] Heat transfer equipment ................................................................................ 110
Example 3.31: [MCQ] Heat exchanger: Phase change....................................................................... 110
Example 3.32: [MCQ] Overall heat transfer coefficient ..................................................................... 110
Example 3.33: Heat transfer around a pipe ....................................................................................... 110
Example 3.34: Heat loss and viscosity effects .................................................................................... 111
Example 3.35: Heat transfer through composite slab ....................................................................... 111
Example 3.36: Heat transfer equipment ............................................................................................ 111
Example 3.37: Shell and tube heat exchanger .................................................................................. 112
Example 3.38: Counter current heat exchanger ................................................................................ 112
Example 3.39: Counter-current heat exchanger ................................................................................ 112
Example 3.40: Heat transfer down a length of rod............................................................................ 112
Example 3.41: .................................................................................................................................... 113
Example 3.42: Temperature distribution through a solid conical section .......................................... 114
Example 3.43: Heat transfer through truncated cone ....................................................................... 114
Example 4.3: Stream enthalpy at standard conditions ...................................................................... 118
Example 4.4: Stream enthalpy at standard conditions ...................................................................... 120
Example 4.5: Using steam tables (I)................................................................................................... 122
Example 4.6: Using steam tables (II).................................................................................................. 123
Example 4.7: Using interpolation in steam tables ............................................................................. 123
Example 4.9: ...................................................................................................................................... 128
Example 4.23: Understanding energy ................................................................................................ 133
Example 4.24: Potential energy of a gas in a piston .......................................................................... 133
Example 4.25: Water from a waterfall .............................................................................................. 133
Example 4.26: Nitrogen cooled in a closed vessel.............................................................................. 134
Example 4.27: Heat loss in a closed system with work ...................................................................... 134
Example 4.28: Specific volume from enthalpy calculation ................................................................. 134
Example 4.29: Labelling enthalpy-pressure diagram for water ......................................................... 134
Example 4.30: Steam table calculations involving interpolation ....................................................... 134
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) x
Example 4.31: Internal energy and enthalpy over phase change ...................................................... 135
Example 5.1: ...................................................................................................................................... 140
Example 5.2: ...................................................................................................................................... 140
List of Excel templates

Excel template 1.1: Bisection method .................................................................................................. 12
List of Videos
Video 1.1: Interpolation (YouTube) ....................................................................................................... 1
Video 1.2: Linear interpolation (YouTube) ............................................................................................ 3
Video 1.3: Double interpolation (YouTube) ........................................................................................... 5
Video 1.4: Linear extrapolation (YouTube) ............................................................................................ 9
Video 1.5: Root finding – Direct substitution (YouTube) ..................................................................... 10
Video 1.6: Root finding – Regula Falsi (YouTube) ................................................................................ 15
Video 1. 7: Root finding – Newton Raphson (YouTube) ...................................................................... 18
Video 2.1: Mass balance – General equation (YouTube) ..................................................................... 35
Video 2.2: Mass balance – Ink in a tank example (YouTube) ............................................................... 39
Video 3.3: Heat transfer – Introduction (YouTube) ............................................................................. 49
Video 3.4: Heat transfer – Conduction through slabs (YouTube) ........................................................ 58
Video 3.5: Heat transfer – Conduction through cylinders (YouTube).................................................. 62
Video 3.6: Heat transfer – Parallel configurations (YouTube) ............................................................. 88
Video 3.7: Heat transfer – Conduction through slabs (YouTube) ........................................................ 94
Video 3.8: Heat transfer – Heat exchangers introduction (YouTube) ................................................. 99
Video 3.9: Heat transfer – Heat transfer around a pipe (YouTube) ................................................... 111
Video 3.10: Heat transfer – Counter current heat exchanger (YouTube)........................................... 112
Video 4.1: Intensive vs extensive properties (YouTube).................................................................... 115
Video 4.2: Energy balance – Introduction (YouTube) ........................................................................ 119
Video 4.3: Energy balance – Steam tables (Part 1) (YouTube).......................................................... 121
Video 4.4: Energy balance – Steam tables (Part 2) (YouTube).......................................................... 122
Video 4.5: Energy balance – Mollier diagrams (YouTube) ................................................................ 125
Video 4.6: Energy balance – General equation (YouTube) ............................................................... 128
Video 4.7: Energy balance – Heat of mixing (YouTube) .................................................................... 129
Video 4.8: Energy balance – Heat of reaction (YouTube) ................................................................. 130
Video 4.9: Energy balance – Joule Thomson expansion (YouTube) .................................................. 131
Video 5.1: Fluid flow – U-tube manometer (YouTube) ..................................................................... 138
Video 5.2: Fluid flow – Laminar vs turbulent flow (YouTube)........................................................... 143
Video 5.3: Fluid flow – Reynolds number (YouTube)........................................................................ 144
Video 5.4: Fluid flow – Fanning friction factor (YouTube) ................................................................ 160
Video 5.5: Fluid flow – Pipe roughness (YouTube) ........................................................................... 161
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xi

List of terms
Accumulation A build-up (particularly of material) due to a non-steady-state scenario.
Adiabatic No heat transfer/loss between the system and the surroundings.
Adiabatic flame temperature Temperature of combustion products if no heat is lost in the process.
Advection Transport due to bulk movement.
Agitation Mixing by mechanical means, e.g., stirring.
Asphyxiant Non-toxic gas that reduces/displaces oxygen concentration and can lead to
suffocation and death.
Atomic weight Mass of an atom relative to a single carbon-12 atom.
Autoignition temperature Lowest temperature at which a substance will spontaneously ignite
Azeotrope Mixture of two or more liquids whose proportions cannot be altered by
simple distillation.
Balance, Energy At steady state, the total energy (energy, work, heat) entering a system
equals the energy leaving.
Balance, Material (Mass) At steady state, the total mass entering a system equals the mass leaving
Balance, Momentum Conservation of momentum.
Pressure, Barometric Pressure because of the air around us – atmospheric pressure.
Basis The amount or flow rate of a process streams against which all other flows
are calculated.
Basis, Dry Basis ignoring the presence of water, for the purpose of calculation only.
Basis, Wet Basis including the presence of water.
Batch System with no material inputs or outputs during processing.
Berm Raised barrier separating two areas acting as a border in catching spills,
erosion control, reducing noise pollution and other applications.
Bernoulli's Equation Principle of fluid flow where an increase in velocity of a fluid will result
in a decrease in pressure or potential energy.
BLEVE Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion.
Boiler Equipment used to raise the temperature of a liquid to above its boiling
point.
Boiling Rapid vaporisation of a liquid; the temperature at which the vapour
pressure equals that of the surrounding atmosphere.
Bourdon Gauge Pressure indicator consisting of a coiled metal tube that straightens under
pressure to indicate gauge pressure.
Bubble Cap Column Type of tray with an inverted cap over a hole in a plate, allowing liquid to
remain held and vapours to contact as part of a distillation setup.
Bubble Point The temperature/pressure at which boiling starts as a liquid mixture is
heated.
Bund Wall around a vessel to contain any potential spills.
Buoyancy The upward force exerted on an object placed in a fluid.
Bypass A set of pipes that redirect the flow around a unit.
Carcinogen A substance capable of causing cancer.
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xii

Cascade Set of similar stages, one after the other, in an industrial facility.
Clapeyron equation Equation relating the gradient of a reaction line on a phase diagram to
fundamental thermodynamic properties.
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation Relationship between the pressure and temperature for conditions
of equilibrium between two phases.
Combustion Burning of material to produce heat/energy and (ideally) carbon dioxide,
water and other waste products.
Concentration The relative amount of one substance within a mixture.
Conduction, Electrical A material’s ability to allow for the movement of electrical current.
Conduction, Thermal Heat transfer with no movement.
Conductivity A material’s ability to conduct heat or electricity.
Constructed wetland Man-made structure providing natural ecological setting, often to purify
water.
Convection, Thermal Heat transfer due to movement.
Conversion Fraction or percentage change.
Cooling Tower Unit to capture cooled water after heat exchange lowering the
temperature of another stream.
Critical state The temperature and pressure above which a substance cannot exist in two
distinct phases.
Crystallisation Process in which dissolved matter converts to a solid with structured form.
Cycle, Carnot Theoretical ideal thermodynamic cycle (isothermal expansion, isentropic
expansion, isothermal compression, adiabatic reversible compression).
Cycle, Refrigeration One of various thermodynamic heating or cooling cycles (vapor
compression, vapor adsorption, gas, Stirling, Carnot or reversed Carnot
cycles).
Cycle, Stirling Thermodynamic cycle – isothermal heat addition (expansion), isochoric
heat removal, isothermal heat removal (compression), isochoric heat
addition.
Decant To pour off a lighter liquid without disturbing sediment or lower liquid
layers.
Degrees of Freedom A numerical determination of the feasibility of solving a given material or
energy balance.
Density Mass per unit volume of a material.
Dew Point Temperature/pressure at which condensation starts as a vapour mixture is
cooled.
Diffusion Mass transfer due to random movement.
Distillation column A unit using the different volatilities of liquids to separate a mixture over
several trays.
Dry Ice Solid carbon dioxide.
Efficiency Quality of producing a desired product by using less resources, resulting
in the production process being less costly.
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xiii

Work, electrical Work done by an electric field in moving a charged particle from one point
to another.
Endothermic Reaction absorbing energy (heat) from its surroundings.
Energy Quantitative property measuring the capacity to do work.
Energy, Electrical Energy concerned with electricity.
Energy, Internal Energy at a molecular level due to chemical forces, pressure, and
temperature
Energy, Potential Energy due to relative height.
Energy, Sound Energy formed by vibrating sound waves.
Enthalpy Energy (heat) content of a system, relative to a basis, at constant pressure
Enthalpy departure Difference in enthalpy between a real and ideal gas at a constant
temperature and pressure.
Entropy Degree of disorder (randomness) in a system, representing an
unavailability of a system’s thermal energy for conversion into mechanical
work.
Equations of state Relating the value and concept of pressure, temperature, and volume of a
certain substance in the thermodynamic equilibrium.
Equilibrium The state of a system where competing influences cancel each other
resulting in no net change.
Evaporation Vaporisation on the surface of a liquid as it changes to a gas phase.
Excess Surplus to what is needed.
Excess air Extra air not used in the process.
Exothermic A reaction that releases energy (heat) to its surroundings.
Explosion A rapid increase in volume and release of energy, often accompanied with
an increase in temperature, pressure or both.
Fail safe Inherent design responding resulting in no (minimal) harm upon failure.
Fermentation Process where carbohydrates are broken to acid or alcohols through
anaerobic metabolism of microorganisms.
Filter Device or the process of separating two different states of matter.
Fin fan cooler A type of heat exchanger that uses air to cool.
Fire The product of combustion resulting in heat and light.
Fire, Jet Fire formed at the point of high-pressure gas escaping a vessel.
Fire, Pool Fire formed due to liquid spill.
Flammability The ability of a substance to burn and cause combustion (fire).
Flash point Minimal temperature at which a liquid gives off a vapour to form an
ignitable mixture in the air.
Floatation Hydrometallurgical separation process based on hydrophilic/hydrophobic
properties.
Fluidised bed Upward movement of a fluid through solid particles, such that the solids
behave as a fluid.
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xiv

Footprint, Carbon Total carbon dioxide equivalent released because of a product, process, or
service (individual, organisation, or community).
Footprint, Nitrogen Total amount of reactive nitrogen released to environment by
consumption of resources.
Footprint, Water Measure of real and virtual water used; given as blue-, green, and grey
waters.
Force Any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an
object.
Friction factor Measure of the resistance to flow through a pipe.
Furnace Unit in which material is heated to extreme temperatures.
Gas Phase of matter. Material occupies entire container it is in.
Generator Unit that converts mechanical energy, into electrical energy.
Gibb’s Free Energy The measurement of useful maximum work that can be obtained in a
thermodynamic or closed system at a constant temperature and pressure.
Heat Flow of energy due to a temperature difference; from hot to cold.
Heat capacity Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object. Sometimes
called specific heat (relative to 1 kg), or specific heat capacity.
Heat capacity, Constant pressure Heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp).
Heat capacity, Constant volume Heat capacity at constant volume (Cv).
Heat capacity, Specific The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
material.
Heat Exchanger Equipment used to heat (or cool) one stream with another.
Heat of Combustion Energy needed for combusting a solid.
Heat of Condensation The energy (heat) released when a substance is converted from gas to
liquid.
Heat of Formation Energy needed when a compound is formed from component elements.
Heat of Fusion Enthalpy difference between solid and liquid phase change.
Heat of Reaction Enthalpy when components completely react.
Heat of Solution Energy absorbed or released when a substance is dissolved in solute.
Heat of sublimation Energy needed to convert a solid directly into a gas.
Heating Value, Lower (LHV) The amount of heat released by combustion of specified amount of
it
Helmholtz Constant Helmholtz free energy. The amount of work that can be obtained from a
closed system at constant temperature and constant volume.
Henry's law At constant temperature, the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas in equilibrium with the
liquid
Humidity The quantity of water vapor present in a gas or atmosphere.
Humidity, Absolute Humidity is the amount of water vapor in air. absolute humidity is the
mass of water vapor over the mass of dry air in a given volume of air at a
certain temperature.
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xv

Humidity, Relative
Ideal process Process that is at a steady state (i.e output is equal to input ).The system
(where the process takes place) is isolated(no energy is getting out or into
the system)
Impellor A component used to move or mix a fluid by rotation.
Insulation Prevention of thermal conduction through a material
Irreversible Process or reaction that cannot be undone or taken back to its initial state.
Isobaric Having the same pressure
Isochoric Having the same volume
Isohume Line of constant humidity
Isometric Having the same measurement
Isopleth Line of constant height
Isothermal Having the same temperature
Joule Thomson Expansion A gaseous expansion which is assumed to occur so fast that no heat
is lost and enthalpy before and after remains constant
Energy, Kinetic Energy due to the motion of a system
Kinetics The rate at which chemical reactions occur
Latent heat heat required for a substance to change it state of matter from solid to
liquid(or to gas) or from liquid to gas, without any changes in temperature.
Life-cycle Assessment Cradle-to-grave ecological assessment of solid, liquid, gaseous impacts of a
process/service/product
Liquid Phase of matter. Material fills the container it occupies
Manometer Device to measure pressure differences
Mass A property of matter that measures the amount contained in the material
(kilogram)
Mass fraction The amount of mass of one substance relative to a total mixture
Mass transfer The movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an
area of lower concentration
Materials of construction The objects used to build
Work, Mechanical Mechanical work is the amount of energy that is transferred by a force. It
is a scalar quantity with SI units of joules.
Membrane A thin film used to separate solutions from each other
Metallurgy Operations involving metals and minerals, including the extraction from
ore, processing, and refining (extractive metallurgy) and the manipulation
of physical characteristics (physical metallurgy) .
Metallurgy, Hydro- branch of extractive metallurgy that makes use of aqueous solutions to
extract metals from their ores
Metallurgy, Pyro- A branch of extractive metallurgy that makes use of very high
temperatures(flames) to extract metals from their ores
Metallurgy, Extractive A branch of metallurgy responsible for removing metals from their ores
Metallurgy, Physical The process of turning metals into alloys
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xvi

Mixing Process of combining two or more components into a homogeneous
mixture through the use of a mixer.
Mixing point Point in a process where two or more process streams combine to form a
new stream without a chemical reaction taking place.
Molal The amount of solute present per unit mass of solution, measured in moles
per kilogram
Molar The amount of solute present in a unit volume of solution, measured in
moles per litre
Mole A unit of measurement consisting of 6.02214076×1023 particles. It's used in
the measurement of chemical substances.
Mole fraction It is the ratio of the moles of the target component to the ratio of the moles
of all components in the mixture.
Molecular Weight The mass of one mole of a substance. Molecular weight of a pure
compound is determined by calculating the sum of the atomic weights of
all atoms in the chemical or molecular formula of that compound.The
values of atomic weight assigned to each atom are based on the weight of
Carbon-12 as a standard
Non-Steady State At any given point, any process variable does not remain constant with
time. Also called un-steady state or transient state
Nozzle A cylindrical spout of varying cross sectional area placed at the end of a
pipe to control the direction and characteristics of a fluid flow stream
Orifice plate Thin plate with a hole, placed in a pipe to measure flow rate, reduce
pressure, restrict flow of fluids
Oven A thermally insulated chamber that is used for heating, baking and drying
of a substance.
Phase diagram Graphic illustrating different phases of a substance under different
conditions of temperature and pressure
Phase transition The change between solid, liquid and gas (phase) of a substance
Poison Any chemical that can result in harm or death when consumed, touched
or inhaled.
Power The rate at which energy is transferred or converted per unit time.
Prandtl number Dimensionless parameter relating the ratio of momentum diffusivity to
thermal diffusivity
Precipitation The formation of a separable solid from an aqueous solution
Pressure The force applied on an object over an area
Pressure, Absolute Absolute pressure is the pressure that is measured relative to a perfect
vacuum which has zero pressure. It can be expressed as the sum of the
gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Pressure, Barometric
Pressure, Gauge
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xvii

Pressure, Partial The pressure a gas would exert on the walls of a container if it were the
only gas present in the container.
Pressure, Relative Atmospheric pressure fixed to sea-level conditions
Process Safety The precaution taken during the performing of a process to ensure the
safety of the personnel involved.
Pump, centrifugal Device to increase pressure, and thus flow, in a fluid by the use of a
rotating impeller.
Purge Stream in which a portion of the recycle is withdrawn to avoid
accumulation of undesired material.
Pyrometallurgy The process in which minerals are extracted from their ore using high
temperature.
Radiation Heat transfer due to electromagnetic waves
Raoult's Law The partial pressure of each component in a mixture equals the vapor
pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the
mixture
Reactor Process unit in which a reaction occurs
Reactor, CSTR Continuous stirred tank reactor: Steady state, ideal reaction unit where
composition is identical throughout.
Reactor, PBR Packed bed reactor: Tubular reactor filled with solid catalyst, most often
used in gas phase reactions
Reactor, PFR Plug flow reactor: Tubular reactor with distinct inlet and outlet, modelled
as an ideal reactor based on turbulent flow patterns
Recycle Use of processed (waste) materials back into new materials
Reverse Osmosis Process where a solvent is forced from a high solute concentration through
a semi-permeable membrane to a lower concentration by applying
pressure
Reversible Reaction which can proceed in both the forward and reverse directions
Reynolds Number Numerical indication of the level of turbulence in a system
Rotameter Tapered device with a float inside to measure flow rates in fluids
Saturated A solution that is not able to absorb more of a given substance
Saturated steam Water vapour that is in vapour/liquid equilibrium and is 100% vapour
phase.
Saturated water Liquid water that is in vapour/liquid equilibrium and is 100% liquid phase.
Sedimentation Process by which fine particles settle in a liquid
Selectivity the ratio of number of moles of the desired product to the total number of
moles of products
Sensible heat The energy needed to change the temperature of a material, from one
system to another, while the phase of the material remains constant.
Separator Unit that splits the components of a feed stream into two or more streams
that have one unique characteristics which is that all the output streams
have the same composition of components.
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xviii

Solid Phase of matter. Material is rigid and keeps its shape
Energy, Sound Energy transfer in pascals/dB by mechanically vibrating waves(audible)
which propogate through a medium i.e. air,water
Specific Gravity Density relative to that of water
Speed How fast something moves. Distance divided by time
Splitter Unit to divide a stream into two or more streams
Standard conditions standard set of conditions for experimental measurements set by
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry(IUPAC),such as
standard temperature and pressure (273.15K and 1atm) and standard state
conditions(298.15K and 1atm).
Standard state a reference point in thermodynamics for properties such as change in;
enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy with standard pressure
(101.3kPa) and standard temperature (25 degrees Celsius)
State the condition or behaviour of a system/process that can be defined and
described by a set of properties or variables.
Steady State At any given point, all process variables remain constant with time
Steam Tables Data of enthalpy, internal energy, specific volume and related data for
water at high temperatures and pressures
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant Physical constant of proportionality that defines the power per unit
area that is radiated by an object (for example a black body) as a function
of its thermodynamic temperature.
Cycle, Stirling a highly efficient thermodynamic cycle in which air or an inert gas is
compressed and expanded.
Specific heat See heat capacity
Stoichiometry the calculations of the amount of reactants and the amount of products
using a balanced chemical equation
Sub-cooled At a temperature below the freezing point of a material
Sublime The physical change of state of a substance from a solid state to a gas state
without passing through the liquid state.
Supercritical fluid Any substance at a pressure and temperature above its critical point, where
distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist.
Superheated At a temperature above the boiling point of a material
System The volume or mass of interest inside the boundary
System, Closed System where mass does not enter/leave, but energy can
System, Isolated System where neither mass nor energy can enter or leave
System, Open System where both mass and energy can enter or leave
Tearing When a set of n equations in n unknowns that describe a cyclic system
becomes coupled, i.e., as each relation involves more of the unknown
variables, tearing (a computational iterative scheme) can be used
Temperature a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses hot and cold.
Temperature Lapse Rate Change of temperature with altitude for the stationary atmosphere
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xix

Terminal Velocity The resulting speed when the force of drag equals the force of gravity –
maximum possible speed at which an object will fall
Theoretical air (oxygen) Theoretical oxygen is the amount (moles or molar flow rate) of oxygen
needed for complete combustion, and theoretical air is the amount of air
that contains theoretical oxygen.
Thermodynamics, First Law The total energy in an isolated system is constant. Energyin = Energyout
Thermodynamics, Second Law Entropy cannot decrease
Thermodynamics, Third Law It is not possible to achieve an absolute zero temperature
Thermodynamics, Zeroth Law If two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system then they
are in thermal equilibrium with each other
Toxicity minimum dosage amount of a chemical substance needed to
cause potential harm to a living organism
Triple Point The temperature and pressure at which matter can exist as a solid, liquid
and gas
Turbine A device that converts kinetic (mechanical) energy of a fluid into electrical
energy.
Units Specific values of dimensions that have been defined by conventions,
customs, or law. A measurable or countable quantity always has a
numerical value and a unit.
Units, Imperial Non-metric weights and measurements, that include ounces, pounds,
inch, foot and yard
Units, SI The International System of Units is a scientific technique used to
communicate quantities of natural phenomena. Examples are newton,
coulomb, watt, etc.
Universal Gas Constant Denoted by the symbol R, used in the ideal gas law, having a value of
8.31441 J/mol.K.
Vacuum System having no material in it.
Valve A mechanical device used to start, stop, direct or regulate the flow,
temperature and pressure of fluids using a movable parts.
Valve, Relief A safety device used to regulate pressure build-up in a system to prevent
equipment failure.
Valve, Gate
Vaporisation Conversion of a substance from liquid or solid phase into gaseous (vapor).
Unlike evaporation vaporization occurs at a point greater than the boiling
point hence it requires heat.
Variable In mathematics, we assign a symbol, e.g. x, to represent an unknown
quantity. We call this unknown quantity a variable as its value can change.
Variable, Extensive Properties of a material that depend on the magnitude such as mass
Variable, Intensive The element of a system which can change or vary and does not depend
on the size of system e.g. density, temperature, and others.
Velocity The rate of change, or speed, of an object in a given direction.
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xx

Viscosity Measure of resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear
stress or tensile stress.
Viscosity, Kinematic The measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow under gravitational
forces.
Viscosity, Dynamic A measure of the internal friction between the molecules of a fluid which
enables the fluid to resist flow or deformation in shape.
Volume The space that something occupies
Volume, Specific Volume relative to 1 kg of its mass.
Watson's Equation
Weight Force acting on an object due to the presence of gravity.
Weir Adjustable barrier built across the width of rivers to raise water levels or
to regulate the flow of water.
Work The product of the force on an object and the displacement in the direction
of the force.
Work, Flow
Work, Shaft The work transferred between continuous system and its surroundings
other than that done by or on the process fluid at system entrance and
exit.
Work, Electrical
Work, Mechanical
Work, Pressure-Volume
Yield The amount of product formed per mole of reactant consumed
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xxi

Numerical methods – Interpolation
1 Numerical methods
1.1 Interpolation
1.1.1 Introduction
Interpolation is a way of estimating values between a given range of data.
Interpolation can be achieved by:

- Piecewise Constant Interpolation;
- Linear Interpolation;
- Polynomial Interpolation;
- Spline Interpolation;
- Other forms of interpolation.
Video 1.1: Interpolation (YouTube)
1.1.2 Piecewise Constant Interpolation

Piecewise constant interpolation (sometimes called “Nearest-neighbor Interpolation”,
“Proximal Interpolation”, or “Point Sampling”) involves a simple technique of assuming the
data value of interest is equal to the data point nearest to it. This is an oversimplification
which in basic problems does not give solutions more valuable than the other techniques
below, but when more complex systems are involved may be of value.
The figure below shows six points (triangles) from a dataset:
Figure 1.1: Graphical representation of Piecewise Constant Interpolation (Part 1)

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) 1
Between each of these data points, individual portions can be distinguished for the x-axis
values closest to these points.
It is then assumed that the y-value in each portion is equal to the data point value in each
of these sub-sections (red lines).
1.1.3 Linear Interpolation

Given a set of values, we need to find an unknown value between a set of two known
values. We know the value of (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), but need to know the y3 value for x3
which lies between x1 and x2.
What is the value of H3, at a given temperature (T3) between the given enthalpy values at
T1 and T2?
Temperature Enthalpy
T1 *
H1*
T3 # H3^
T2* H2*
* Given, e.g., from steam tables
# Value to be used between known values, e.g., from the question
^ Unknown to be calculated

For simplicity, and with no other relationship given, we assume linearity across the system
(Linear Interpolation).
For a graph of Ĥ vs T as above this can be written as:
" ! #!
! "" " # #!
! ""
= 1.1
$! #$" $# #$"
" ! #!
! ""
$% = %
H $&
& . (T% − T& ) + H 1.2
$ ! #$"
This can be seen graphically below.
(T2, Ĥ2)
(T3, Ĥ3)
(T1, Ĥ1)
Figure 1.4: Graphical representation of linear interpolation.
NOTE: Points 1 & 2: Given data. Curve: Unknown function connecting known points. Straight line: Linear
approximation. Point 3: Calculated approximation
Video 1.2: Linear interpolation (YouTube)
It is also possible to have an effective double interpolation – also called bilinear

interpolation.
What is the value of H at P3, T3 (i.e. H7)? Only H at points 1-4 are known.
P H@T1 H@T3 H@T2
P1 H1 H3 = unknown H2

Using the nomenclature as below:

First calculate H3 from T1, H1 and T2, H2 (constant P1).
Next, calculate H6 from T4, H4 and T5, H5 (constant P2).
Finally calculate H7 from H3 and H6.
(T2, Ĥ2)P1
(T3, Ĥ3)P1
(T2, Ĥ5)P2 (T4, Ĥ7)P3

(T1, Ĥ1)P1
(T3, Ĥ6)P2
(T1, Ĥ4)P2
Figure 1.5: Graphical representation of double linear interpolation
NOTE: Outer points: Given data. Curves: Unknown function connecting known points. Straight lines: Linear
approximations. Middle points (top and bottom): Calculated approximations from curves. Centre point:
Linear approximation from previous points
NOTE: It would also have been acceptable to calculate H8 (from H1 and H4) and H9 (from
H2 and H5), as in the table above, and used this data to calculate H7.
Mathematically, it is possible to represent this in a single equation:
$ %$ $ %$" ) %) $ %$ $ %$" )%)"

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ()$ !%$ * 𝑓(𝑥& , 𝑦& ) + )$ * 𝑓(𝑥( , 𝑦& ), ) !%) + ()$ !%$ * 𝑓(𝑥& , 𝑦( ) + )$ * 𝑓(𝑥( , 𝑦( ), ) 1.3
! " ! %$" ! " ! " ! %$" ! %)"
where:
f(_,_): values given at the extremes of the interpolation
x: variables along x-axis
y: variables along y-axis

Video 1.3: Double interpolation (YouTube)
Example 1.1: Interpolation for internal energy of water at different temperatures and constant pressure
Find the internal energy and specific volume for water at:
i) 6 bar and 330°C
ii) 6 bar and 297°C
Given (or from steam tables if not given), for 6 bar:

250°C 300°C 350°C
U [kJ/kg] 2722 2801 2881
vg [m3/kg] 0.3940 0.4344 0.4743
Solution:
i) Internal energy: Linear interpolation between 300 and 330°C
(U300 − U350)/(T300 − T350) = (U300 − U330)/(T300 − T330)
(2801 − 2881)/(300 − 350) = (2801 – U330)/(300 − 330)
U300 = 2849kJ/kg
Specific volume: Linear interpolation between 300 and 330°C

(vg300 – vg350)/(T300−T350) = (vg300 − vg330)/(T300 − T330)
(0.4344 − 0.4743)/(300 − 350) = (0.4344 − vg330)/(300 − 330)
vg330 = 0.4583mᶟ/kg
ii) Internal energy: Linear interpolation between 250 and 330°C

(U250 − U300)/(T250 − T300) = (U250 − U297)/(T250 − T297)
(2722 − 2881)/(250 − 300) = (2722 – U297)/(250 − 297)
U297 = 2796kJ/kg
Specific volume: Linear interpolation between 300 and 330°C

(v3250 – vg300)/(T250−T300) = (vg250 − vg297)/(T250 − T297)
(0.3940 − 0.4344)/(250 − 300) = (0.3940 − vg297)/(250 − 297)
vg297 = 0.4320m3/kg
Example 1.2: Linear interpolation to find specific volume

Calculate the specific volume of superheated steam at 8.16 bar and 512°C.
Given, or obtained from steam tables: Specific volume [m3/kg]:

500°C 600°C
8 bar 0.4432 0.5018
9 bar 0.3937 0.4458
Solution:
The specific volume can be determined by the double interpolation formula:
$! %$ $ %$" ) %) $ %$ $ %$" )%)"
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ()
$! %$"
* 𝑓(𝑥& , 𝑦& ) + )$ * 𝑓(𝑥& , 𝑦( ), ) !%) + ()$ !%$ * 𝑓(𝑥( , 𝑦& ) + )$ * 𝑓(𝑥( , 𝑦( ), )
! %$" ! " ! " ! %$" ! %)"
where:
x = Temperature
y = Pressure
f(~,~) = Specific volume
600 − 512 512 − 500 9 − 8.16

𝑣 = /0 7 (0.4432) + 0 7 (0.3937)=
600 − 500 600 − 500 9−8
600 − 512 512 − 500 8.16 − 8
+ /0 7 (0.5018) + 0 7 (0.4458)=
600 − 500 600 − 500 9−8
v = 0.4465 m3/kg
1.1.4 Polynomial Interpolation

Polynomial interpolation is the interpolation of several data points by fitting a polynomial
through these and using the equation obtained to determine the data point of actual
interest.
Figure 1.6: Graphical representation of Polynomial Interpolation (Part 1)
For these points, a single polynomial can be fitted that connects as many points as possible.

Figure 1.7: Graphical representation of Polynomial Interpolation (Part 2)
From this curve, f(x), data points between the original data (triangles) can then be found.
1.1.5 Spline Interpolation

Instead of trying to fit a polynomial to a complete dataset (polynomial interpolation), spline
interpolation divides the dataset into intervals, and fits lower order polynomials to each
section.
Figure 1.8: Graphical representation of Spline Interpolation (Part 1)
For each data point, 5 individual intervals can be obtained between each point.
Using a cubic spline, for interval 1 to interval 5, 5 independent cubic functions can be
obtained, using the datapoints closest to each interval.
Numerical methods – Extrapolation
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d if x Є [0,1]

ex3 + fx2 + gx + h if x Є [1,2]
f(x) = ix + jx + kx + l
3 2
if x Є [2,3]
mx3 + nx2 + ox + p if x Є [3,4]
qx3 + rx2 + sx + t if x Є [4,5] 1.4
1.1.6 Other forms of Interpolation

Other forms of interpolation may include:
- Rational interpolation;
- Trigonometric interpolation;
- Wavelets;
- Whittaker–Shannon interpolation;
- Multivariate interpolation (bi-linear interpolation and bi-cubic interpolation in two
dimensions, and tri-linear interpolation in three dimensions); and
- Hermite interpolation.
1.2 Extrapolation
1.2.1 Introduction
Extrapolation is a way of estimating values beyond a given range of data.
Extrapolation can be achieved by:

- Linear Extrapolation;
- Polynomial Extrapolation;
- Conic Extrapolation;
- French curve Extrapolation;
- Other forms of extrapolation.

Numerical methods – Root Finding
1.2.2 Linear Extrapolation

Instead of needing to find data between two numbers, linear extrapolation requires us to
find a number beyond the given range. Again, we will assume linearity.
" "
$ % = %!! #!" & . (T% − T& ) + H
H $& 1.5
$ #$ ! "
(T3, Ĥ3)
(T2, Ĥ2)
(T1, Ĥ1)
Figure 1.11: Graphical representation of linear extrapolation
NOTE: Points 1 & 2: Given data. Curve: Unknown function connecting known points. Straight line: Linear
approximation. Point 3: Calculated approximation
For confidence in data determined this way we want:

- To use interpolation rather than extrapolation; and
- A small range: since we are assuming a linear relationship between two points where the
actual relationship is NOT linear.
Video 1.4: Linear extrapolation (YouTube)
1.3 Root Finding

1.3.1 Introduction
There will be times when we need to solve an equation, i.e., determine x when y = 0. In
“simple” equations, e.g., “y = mx +c”, y = ax2 + bx +c” and others, there may be direct

methods to solve. However, for more complex equations, a root finding technique may be
needed to. Most of the techniques are iterative in nature, and involve will some error,
depending on the number of iterations performed.
The methods available for root finding could include:

- Direct substitution;
- Bisection method;
- Regula Falsi (false position);
- Secant method;
- ITP (interpolate, truncate and project);
- Newton-Raphson (derivative-based methods);
- MS-Excel based methods; and
- Other forms of root finding.
1.3.2 Direct Substitution

Given an equation, the method to solve via direct substitution is:
1) Rework the equation such that the left-hand side (LHS) contains the unknown
variable ONLY; to the power one. Move everything else to the RHS, which should
also contain at least one occurrence of the unknown variable.
2) Guess a value of the unknown: x0
3) Substitute this value in the right-hand side (RHS) of the equation and calculate the
unknown on the LHS – x1
4) Use this new value to substitute in the right-hand side and again calculate the LHS
value.
5) Repeat the substitution of the x (xn) into the RHS to calculate a new x (xn+1) until
the xn-1 – xn = 0
Video 1.5: Root finding – Direct substitution (YouTube)

1.3.3 Bisection method

Given a continuous function, where the function value of a first x value is positive, and the
function value of a second x value is negative, there must exist a root between the two
points.
The bisection method is a form of a bracketing method of root finding. Two points are
chosen, with successive iterations continually finding a smaller and smaller interval
between each point.
f(x)
+ve
x1
x
x2
-ve
Figure 1.12: Graphical representation for bisection method (Part 1)
Method:
1) Choose arbitrary value x1 à find f(x1)
2) Choose arbitrary value x2 so that f(x2) is the opposite sign of f(x1)
3) Find x3, equal to (x1 + x2)/2
4) Discard either x1 or x2 based on the sign of f(x3). [Keep x3; discard either of x1 or x2 that has
a corresponding f(x1) or f(x2) with the same sign as f(x3)]
5) Repeat the procedure using the two remaining x values until f(xn) = 0 (or as close as possible)
If f(x3) has the same sign as f(x1), discard x1; else discard x2
If x1 is discarded, work with x2 and x3 (replace all x1 with x3)

f(x)
+ve
x1 x3
x
x2
-ve
-ve
Figure 1.13: Graphical representation for bisection method (Part 2)
Excel template 1.1: Bisection method
f(x) = [Function]
Iteration Difference
number xn xn + 1 New xn+2 yn yn + 1 yn + 2 New xn New xn + 1 in x-values
[initial
guess to
give
opposite
[initial signs of yn
1 guess] and yn + 1 ] =(B4+C4)/2 = f(xn ) = f(xn + 1 ) = f(xn + 2 ) =D4 =IF(G4*F4 > 0; B4; C4) =ABS(H4-C4)
2 =H4 =I4 =(B5+C5)/2 = f(xn ) = f(xn + 1 ) = f(xn + 2 ) =D5 =IF(G5*F5 > 0; B5; C5) =ABS(H5-C5)
3 [copy row above and paste]
6 [Repeat for as many rows as needed]
Final [Solution] [Accuracy]
Key:
From the question
User input
Final output
1.3.4 Regula Falsi

Regular falsi, also called the false position, is another form of the bracketing method.
Again, two points are chosen, and the interval between each is made smaller in successive
iterations. Instead of finding the mid-point of the x values, a line connecting the y-values
is obtained and the corresponding x-intercept calculated.

f(x)
+ve
x1
x
x2
-ve
Figure 1.14: Graphical representation for Regula-falsi root finding method (Part 1)
Method:
1) Choose arbitrary value x1 à find f(x1)
2) Choose arbitrary value x2 so that f(x2) is the opposite sign of f(x1)
3) Do linear interpolation between these two points [f(x1) and f(x2)]
4) From the linear interpolation, find x3, the point of intersection with the x-axis à find f(x3)
5) Discard either x1 or x2 based on the sign of f(x3). [Keep x3; discard either of x1 or x2 that has
a corresponding f(x1) or f(x2) with the same sign as f(x3)]
6) Repeat the procedure using the two remaining x values until f(xn) = 0 (or as close as possible)
If f(x3) has the same sign as f(x1), discard x1; else discard x2

f(x)
+ve
x1 x3
x
-ve -ve x2
Figure 1.15: Graphical representation for Regula-falsi root finding method (Part 2)
Linear interpolation:
'()! )#'()" ) '()# )#'()" )
= 1.6
)! #)" )# #)"
But f(x3) = y3 = 0
'()! )#'()" ) #'()" )

∴ = 1.7
)! #)" )# #)"
Solving for x3:

)! #)"
∴ x% − x& = /−f(x& )1 1.8
'()! )#'()" )
)! #)"
∴ x% = /−f(x& )1 + x& 1.9
'() )#'() )
! "
) #)
∴ x% = x& − f(x& ). 2'() !)#'()
"
3 1.10
) ! "
OR
) #)
∴ x% = x& − y& . 2+! #+" 3 1.11
! "
Which can be written as:

) #)
x,-. = x, − y, . 2+*+" #+* 3 1.12
*+" *

Video 1.6: Root finding – Regula Falsi (YouTube)
Example 1.3: Regula Falsi (1)
Find x3 + x – 5 = 0, using Regula Falsi, using starting values of 1 and 2.
Solution:
x1 = 1 f(x1) = -3
x2 = 2 f(x2) = 5
Therefore, we have a positive and a negative function value.
Using Regula Falsi to calculate x3:

𝑥( − 𝑥&
𝑥, = 𝑥& − 𝑦& . ? @
𝑦( − 𝑦&
2−1
𝑥, = 1 − (−3). ? @
5 − (−3)
2−1
𝑥, = 1 − (−3). ? @
5 − (−3)
𝑥, = 1.375
f(x3) = -1.025
Since f(x3) is negative, discard x1 (also negative) and use x2 and x3 to find x4
Replacing x1 with x3 in the formula:

𝑥( − 𝑥,
𝑥- = 𝑥, − 𝑦, . ? @
𝑦( − 𝑦,
2 − 1.375
𝑥- = 1.375 − (−1.025). ? @
5 − (−1.025)
𝑥- = 1.481
f(x4) = -0.271 Discard x3
We ultimately want f(xn) = 0 (or as close as possible within an error range)
Example 1.4: Regula Falsi (2)

! !"$
Using Regula Falsi, find a root for: 𝑓(𝑥) = !"#
+1−
$!

Use starting values of:

a) 0.2 and 0.8
b) -1.5 and -0.5
Solution:
a) Starting from x1 = 0.2 and x2 = 0.8:
x1 = 0.2 f(x1) = 5.25
x2 = 0.8 f(x2) = -2.25
𝑥$ − 𝑥# 0.8 − 0.2
𝑥% = 𝑥# − 𝑦# . , - = 0.2 − 5.25. , - = 0.62
𝑦$ − 𝑦# −2.25 − 5.25
\ discard x1
x4 = 0.6517 f(x4) = 0.1633
\ discard x3 (use x2 and x4)
x5 = 0.6617 f(x5) = 0.0553
x6 = 0.6650 f(x6) = 0.0183
b) Starting from x1 = -1.5 and x2 = -0.5:

x1 = -1.5 f(x1) = 0.4333
x2 = -0.5 f(x2) = -1.1666
𝑥$ − 𝑥# −0.5 − (−1.5)
𝑥% = 𝑥# − 𝑦# . , - = −1.5 − 0.4333. 5 6 = −1.229
𝑦$ − 𝑦# −1.1666 − 0.4333
\ discard x1
x4 = -1.106 f(x4) = 0.121
x5 = -1.049 f(x5) = 0.059
x6 = -1.023 f(x6) = 0.028
We obtain two different solutions, depending on the starting points of x1 and x2

Regula falsi is reliable but it can be a very slow method.
1.3.5 ITP (interpolate, truncate, and project)
1.3.6 Newton-Raphson (derivative based methods)

The Newton method (also called the Newton-Raphson method) is one of several methods
that uses the derivative of the function to obtain a solution for the root.
The Newton-Raphson method starts from an arbitrary guess (x0). It then assumes that the
gradient of the curve at this point can be modeled as a linear line tangential to the curve to
calculate a new x value (x1). This new x is then used to determine a new gradient and linear
approximation line tangential to the curve. This is repeated until a root is found.

f(x)
x2 x0
x1 x
Figure 1.16: Graphical representation for Newton Raphson root finding method
Method:
1) Choose arbitrary value x0
2) Calculate f(x0)
3) Calculate f’(x0)
4) Calculate x1 (assuming a linear tangent line intersecting at y = 0; as show below)
5) Use x1 as new starting point for step (2) above
6) Repeat until f(xn) = 0
+" #'(). )
= f′(x/ ) 1.13
)" #).
But y1 = 0
#'(). )
∴ = f′(x/ ) 1.14
)" #).
'(). )
∴) = f′(x/ ) 1.15
. #)"
'() )
∴ x& = x/ − '0(). ) 1.16
.
OR
'() )
x,-& = x, − '0()* ) 1.17
*
It is a good idea to check that values are smaller in absolute value is successive iterations,
i.e., |f(xn+1)| < |f(xn)|

Video 1. 7: Root finding – Newton Raphson (YouTube)
Example 1.5: Newton Raphson – single solution
Find the root of x3 + x – 5, using Newton Raphson.
Solution:
f(x) = x3 + x – 5
f’(x) = 3x2 + 1
𝑓(𝑥/ )
𝑥/0& = 𝑥/ −
𝑓′(𝑥/ )
x0 = 1 f(x0) = -3 f’(x0) = 4
x1 = 1.75 f(x1) = 2.109375 f’(x1) = 10.1875
x2 = 1.5429448 f(x2) = 0.2162004 f’(x2) = 8.1420358
x3 = 1.5163912 f(x3) = 0.003245 f’(x3) = 7.893266
x4 = 1.5159803 f(x4) = 7.68 × 10-7 f’(x4) = 7.894589
x5 = 1.5159802 f(x5) = 4.26 × 10-14 f’(x5) = 7.8945882
x6 = 1.5159802 f(x6) = 0 f’(x6) = 7.89458815
⸫ x = 1.1516
Example 1.6: Newton Raphson – multiple solutions

$ $%(
Using Newton Raphson, find a root for 𝑓(𝑥) = $%&
+1−
($
Use an initial guess of:
a) 0.2
b) -1.5
c) 2
Solution:
$ $%(
𝑓(𝑥) = $%&
+1− ($
(&)($%&)%(&)($) (&)(($)%(()($%()
𝑓 1 (𝑥) = ($%&)!
− (($)!
1 (𝑥) $%&%$ ($%($0-
𝑓 = ($%&)!
− -$ !

%& &
𝑓 1 (𝑥) = ($%&)! − $ !
4($ )
𝑥/0& = 𝑥/ − 41($# )
#
a)
x0 = 0.2 f(x0) = 5.25 f’(x0) = -26.5625
x1 = 0.397647 f(x1) = 2.354637 f’(x1) = -9.0803
x2 = 0.65696 f(x2) = 0.107055 f’(x2) = -10.8148
x3 = 0.666859 f(x3) = -0.00216 f’(x3) = -11.2591
x4 = 0.666667 f(x4) = -8.7 × 10-7 f’(x4) = -11.25
x5 = 0.666667 f(x5) = -1.4 ×10-14 f’(x5) = -11.25
x6 = 0.666667 f(x6) = 0 f’(x6) = -11.25
⸫ x = 0.666667
b)
x0 = -1.5 f(x0) =0.433333 f’(x0) = -0.60444
x1 = -0.78309 f(x1) = -0.33782 f’(x1) = -1.94524
x2 = -0.95675 f(x2) = -0.05625 f’(x2) = -1.35362
x3 = -0.99831 f(x3) = -0.00212 f’(x3) = -1.25381
x4 = -1 f(x4) = -3.2 × 10-6 f’(x4) = -1.25001
x5 = -1 f(x5) = -7.4 ×10-12 f’(x5) = -1.25
x6 = -1 f(x6) = 0 f’(x6) = -1.25
⸫ x = -1
It is possible that there is more than one solution.
c)
x0 = 2 f(x0) = 3 f’(x0) = -1.25
x1 = 4.4 f(x1) = 2.02139 f’(x1) = -0.13816
x2 = 19.031 f(x2) = 1.608006 f’(x2) = -0.00854
x3 = 294.5214 f(x3) = 1.506802 f’(x3) = -2.3 × 10-5
x4 = 6524.43 f(x4) = 1.500031 f’(x4) = -4.7 × 10-10
x5 = 3.21 × 109 f(x5) = 1.5 f’(x5) = -1.9 × 10-19
x6 = 7.73 × 1018 f(x6) = 1.5 f’(x6) = -3.3 × 10-38
x7 = 4.48 × 1037 f(x7) = 1.5 f’(x7) = 1 × 10-75
x8 = 1.51 × 1075 f(x8) = 1.5 f’(x8) = -9 × 10-151
No solution is found.
The Newton-Raphson method is not useful for finding roots that have very flat gradients
or for graphs with discontinuities.

Figure 1.17: Situation when Newton-Raphson is not practical
Ther also exist other derivative based methods with higher convergence. These include
the Householder and Halley methods.
1.3.7 Secant method

Instead of using the derivate as in the Newton-Raphson method, the secant method uses
two points, and obtains a secant line to find an approximate root.
1.3.8 MS-Excel based methods

It is often easier and more accurate to perform the above methods in a spreadsheeting
software since rounding errors are avoided, and it is possible to “copy-paste” many more
rows than it would be possible to calculate by hand. However, MS-Excel has two built in
functions that make root finding much simpler: “Solver” and “Goal Seek”.
Goal Seek
In the Office 365 version of MS-Excel: “Data” ribbon – “What-If-Analysis” (about three-
quarters of the way to the right of the screen) – “Goal Seek”.
In the pop-up window that appears, three values are required:

- “Set value:” The cell containing the value you want to change (must be a formula)
- “To value:” The numerical value you want this cell to change to, e.g., zero.
- “By changing cell:” The cell that that contains a constant you want changed, e.g., your
unknown root.
Figure 1.18: Screenshot of the Goal Seek tool in MS-Excel

Solver
Solver is a more robust than Goal Seek and allows for more manipulation of the tool. It is
also not always installed in MS-Excel by default. To ensure it is available, search for “Add-
ins”, and ensure the “Solver” box is ticked.
Once installed, in the Office 365 version of MS-Excel: “Data” ribbon – “Solver” (often
hiding at the very right of the screen).
Figure 1.19: Screenshot of the Solver tool in MS-Excel
Solver can not only obtain a specific value (“Value of”), but also determine maximum
(“Max”) and minimum values (“Min”). The user is also able to manipulate several variables
at ones (“By changing Variable Cells”), set constraints, and change the method of solving.
1.3.9 Other forms of root finding.

There exist several other forms of root finding techniques, some of which are modifications
of the methods mentioned above.
- Broyden’s method
- Steffenson’s method
- Inverse interpolation
- Brent’s method
- Ridder’s method

Numerical methods – Numerical Integration
1.4 Numerical Integration

1.4.1 Introduction
Graphically speaking, integration is the area under the graph. While it is possible to
calculate the integral from mathematical formula, this is not always an option. As such
various techniques are available to integrate.
Various techniques exist to determine the numerical integrals of data, including the
Newton-Cotes formulae, Gaussian Quadrants and Clenshaw-Curtis Quadrants.
The Newton-Cotes formulae make use of equally spaced intervals and are then divided into
both closed and open types. Closed Newton-Cotes formulae use the function points at all
points while open types do not use the function points at the ends.
Newton-Cotes Closed formulae include the Trapezoidal Rule, Simpson’s Rules and Boole’s
Rule. The Open formulae include the Rectangular Rule, Trapezoidal Rule and Milne’s
Rule.
Below are these and other numerical integration techniques:

- Plot and Count;
- Rectangular Rule;
- Milne’s Rule
- Trapezoidal Rule;
- Romberg’s Method;
- Simpson’s 1/3 Rule;
- Simpson’s 3/8 Rule;
- Boole’s Rule; and
- Gaussian Quadrant.
1.4.2 Plot and Count

The simplest way to determine the integral (area under a curve) is to plot the curve on
graph paper and count the number of squares.

Given the function below, what is the integral over the given range:
Step one:
Plot on graph paper.
Step two:
Count the number of squares below the graph.

Step three:
Calculate the area of a single block. Convert the number of blocks to an equivalent area.
The smaller the blocks, the more accurate the method.
The concern with this method is that near the graph, it is unclear whether to include or
exclude a block in the counting; particularly if the graph dissects a block.
1.4.3 Rectangular Rule

To overcome the uncertainty of the counting method, as well as to speed up the counting
process, the Rectangular Rule (also called the Midpoint Rule) divides the plot into equal
portions. Rectangles are drawn along the x axis, with the height of each defined as the
point where the graph bisects the midpoint (see below). This overcomes the uncertainty
of whether to include a block or not in the counting method.
Original graph:
Defining rectangles along the x-axis:

This can then be solved by either determining the area of each rectangle or by the
mathematical formula below. The formula below calculates the height of the rectangle as
the height at the right-hand side of the rectangle. This results in overcalculation on the
increasing portions of the graph, but underrepresentation on the decreasing sections.
Other formulae may be seen where the left corner, or the middle of the rectangle (midpoint
rule) are taken as the height.
2
∫3 f(x) ≈ h[f(x& ∗ ) + f(x. ∗ ) + ⋯ + f(x, ∗ )] 1.18
where:
h = width of intervals = (b-a)/n [NOTE: Intervals are of equal size]
n = number of intervals
f(xi*) = function value at the midpoint of interval i
The number (and width) of intervals determines the error.
1.4.4 Trapezoidal Rule

While the rectangular rule is an improvement on the plot and count method (since it
defines how to include/exclude the area around the graph), a more accurate way of
calculating the integral is by replacing the rectangle with a trapezium. This removes some
of the bias around the graph and gives a better estimation.
Original graph:

Defining trapeziums along the x-axis:
This can then be solved by either determining the area of each trapezium or by the
mathematical formula below. How is this mathematically different to the rectangular rule
given above? And for the mid-point rule?
Area of a trapezium is given by:

&
Area of Trapezium = . (sum of the sides x height) 1.19
2 & & & & & &

∫3 f(x) ≈ h 2J. f(a) + . f(x& )K + J. f(x& ) + . f(x. )K + ⋯ + J. f(x,#& ) + . f(x, )K3 1.20
Simplifying:
2 & &
∫3 f(x) ≈ h 2. f(a) + f(x& ) + f(x. ) + ⋯ + f(x,#& ) + . f(x, )3 1.21
where:
a = x value at left most point of concern
h = width of intervals [NOTE: Intervals are of equal size]
1.4.5 Simpson’s 1/3 Rule

An even more accurate way to represent the area under a curve is by defining some form
of polynomial equation between each interval.
The simplest of these is Simpson’s 1/3 Rule which uses a quadratic formula, which gives
the following integral estimation:

For a single interval:

2 4
∫3 f(x) ≈ % [f(x& ) + 4f(x. ) + f(x% )] 1.22
Over n-number of points:

2 4
∫3 f(x) ≈ % [f(x& ) + 4f(x. ) + 2f(x% ) + 4f(x5 ) + 2f(x6 ) + ⋯ + 2f(x,#. ) + 4. f(x,#& ) +
f(x, )] 1.23
where:
NOTE:
Outer function values have co-efficient 1
All even function values have a co-efficient of 4
All odd function values have a co-efficient of 2
For the Simpson’s Rule (also called the 1/3 Simpson’s Rule) we need an even number of
integrals, i.e., an odd number of points.
1.4.6 Simpson’s 3/8 Rule

Instead of using a quadratic equation (as in the standard Simpson’s Rule), a cubic may be
used to gain greater accuracy. Simpson’s 3/8 Rule, applies to a small interval from a to b
and is given by:
For a single interval:

2 %4
∫3 f(x) ≈ [f(x& ) + 3f(x. ) + 3f(x% ) + f(x5 )] 1.24
7
Over n-number of points, this becomes:

2 %4
∫3 f(x) ≈ [f(x& ) + 3f(x. ) + 3f(x% ) + 2f(x5 ) + 3f(x6 ) + 3f(x8 ) + 2f(x9 ) + ⋯ +
7
3f(x,#. ) + 3f(x,#& ) + f(x, )] 1.25
where:
NOTE:
Outer function values have co-efficient 1
All function values corresponding to (3k +1) have a co-efficient of 2

All remaining function values have a co-efficient of 3
For the Simpson’s 3/8 Rule we need the number of integrals to be equal to a multiple of 3.

Numerical methods – Problems
Problems
Example 1.7: Vapour pressure of 1-chlorotetradecane 1.0bar 1.2bar 1.5bar 𝑓 1(0.971762 … ) = 2𝑒 "($.'2#23"… ) − 1 = 12.9966654 …
300°C 2811 kJ/kg A 2809kJ/kg 0.011565 …
𝑥" = 0.971762 … − = 0.970871 …
12.966654 …
Vapour pressures of 1-chlorotetradecane (C14H29Cl) at several temperatures are 330°C C
tabulated below: 400°C 2968 kJ/kg B 2967 kJ/kg Iteration 3:
𝑓(0.970871 … ) = 𝑒 "($.'2$)2#… ) − 0.970871 … − 6 = 1.11 × 10&*
T (°C) 98.5 131.8 148.2 166.2 199.8 215.5 A: At 300°C: 𝑓 1(0.970871 … ) = 2𝑒 "($.'2$)2#… ) − 1 = 12.94176 …
P* (mm Hg) 1 5 10 20 60 100 (UA − 2811)/(2811) = (1.2 − 1.0)/(1.0 − 1.5) 1.11 × 10&*
𝑥5 = 0.970871 − = 0.970871 …
UA = 2810.2 kJ/kg 12.94176 …
i) Calculate P* for a temperature of 483.15K
ii) 1-chlorotetradecane boils at approximately 140°C and behaves similarly to an B: At 400°C: Since x2 is very close to x3, we can stop iterating: Final x value calculated: 0.970871
ideal gas. Determine the mass of the gas of 1-chlorotetradecane at 142.3°C in a (UB − 2968)/(2968 − 2967) = (1.2 − 1.0)/(1.0 − 1.5)
50 dm3 container. UB = 2967.6 kJ/kg Example 1.10: Enthalpy of steam at 17 bar
Solution: C: At 330°C and 1.2bar: Find the enthalpy (H) of steam at 17 bar and 340°C.
"#$ & #''.)
i) 𝑃∗ = 60 + (100 − 60) -
"#*.* & #''.)
. = 85.99 𝑚𝑔 𝐻𝑔 (UC − 2810.2)/(2810.2 − 2967.6) = (330 − 300)/(300 − 400)
UC = 2857.42 kJ/kg Solution:
ii) P* at T = 142.3°C From steam tables (superheated steam) we can find the enthalpy values as below
Updated table with calculated internal energy values for 1.2 bar (kJ/kg). With x, y & z the values to obtain to solve the problem:
148.2 − 131.8
𝑃∗ = 5 + (10 − 5) 7 ; = 8.20 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 → 0.0108 𝑎𝑡𝑚 1.0bar 1.2bar 1.5bar
148.2 − 132.8
300°C 2811 kJ/kg UA = 2810.2 kJ/kg 2809kJ/kg 300°C 340°C 350°C
From the ideal gas law: 330°C UC = 2857.42 kJ/kg 15 bar 3039 x 3148
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 400°C 2968 kJ/kg UB = 2967.6 kJ/kg 2967 kJ/kg 17 bar z
𝑃𝑉 (0.0108). (50)
𝑛= = = 0.0158 𝑚𝑜𝑙 20 bar 3025 y 3138
𝑅𝑇 (8.206 × 10&" )(415.45)
Example 1.9: Newton-Raphson for a function involving e
Converting to mass: At constant 15 bar, interpolate across temperatures:
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 14(12.01) + 29(1.008) + 35.45 = 232.822 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 Using Newton-Raphson method, find all solutions of the following equation: e2x = x + 𝐻5$$℃ − 𝐻5*$℃ 𝐻/ − 𝐻5$$℃
=
𝑇5$$℃ − 𝑇5*$℃ 𝑇57$℃ − 𝑇5$$℃
6. Use an initial value of 1 for x.
Therefore: 3039 − 3148 𝐻/ − 3039
=
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠). (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) = (0.0158)(232.822) = 3.688 𝑔 300 − 350 340 − 300
Solution:
-(/ ) 𝐻/ = 3126.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔
Newton’s method: 𝑥+,# = 𝑥+ − -" (/! )
Example 1.8: Internal energy of water !
At constant 20 bar, interpolate across temperatures:

Where:
Superheated steam at 1.2 bar is pumped a process at a temperature of 330°C. Calculate 𝐻5$$℃ − 𝐻5*$℃ 𝐻8 − 𝐻5$$℃
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 "/ − 𝑥 − 6 =
the internal energy. 𝑇5$$℃ − 𝑇5*$℃ 𝑇57$℃ − 𝑇5$$℃
𝑓 1(𝑥) = 2𝑒 "/ − 1
3025 − 3138 𝐻8 − 3025
=
Given: (from steam tables) 300 − 350 340 − 300
Starting from x0 = 1:
1.0bar 1.5bar 𝐻8 = 3115.4 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔
300°C 2811 kJ/kg 2809kJ/kg Iteration 1:
400°C 2968 kJ/kg 2967 kJ/kg 𝑓(1) = 𝑒 "(#) − 1 − 6 = 0.389056 … Now: At constant 340°C, interpolate across pressures:
𝑓 1(1) = 2𝑒 "(#) − 1 = 13.778112 … 𝐻/ − 𝐻8 𝐻< − 𝐻/
=
Solution: 0.389056 … 𝑃#* 9:; − 𝑃"$ 9:; 𝑃#2 9:; − 𝑃#* 9:;
𝑥" = 1 − = 0.971762 …
We first need to interpolate to calculate the values at A and B, before interpolating 13.78112 … 3126.2 − 3115.4 𝐻8 − 3126.2
=
again across each to find C. 15 − 20 17 − 15
Iteration 2: 𝐻/ = 3121.88 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔
𝑓(0.971762 … ) = 𝑒 "($.'2#23"… ) − 0.971762 … − 6 = 0.011565 …

Numerical methods – Problems
Example 1.12: Newton Raphson on a function with a natural log -(/ )

Newton Raphson method: 𝑥+,# = 𝑥+ − -"(/! )
!
Completing the above table becomes, H[kJ/kg]:
f(x) = e2x – x - 6
300°C 340°C 350°C Find the root for the following function using the Newton Raphson method: 5y + ln(y) f’(x) = 2e2x - 1
15 bar 3039 3126.2 3148 = 10000
17 bar 3121.88 Using an initial guess of x = 3
20 bar 3025 3115.4 3138 Solution:
-(8!)
Newton Raphson method: 𝑦+,# = 𝑦+ − -"(8 Iteration xn f(x) f’(x) xn+1
!)
Example 1.11: Newton Raphson on a cubic function 𝑓(𝑦) = 5 + 𝑙𝑛(𝑦) − 1000 1 3 394.4288 805.8576 2.51054776940402
1 2 2.510548 143.0667 302.1545 2.03705919525245
𝑓′(𝑦) = 5 +
Using an initial value of 2, find the root for the following functions using the Newton 𝑦
3 2.037059 50.76156 116.5972 1.60170102687077
Raphson method: y3 – 2y = 5 4 1.601701 17.01443 48.23227 1.24894065551423
Using an initial value: yo = 2000
5 1.248941 4.90777 23.31342 1.03842801696478
Solution: Iteration yn f(y) f’(y) yn+1
6 1.038428 0.940915 14.95869 0.97552712574444
-(8!) 1 2000 -7.600902 5.0005 20001.520028
Newton Raphson method: 𝑦+,# = 𝑦+ − -"(8 7 0.975527 0.060574 13.0722 0.97089329572819
!)
2 20001.520028 15.201802 5.0004996 1998.479971
f(y) = y3 – 2y – 5 = 0 8 0.970893 0.000301 12.94239 0.97087002085940
3 1998.479971 -0.000002844 5.0005003 1998.479972
f’(y) = 3y2 – 2 9 0.97087 7.55E-09 12.94174 0.97087002027580
10 0.97087 0 12.94174 0.97087002027580
The root of this function is approximately: 1998.47997.
Iteration yn f(y) f’(y) yn+1
1 2 -1 10 2.1 Therefore, the root is approximately: 0.97087…
Example 1.13: Newton Raphson on a function with e to the power of x
2 2.1 0.061 11.23 2.09455
3 2.09455 0.0111857 11.16164 2.09455148
Using Newton-Raphson method, find a solution of the following equation: e2x = x + 6
The root of this function is approximately: 2.09455.

Solution:

Mass balances – Introduction
2 Mass balances
2.1 Introduction
The typical difference between the interests of the chemist and the chemical engineer is
that the latter is concerned with continuous processes. These are systems into which there
is a continuous flow of feed material, some (at least) of which is converted to a desired
product, which then flows continuously out of the system, together with any by-products
and unused feed material. The basic calculations performed on such a process (as distinct
from the design of the individual units) are the mass balance, which is considered below,
and the energy balance.
2.2 Batch, continuous and semi-batch processes

A batch process is one in which all material is placed a unit, some form of reaction or
transformation occurs without further input or output from the vessel, and the entire
contents are removed from the unit at the required time. This process is considered
unsteady state (Figure 2.1).
Examples: Beverage processing, dairy processing, soap manufacturing and pharmaceutical

production.
Figure 2.1: Batch process. No material entering or exiting.
A continuous process is one that allows for inputs and outputs to flow in and out of the
unit all the time, with reaction or transformation happening while material is added (raw
materials) and removed (product). This is a steady state process (Figure 2.2).
Examples: Many large scale industrial production facilities that run 24-hours a day, e.g.
petroleum refining.

Mass balances – Steady state vs unsteady state
Figure 2.2: Continuous reactor. Both an inlet and outlet.
A semi-batch process, also called a fed-batch process, is a combination of these two systems,
where consideration is made for either an input or an outputs stream (not both). This
process is also considered unsteady state (Figure 2.3).
Examples: Addition of glucose to biological systems to ensure a constant concentration

while microbes consume them.
Figure 2.3: Semi-batch process. In this example, only an inlet.
2.3 Steady state vs unsteady state

At steady state, the variables at a specific location in a process do not change with time.
This means that at any given location, temperature, pressure, concentration, density, flow
rates, or any other state variable, remain constant. However, if we move location, such as
along a pipe, it is possible for these variables to change, e.g., temperature or composition
due to reaction. Mathematically, steady state can be represented as:

Mass balances – Basic mass balance equation
:
=0 2.1
:;
where:
t = time
A system is said to be under unsteady or transient state (sometimes also non-steady state),
if any variable is changing at a specific location, with time.
:
≠0 2.2
:<
Example 2.1: Steady state vs unsteady state
Are the following at steady state or unsteady state?

a) A person watering the lawn.
b) Water filling a bath.
c) A household geyser.
d) An industrial process combining a hot and a cold stream, resulting in a continuous single outlet.
e) An engine burning fuel at a constant rate.
Solution:
a) Steady state. Assuming he is not changing the flow at the tap.
b) Unsteady state. The volume increases with time, and the temperature in the bath may also change due
to hot water taking time to heat. There is no flow out to balance temperature or volume.
c) Unsteady state: A geyser is designed to keep the temperature constant. However, the typical operation
of the thermostat relies on a constant on/off cycling where the heat is supplied only when the
temperature drops below a certain point and will again switch off when the water reaches the higher
set point. Since there is constant change in temperature over time, unsteady state.
d) Steady state. As long as the inlets do not vary in temperature or flowrate, even though the outlet is a
different temperature, at any specific location, the flow and temperature are constant.
e) If we consider the engine alone.
At startup: Unsteady state. The engine will start to warm up, i.e., temperature changes over time.
After a while: Steady state. Burning constant amount of fuel will result in a constant rotation, with
any temperature generated, dissipated constantly given sufficient time.
If we consider the system as the engine AND the fuel tank.
Unsteady state: The volume of the fuel tank will decrease over time, resulting in the engine cutting
out once the fuel is completely consumed.
2.4 Basic mass balance equation

The mass balance equation simply stated says that at steady state, the mass in is equal to the
mass out (conservation of mass). This is also true for atoms.

Mass balances – Basic mass balance equation
In
Out
In = Out 2.3
∴ Ṁ=, = Ṁ>?@ 2.4
where:
Ṁ = mass flow rate (kg/s)
This can also be rewritten for reaction/consumption of a single species in the system.
In Generated Out
Consumed
Which means the mass balance becomes:

Ṁ=, + ṀAB,BC3@BD = Ṁ>?@ + ṀE>,F?GBD 2.5
Rearranging:
ṀE>,F?GBD − ṀAB,BC3@BD = Ṁ=, − Ṁ>?@ 2.6
Where:
ṀE>,F?GBD − ṀAB,BC3@BD = mass change inside the system per time.
D
NOTE: This is no longer a steady state system, i.e., D@ ≠ 0
Therefore, we can rewrite this as:

DH
= /Ṁ=, − Ṁ>?@ 1 2.7
D@
where:
M = Mass inside the system boundary
t = time
Mass balances – Material balances without reaction
However, there may be more than one stream in or out, so:

DH
= ∑,=I& M= 2.8
D@
where:
i = stream number. Where i is positive for inlet streams and negative for outlet stream
n = total number of streams
Video 2.1: Mass balance – General equation (YouTube)
2.5 Material balances without reaction

The first form of a mass balance to be discussed is when there is no reaction. However, this
may still be more complicated than expected since it could involve differenct phases (solids,
liquids, and gases), different sizes of materials (mineral processing with multiple particle
sizes after crushing), as well as multiple inputs and outputs, recyle and separations. In this
section we will keep it simple (Figure 2.4).
A A, Aʹ
B B, Bʹ
*
A, A
*
B, B
Figure 2.4: Simple representation of a mass balance without reaction
Where: A and B are different non-reacting components, and Aʹ, A*, Bʹ and B* are different
forms (phase, size class or similar) of each respective component
2.6 Material balances with reaction

While it is true that the total mass flows into and out of a system will be equal even if
chemical reaction occurs, the same cannot be said of the flow rates of the individual species
(Figure 2.5). In allowing for the interconversions among the various reacting species, we
will need to allow for the stoichiometry of the various reactions taking place. This will
Mass balances – Material balance for multi-component systems
often make it convenient to express the amounts of the various materials in moles rather
than in mass; at the same time, we need to note that there is no conservation of (total)
moles as there is of mass due to the stoichiometry of the chemical reaction that is taking
place. For example, if A + B à C, we have two moles total entering, but only one leaving.
A A
B Reactor B
C
Figure 2.5: Simple representation of a mass balance with reaction

Where: A and B are different reacting components to form a single product C (A + B à C)
Example 2.2:
Solution:
2.7 Material balance for multi-component systems

2.7.1 Recycle systems
Where a process involves reaction or separation, it often happens that some part of the exit
stream is suitable for re-use in the process. For example, unreacted feed leaving a process
is often fed back into the reaction section of the process (Figure 2.6). At steady state,
however, the material balance principle still applies to the process as a whole or to any part
of it. To avoid buildup of materials, raw materials cannot include inert materials and need
to enter in stoichiometric proportions.
A A
B Reactor Separator B
C
Figure 2.6: Simple representation of a mass balance with reaction and recycle
Where: A and B are different reacting components to form a single product C (A + B à C).
2.7.2 Purge streams

If there is an inert component in the raw materials, and recycle is introduced, this inert
will continually build up if it is not selectively separated. To avoid this buildup, a purge
stream is introduced (Figure 2.7).

Mass balances – Systems needing iterative solutions
A, B, C, I
A
A
B
B Reactor Separator
C
I
I
Figure 2.7: Simple representation of a mass balance with reaction, recycle and purge
Where: A and B are different reacting components to form a single product C (A + B à C), and
I is the inert.
2.7.3 Cascades
A cascade is a multi-step process that can act as a reactor or separator. Flows from one unit
proceed to successive units in either a co-current (Figure 2.8) or a counter current fashion
(Figure 2.9).
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3
Figure 2.8: Simple representation of co-current cascade system with three units
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3
Figure 2.9: Simple representation of counter current cascade system with three units
2.8 Systems needing iterative solutions

The principles illustrated so far are also applicable to problems with more streams and
components, but the larger number of equations can make it more difficult to see how to
obtain a solution. Matrix methods may be used to systematize the solution. These only
yield a direct solution when all the units are linear models. In other cases, an iterative
method may be used, where the parameters for suitable linear models are repeatedly
adjusted in the light of the flows and concentrations obtained from the matrix solution.
In very complex cases, especially when there are interactions between the mass and energy
balances, we resort to simply calculating "round and round" the various loops until
convergence is obtained. Computer packages, including MS-Excel, are available to perform
these calculations, including the modelling (or design) of the process units.

Mass balances – Unsteady state mass balance
2.9 Unsteady state mass balance

Mathematically, steady state makes almost all equations a lot simpler (d/dt = 0), because of
avoided integration. However, in reality, there are times when a process will be operating
at unsteady state conditions. Most often, this will occur during a startup or shut down phase
in a continuous process, as well as in batch and semi-batch systems. It is also possible that
a system may be at steady state, but a single component is not at steady state, such as the
ink in a tank example.
Example 2.3: Ink in a tank
Water enters and leaves a 5 m3 tank at a rate of 0.12 m3/min. At time t = 0, 1 kg ink is injected into the
tank. Assume that the ink is well mixed, and evenly distributed. Complete the mass balance.
Solution:
Mass balance of the water:
/
𝑑𝑀
= E 𝑀̇5
𝑑𝑡
56&
But at steady state, and only two streams:
𝑀̇5/ − 𝑀̇789 = 0
𝑀̇5/ = 𝑀̇789
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑀̇5/ = 0.12 𝑚, /𝑚𝑖𝑛
Mass balance of the ink:
/
𝑑𝑀
= E 𝑀̇5
𝑑𝑡
56&
𝑑𝑀
= 𝑀̇5/ − 𝑀̇789
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑀
= 0 − 𝑀̇789
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶. 𝑉
= −𝑀̇789
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶
𝑉. = −(𝑣. 𝐶)789
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶
𝑉. = −𝑣789 𝑑𝑡
𝐶789
𝑑𝐶
𝑉. Q = −𝑣789 Q 𝑑𝑡
𝐶789
𝐶789
𝑉. 𝑙𝑛 = −𝑣789 (𝑡 − 𝑡5 )
𝐶789,5
At i: ti = 0, Ci = 0.2 kg/m3
V = 5 m3
vout = 0.12 m3/min
Substituting values:
𝐶789
5. 𝑙𝑛 = − 0.12(𝑡 − 0)
0.2
𝐶789 0.12
𝑙𝑛 = −0 7.𝑡
0.2 5
𝑙𝑛(𝐶789 ) − 𝑙𝑛(0.2) = −0.024. 𝑡

Mass balances – Degree of freedom analysis
𝑙𝑛(𝐶789 ) = −0.024. 𝑡 + 𝑙𝑛(0.2)

𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒆𝒍𝒏(𝟎.𝟐)%𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟒.𝒕
Video 2.2: Mass balance – Ink in a tank example (YouTube)
2.10 Degree of freedom analysis

The degree of freedom (DOF) analysis is a process to analyse material balance problems to
determine if they can be solved with the provided specifications. To perform a DOF
analysis, you wil need to know the number of unknown variables, and the number of
independent equations relating the unknown variables to each other. From this, the DOF
can be determined.
DOF = (number of unknown variables) – (number of independent relations) 2.9
If DOF = 0, the problem can be solved
If DOF > 0, the problem is underspecified. This means that there are more unknown
variables than the number of independent relations and hence, cannot be solved. One way
of fixing this is by merging multiple data into a single solution.
DOF < 0, the problem is over-specified. This means that there are possibly inconsistent
independent relations, therefore, it is unsolvable. Gather additional information until the
problem is well defined.
2.11 General procedure to solve a mass balance

There are various approaches to solving a mass balance. While you may feel that some are
not needed, while you are still new to the procedure, it is highly recommended to follow
each as may be appropriate.
Draw a block flow diagram

If not provided, draw a full block flow diagram, with labels and all the given information.
At the same time, set up a stream table, adding all known values and leaving space for
missing data.
Complete the chemical equations

Mass balances – Additional Reading
If there are reactions, check and balance all chemical equations.
Perform a degree of freedom (DOF) analysis

Perform a degree of freedom analysis around each system unit and around the entire
system.
Decide on a basis
If no basis is given, and the DOF = 1, decide on an appropriate basis of calculation to bring
the DOF to 0. It may be useful to set the basis as the input to the system or the input to the
reactor (after mixing from recyle), but how to do this will be come easier with practice.
Solve all process specifications given

Process specifications such as density, degree of completion, yield, should be solved to
provide more information and simplify calculations.
Decide which type of material balance to use

For non-reactive balances, only molecular species balance and/or atomic balances can be
used. For reactive balances, molecular, atomic and extent of reaction balances can be used.
Start solving the system which has a degree of freedom equal to 0

When solving the DOF for each of your potential systems, you sould have seen some that
had a degree of freedom of 1 or higher. However, once you solve systems where the DOF
is zero, this will provide information to the other systems, now bringing these down 0 and
making them solvable.
Complete the stream table

While solving the mass balance, fill in the stream table and missing data onto the diagram
as you proceed. This will help identifying what still needs to be found, and ultimately
allow you to know when the final answer from the question has been found.
Additional Reading
Felder RM, Rousseau RW, 2000. Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes, 3rd ed.,
Wiley.
Himmelblau, DM, 2012. Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering, 8th
ed., Prentice-Hall International.
Murphy, RM, 2007. Introduction to Chemical Processes: Principles, Analysis, Synthesis,
McGraw-Hill International Edition.
Reklaitis, GV, 1983. Introduction to Material and Energy Balances, Wiley.
Mass balances – Additional Reading
Skogestad, S, 2009. Chemical and Energy Process Engineering, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group.

Mass balances – Problems
Problems
Example 2.4: Combustion in a furnace ii) Sulphur, hydrogen and nitrogen do not react. ∴ Feed = Output
Mass flow rate of sulphur, in stream 1 and 4, using moles of carbon in the feed: Substitute back into Equation 5: E1 = 10(0.71) = 7.1 kmol/hr
Coal (91% carbon, 4% sulphur, 4% hydrogen and 1% oxygen) is mixed with air (78% m1,S = [(m1,C)/(X1,C)] × (X1,S)
nitrogen and 22% oxygen by volume) (as per the diagram), at STP, and is pumped into = [(120 kg/hr)/(0.91)] × (0.04) = 5.27kg/hr = m4,S Example 2.5: Flow in a river
a furnace to produce CO2 gas. Oxygen is 28% in excess and has an overall conversion
of 92%. There is also CO formed in a side reaction with selectivity of 5. Given that the Mass flow rate of hydrogen, in stream 1 and 4, using moles of carbon in the feed: A colleague has been working at a local river collecting data on water quality and other
ratio of oxygen in coal and in air is 1/10, and that 55 kmol/hr of nitrogen is coming out m1,H = [(m1,C)/(X1,C)] × (X1,H) = [(120 kg/hr)/(0.91)] × (0.04) = 5.27kg/hr = m4,H related things. They would like to find out the total flowrate in the river and have
of the furnace, calculate: asked if you can help given the following messy data:
i) Mass of carbon in the coal feed per hour. Mass flow rate of nitrogen, in stream 2 and 4, using n2,N:
ii) Mass fraction of sulphur in stream 4. m2,N = (n2,N) × (MN) = (55 kmol/hr) × (14 kg/kmol) = 770 kg/hr = m4,N [1: 0: 0.00], [2: 9: 0.06], [3: 39: 0.22], [4: 38: 0.16], [5: 50: 0.18], [6: 42: 0.15], [7: 38: 0.12],
iii) Extent of each reaction. [8: 29: 0.10], [9: 23: 0.07], [10: 22: 0.02], [11: 0: 0.00].
Fraction of sulphur in stream 4:
Reactions: C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) 2C (s) + O2 (g) → 2CO (g) X4,S = (m4,S)/(m4) = (m4,S)/(m4,S + m4,H + m4,N) Each entry in the data set contains a reference point starting at the riverbank, a depth
= (5.27)/(5.27 + 5.27 + 770) = 0.68/100 = 0.68% (cm) and velocity (m/s). Each successive entry is 500 mm away from the previous point
1: Air 3: CO, CO2, O2 across the river. What is the flowrate across the river assuming both the depth and
Furnace
iii) Elemental mole balances to get extents. velocity is constant in each of the divisions above? (Give your answer to the nearest
CO2 mole balance: 0 + E1 = n3,CO2 + 0 à E1 = n3,CO2 (1) litre.)
2: Coal 4: S, H2, N2
CO mole balance: 0 + 2E2 = n3/CO + 0 à 2E2 = n3,CO (2)
Oxygen mole balance: Solution:
Solution: n1,O + n2/O + 0 = n3/O + 2(E1 + E2) à n1/O + n2/O = n3/O + 2(E1 + E2) It was given than each point was 500 mm (0.5 m) from the previous point. Therefore
i) Nitrogen does not react, so n2,N = n4,N = 55 kmol/hr (see table):
For a gas at STP: volume% is the same as mole%: Feed ratio of oxygen to get n1,O: n1,O = (n2/O)/10 = (15.51 kmol/hr)/10 = 1.55 kmol/hr Values in column 2 (Distance from bank) can be calculated by adding 500mm to the
n2,O = (n2,N / X2,N) × (X2,O ) = (55/0.78) × (0.22) = 15.51 kmol/hr previous point, starting at zero (note: it makes no difference which end of the table you
Overall conversion of oxygen to get n3/O: start working this out)
The ratio of carbon to hydrogen reacting can be obtained using the sum of the reactions: Overall Conversion % = (moles reacted)/(moles in feed) Values in column 3 (Gap) were given and added again for simple MS-Excel calculation
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) Overall Conversion % = [(moles in feed)-(moles in output)]/(moles in feed) Values in column 4 (Depth – cm) were given
+ 2C (s) + O2 (g) → 2CO (g) (92/100) = [(n1,O + n2,O) – (n3,O)] / (n1,O + n2,O) Values in column 5 (Depth – m) are a unit conversion
3C (s) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2CO (g) = [(1.55 + 15.51) – (n3,O)] / (1.55 + 15.51) Values in column 6 (Velocity) were given
∴ 3 Moles of Carbon reacts with 4 moles of Oxygen. n3,O = 1.36 kmol/hr Values in column 7 (volumetric flow) are the values from column 5 multiplied by
column 6.
Using % excess to get moles of carbon in the feed: Substitute n1,O, n2,O and n3,O into oxygen mole balance:
% Excess = [(1/4)(nfeed) – (1/3)(nstoch)] / (1/3)(nstoch) n1,O + n2,O = n3,O + 2(E1 + E2) Distance Gap Depth Depth Velocity Volumetric
(20/100) = [(1/4)(n1,O + n2,O) – (1/3)(n1,C)] / (1/3)(n1,C) 1.55 + 15.51 = 1.36 + 2(E1 + E2) from (m) (cm) (m) (m/s) flowrate(m3/sec)
7.85 = E1 + E2 (3) riverbank [GIVEN] [GIVEN]
(m)
Using ratio of oxygen in coal and air to get n1,O:
1 5 0.5 0 0 0 0
(n1,O/n2,O) = (1/10) Selectivity = (moles of desired product)/(moles of undesired product)
2 4.5 0.5 9 0.09 0.06 0.0027
n1,O = (n2,O/10) -Substitute this and the value for n2,O into excess equation 5 = (n3,CO2)/(n3,CO) (4) 3 4 0.5 39 0.39 0.22 0.0429
4 3.5 0.5 38 0.38 0.16 0.0304
(20/100) = [(1/4)((n2,O/10) + n2,O) – (1/3)(n1,C)] / (1/3)(n1,C) Substitute Equations 1 and 2 into Equation 4: 5 3 0.5 50 0.5 0.18 0.0450
6 2.5 0.5 42 0.42 0.15 0.0315
(20/100) = [(1/4)((15.51/10) + 15.51) – (1/3)(n1,C)] / (1/3)(n1,C) 5 = (E1)/(2E2)
7 2 0.5 38 0.38 0.12 0.0228
n1,C = 10 kmol/hr E1 = 10E2 (5)
8 1.5 0.5 29 0.29 0.1 0.0145
9 1 0.5 23 0.23 0.07 0.0081
Converting to mass units Substitute Equation 5 into Equation 3: 10 0.5 0.5 22 0.22 0.02 0.0022
m1,C = (n1,C) × (MC) = (10 kmol/hr) × (12 kg/kmol) = 120 kg/hr 7.85 = (10E2) + E2 11 0 0.5 0 0 0 0
E2 = 0.71 kmol/hr

The total flow rate is the sum of all values in column 7. This equals 0.20005m3/s n1,B = X1,B × n1 = 0.27 × 100 = 27 mol/min ṁ3, E = 98 kg/hr
Therefore, converting to litres: 200 l/s
Stoichiometric ratio of A:B is 4:1, and the feed ratio of A:B is 73:27 = 2.70:1 Since weight percent of ethanol is known in stream 3:
Example 2.6: Formation of milk of lime \Fe3O4 is limiting ṁ3, E = xe × ṁ3
98 kg/h = 0.05 × ṁ3
Limestone Ca(OH)2 has a solubility of 2 g/L in water. If 63 kg/hr of hydrated lime is ii) Stoichiometric requirement i.e. nStoich of B to react with all A present ṁ3 = 98 / 0.05 = 1960 kg/hr
added to 520 kg/hr of water to form milk of lime, find the percentage of lime that nStoich = n1,A × 1/4 = 73 × 1/4 = 18.25 mol/min
dissolves and the mass of solid in the milk of lime? %excess of B = (n1B - nStoich B)/ nStoich B = (27 – 18.25) × 100/18.25 = 47.95% And the amount of water in stream 3: ṁ3, W = ṁ3 – ṁ3, E = 1960 – 98 = 1862 kg/hr
If the SG of lime is 2.5, calculate the density of milk of lime.
iii) %conversion of A = 78% Mass flow rate of water in stream 2(water balance):
63 kg/hr lime n2,A = n1,A – 0.78 n1,A = 73 – 0.78(73) = 73 – 56.94 = 16.06 mol/min ṁ1, W = ṁ2, W + ṁ3, W
Milk of lime
ṁ2, W = 2275 – 1862 = 413 kg/hr
Component A balance: nOut A = n2,A = nIn A + nFormed A – nReacted A
520 L/hr water 16.06 = 73 + 0 – 4ε Example 2.9: Production of ethylene
-4ε = 16.06 – 73 = -56.94
Solution: \ε = 14.235 mol/min Ethylene (E) (C2H4) is produced by the following reactions, including hydrogen (H)
Lime dissolved in 520 L/hr: 2 g/L × 520 L/hr = 1.04 kg/hr and methane (M) side reactions:
The percentage of lime that dissolves is: (1.04/63) × 100= 2% iv) Component balance on C: nOut C = nIn C + nFormed C – nReacted C C2H6 à C2H4 +H2 (1)
Therefore, 98% of lime does not dissolve = (98/100) × 63 = 61.7 kg nOut C = 0 + 6ε – 0 = 6 × 14.235 = 85.41 mol/min C2H4 + H2 à 2CH4 (2)
\ Production rate = nOut C = 85.41 mol/min
1/density of mixture (AB) = 1/A + 1/B = 1/2500 + 1/1000 =7/5000 = 714.3 kg/m3 A feed with 89% percent ethane (P) with inerts (I), is fed to the reactor, where the
v) n2 = Σ n2i = n2A + n2B + n2C overall conversion of ethane is 65%. Given a selectivity for ethylene is 0.9; calculate
n2,A = 16.06 mol/min the extent of reactions (ɛ1 and ɛ2) and yields (Y) for both reactions, and the reactor
Example 2.7: Solid phase reaction with no recycle
n2,B = n1B + nFormedB – nReactedB = 27 + 0 – 1 × ε = 27 + 14.235 = 12.765 mol/min product composition.
Iron (III) oxide (Ferric oxide or hematite) has many industrial uses, including jewellery
n2 = n2,A + n2,B + n2,C = 16.06 + 12.765 + 85.41 = 114.235 mol/min Solution:
polishing, pigmentation, magnetic media storage, catalysis, and others. The Gamma
X2,A = n2,A / n2 = 16.06/114.235 = 14.06% Basis: 100 kmol/hr feed
phase of iron (III) oxide (γ-Fe2O3) is the specific type used in magnetic storage media
X2,B = n2,B / n2 = 12.765/14.235 = 11.17%
such as tapes, CD’s, and hard disk drives. This phase of iron (III) oxide can be prepared
X2,C = n2,C / n2 = 85.41/114.235 = 74.77% I balance: n2,I = n1,I = x1,I n1 = (0.11)(100 kmol/hr) = 11 kmol/hr
by the careful oxidation of Fe3O4.
+#,%&+&,%
Overall Reaction: 4Fe3O4(s) + O2(g) à 6Fe2O3(s). The feed stream is 73% Fe3O4 by Example 2.8: Distillation of water and ethanol Overall %Conversion E = = 0.65
+#,%
moles. n2, E = n1, E – 0.65n1, E = 0.35n1, E = 0.35(89 kmol/hr) = 31.15 kmol/hr

A stream contains water and ethanol enters a distillation column at 3500 kg/hr. Water
i) Determine the limiting reactant of the process by doing necessary calculations. makes up 65% of the inlet stream, while 92% of the ethanol that was fed into the unit ɛ1 + ɛ2 = Overall % Conversion E × n1E = 0.65(89 kmol/hr) = 57.85 kmol/hr (1)
ii) Calculate the percentage excess of the excess reactant. leaves at the top. The bottom stream has mass fractions of 0.95 and 0.05 for water and
iii) If the percentage conversion of Fe3O4 is 78% calculate the extent of the ethanol, respectively. Calculate the flow rate of the bottom stream, as well as the mass ɸ=
=>? >- ;@:A:+A B>+C@;A@D A> D@EF;@D G;>DHBA
=I
I#
=0.900
=>? >- ;@:BA:+A B>+C@;A@D F+ A>A:? #,I&
reaction. flow rates of both water and ethanol in the top stream.
𝜀# = 0.900(𝜀# + 𝜀" ) (2)
iv) Determine the production rate of iron (III) oxide in mol/min.
v) Determine the composition of the product stream. Solution:
Sub (1) into (2)
Water in stream 1: ṁ1, W = 0.65 × 3500 kg/h= 2275 kg/hr
𝜀# =0.900(57.85 kmol/hr) = 52.065 kmol/hr
Solution: 𝜀" = 57.85 kmol - 𝜀# = 57.85 – 52.065 = 5.785 kmol/hr
Let: A = Fe3O4 (s), B = O2 (g), C = Fe2O3 (s) Therefore, the flow rate of ethanol in stream 1: ṁ1, E = 3500 – 2275 = 1225 kg/hr
H balance: n2,H = 𝜀# − 𝜀" = 52.065 – 5.785 = 46.28 kmol/hr

i) Assume 100 mol/min feed in stream 1 as a basis for calculation, assume the feed We can now calculate the amount of ethanol in stream 2:
P balance: n2,P = 𝜀# = 52.065 kmol/hr
contains only A and B. ṁ2, E = 0.92 × 1225 = 1127 kg/hr
M balance: n2,M = 2𝜀" = 11.57 kmol/hr
X1,A = 73% (given)
X1,B = 100 -73 = = 27% And by an ethanol balance:
n2 = n2, P + n2, H + n2, M + n2, I + n2, E
n1,A = X1,A × n1 = 0.73×100 = 73 mol/min ṁ1, E = ṁ2, E + ṁ3, E
= 52.065 + 46.28 + 11.57 + 11 + 31.15 = 152.065 kmol/hr
1225 = 1127 + ṁ3, E

= 22.1 kmol/hr – 2(extent of reaction 2) = 22.1 kmol/hr – 2(0.27 kmol/hr)

+&' *".$3* J=>?/L;
x2,P = = = 0.342 = 21.56 kmol/hr Ethane is only part of reaction 1:
+& #*".$3* J=>?/L;
+&( 73.") J=>?/L; E1 = nC2H6, reacted / νC2H6 = 64.4 kmol/hr / 1 = 64.4 kmol/hr
x2,H = = = 0.304
+& #*".$3* J=>?/L; Extent of reaction 1 = Moles H2 that reacted/3 = (21.56 kmol/hr)/3 = 7.1866 kmol/hr
+&) ##.*2 J=>?/L;
x2,M = +&
=
#*".$3* J=>?/L;
= 0.076 Using the composition of the reactor output (stream 3) and the feed flowrate of ethane,
x2,I =
+&*
=
## J=>?/L;
= 0.072 Moles of NH3 formed = Extent × 2 = 7.1866 ×2 = 14.3733 kmol/hr the amount of ethane exiting the reactor in stream 3 can be found:
+& #*".$3* J=>?/L;
à 14.3733 kmol/hr × 1000 mol/kmol × 17.03 g/mol × 24 hr/day × 1 kg/1000g Out = in + formed – reacted = 70 + 0 - 64.4 = 5.6 kmol/hr
x2,E = 1 – x2, I – x2,P – x2,M – x2,H = 1 – 0.072 – 0.342 – 0.076 – 0.304 = 0.206
= 5 874.6688 kg/day
Total flow rate of stream 3 using mol% of ethane:
In the 1st reaction, the limiting reactant is E
=>? G;>DHBA ->;=@D *".$3* J=>?/L; iii) Moles of H2O and NH3 mol% of C2H6 = (nC2H6/n3) × 100
Y1 = =>? G;>DHBA F- :?? ;@:BA:+A ->;=@D G;>DHBA = = 0.585 = 58.5%
)' J=>?/L; Moles of H2O = Extent of reaction 2 × 2 = 0.9 × 2 = 1.8 kmol/hr of H2O 0.05 = 5.6/ n3
à 1.8 × 18.015 g/mol = 32.427 kg/hr of H₂O n3 = 112 kmol/hr
In the 2nd reaction, numbers of moles of H are greater than those of E, because
52.065kmol/hr has been consumed by 1st reaction. Moles of NH3 =Extent of reaction 1 × 2 = 18 × 2 = 36 kmol/hr of NH3 Knowing E1 and the amount of C2H5Cl that exists the reactor using the composition of
=>? G;>DHBA ->;=@D *.2)* J=>?/L;
Y2 = =>? G;>DHBA F- :?? ;@:BA:+A ->;=@D G;>DHBA = $.*(*".$3*J=>?/L;) = 0.2222 = 22.2% à 36 × 17.03 g/mol = 613.08 kg/hr of NH₃ n3, E2 can be calculated from reactive mass balance around the reactor:
Out = in + formed – reacted
Example 2.10: Production of Ammonia – Single Reactor and Single Separator Mass percentage purity = ((Mass NH3) / (Mass NH3 + Mass H2O)) × 100 0.54n3 = 0 + E1 – E2
= (613.08 / (613.08 + 32.427)) × 100 = 94.9765% pure NH3 0.54 (112) = 64.4 – E2
Ammonia is produced through the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gas at high E2 = 3.92 kmol/hr
temperatures and pressures. This process consists of a feed to a reactor of N2, H2 and a Example 2.11: Chlorination of ethane – Single Reactor and Multiple Reactions
contaminate O2. The reactor product is then sent to a cooling unit which condenses 1) b) Chlorine balance and knowing that all the chlorine was used up in the reactor.
the ammonia to a liquid to allow for separation. The liquid and gas product goes to a The chlorination of ethane occurs by the following reactions: Out = in + formed – reacted
separator that splits the unreacted gases from the product. C2H6 + Cl2 à C2H5Cl + HCl (1) Desired 0 = in + 0 – E1 – E2
C2H5Cl + Cl2 à C2H4Cl2 + HCl (2) Undesired 0 = in + 0 – 64.4 – 3.92
Reaction 1: N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 In = 68.32 kmol/hr
Reaction 2: O2 + 2H2 → 2H2O 1: Cl2, C2H6 3 4: C2H5Cl
Reactor Separator 2) %loss of desired product (monochloroethane)
i) Given that the feed of N2 and H2 are 60 kmol/hr and 130 kmol/hr respectively, Monochloroethane formed = E1 = 64.4 kmol/hr
calculate the limiting reactant and the fractional excess of the other reactant. Monochloroethame used inside reaction = E2 = 3.92 kmol/hr
2: HCl 5: HCl, C2H4Cl2, C2H6
ii) Calculate the extent of reaction 1 given that the percentage conversion of H2 is %loss = (3.92 / 64.4) × 100 = 6.09%
17% and reaction 2 has an extent of 0.27 kmol/hr. Find the production rate of
NH3 in kg/day. Example 2.12: Manufacturing of ethylene oxide –single reactor, single reaction
1) Chlorine and ethane are fed into the reactor where the flowrate of ethane is
iii) If the extent of reaction 1 is 18 kmol/hr, and the extent of reaction 2 is 2100 kg/hr and its percentage conversion is 92%. All the chlorine reacts. The
0.9 kmol/hr, calculate the mass percentage purity of the product. If all NH3 and Ethylene oxide is obtained by the oxidation of ethylene according to the following
output of the reactor contains 54 mol% of monochloroethane, 5 mol% of
H2O condense, and the separator works perfectly. equation: 2C2H4 + O2 à 2C2H4O
ethane, 3.5 mol% of dichloroethane and the rest is hydrochloric acid that did
not no exit though stream 2.
Solution: In a particular process for the manufacture of ethylene oxide, the reactor is fed with
i) Calculate the extents of the reactions.
i) Stoichiometric equivalents 200 kmol/hr ethylene and 500 kmol/hr oxygen.
ii) Calculate the amount of chlorine that is required for this process.
N2 = 60/1 = 60 kmol/hr H2 = 130/3 = 43.33 kmol/hr 2) Calculate the percentage loss of the desired product due to the undesired side
Therefore, hydrogen is limiting reagent. 1) Find the limiting reactant and the percentage excess of the other reactant.
reaction.
2) Assuming steady state, find the extent of the reaction and calculate the number
Fractional excess of N2 = ((mole feed) – (mole stoichiometric)) / (mole stoichiometric) of reactants and product present at the end for the case when:
Solution:
= (60 – 43.33)/43.33 = 0.3847 i) The reaction proceeds to completion.
1) i) Convert ethane from mass to moles:
ii) The limiting reactant has a fractional conversion of 70%.
n = m / M = 2100 / 2 (12) + 6 (1) = 70 kmol/hr
ii) Amount of H2 that reacted in total = 17% of 130 kmol/hr = 22.1 kmol/hr
Solution:
%conversion = nE, reacted / nE, feed
Amount of H2 reacted in reaction 1 = 22.1 kmol/hr – what reacted in reaction 2 1) Stoichiometric equivalent: n = (flow rate of substance) / (stoichiometric
0.92 = nE, reacted / 70
coefficient)
nE, reacted = 64.4 kmol/hr
Stoichiometric equivalent of ethylene = 200/2 = 100 kmol/hr

Stoichiometric equivalent of oxygen = 500/1 = 500 kmol/hr In this process, a feed enters the reactor composed of 35% H2S and CH4. A second feed
Ethylene is the limiting reactant since it has the smaller stoichiometric equivalent. stream enters the reactor composed of pure SO2 gas. The process yields 2500 kg pure 5 n3 H2S = n3 H2O = 51.978 kmol/hr
solid sulphur. n3 H2S = 10.3956 kmol/hr
%excess = [(nO2)feed × (nO2)stoic] / [(nO2)stoic ] × 100
Stoichiometric ratio: [(nO2) stoic] / [(nC2H4)] = ½ 1: 35% H2S n3 SO2 = 2 n3 H2S = 2(10.3956) = 20.7912 kmol/hr
(nO2) stoic = 200/2 = 100 kmol/hr. 65% CH4
3 5: SO2, CH4, H2S, H2O
Therefore, %excess = [(nO2)feed × (nO2)stoic] / [(nO2)stoic ] × 100 = [(500 – 100)/100] × 100 = Sulfur Dioxide balance:
Reactor
400% Out = In + Formed – Reacted
2: 100% SO2
20.7912 = m2 –25.989
2) (i) 4: 2 500 kg S(s) m2 = 46.7802 kmol/hr
O2 balance about the reactor:
Out = In + Formed – Reacted Hydrogen Sulfide balance:
(nO2)out = 500 + 0 – Ɛ i) Perform a Degree of Freedom analysis. Out = In + Formed – Reacted
ii) Find the flow rates of the feed streams and the single pass conversion of the 10.3956 = 0.35m1 – 2(25.989)
C2H4 balance about the reactor: limiting reactant m1 = 178.2111 kmol/hr
Out = In + Formed – Reacted
0 = 200 + 0 – (nC2H4)reacted Solution: ∴ The limiting reactant is SO2
Ɛ = 200/2 =100 kmol/hr (i) Degrees of Freedom:
8 Equations: Single pass conversion = Ɛ/m2 = 25.989/46.7802 = 0.555555 = 55.56%
From O2 balance: (nO2)out = 500 – 200 = 300 kmol/hr. • m1 = m1(x1 H2S) + m1(x1 CH4)
• m2 = (x2 SO2) m2 Example 2.14: Vibrating screen separator
C2H4O balance: • m3SO2 = (x3 SO2)m3
Out = In + Formed – Reacted • m3H2S = (x3 H2S)m3 A vibrating screen separator consists of 2 decks. Granulated ore, consisting of large,
(nC2H4O)out = 0 + (2 × 100) – 0 = 200 kmol/hr. • m3H2O = (x3 H2O)m3 medium, and small particles, is separated into 3 products in a continuous steady state.
• m3CH4 = (x3 CH4)m3 The wire mesh of each deck produces an overflow (particles too large to pass through
(ii) • m4 = (x4 S)m4 the deck’s openings) and an underflow (particles that pass through the deck’s openings).
Fractional conversion = [(nO2) reacted]/ [(nO2) feed] = 0.7 • m1 + m2 = m3 + m4 The feed to the screen is in a ratio of 2:1:1 of the large, medium, and small particles.
Hence, (nO2)reacted = 0.7 × 200 = 140 The vibrating separator is not 100% efficient, as particles that should be part of the
Ɛ = 140/2 =70 kmol/hr 8 Variables: underflow product are often included in the in the overflow products. 89% of the small
• x1 H2S particles report to the second deck’s underflow. 85% of the medium particles report to
C2H4 balance: • x1 CH4 the second deck’s overflow. The composition of the second deck’s overflow consists of
Out = In + Formed – Reacted • x2 SO2 10% smalls.
(nC2H4)OUT =200 + 0 – 140 = 60 kmol/hr • x3 SO2
• x3 H2S Feed
O2 balance: • x3 H2O
50% large (L), 25% medium (M),
Out = In + Formed – Reacted • x3 CH4 25% small (S) 1
(nO2)out = 500 + 0 – 70 = 430 kmol/hr • m3 2 Top Overflow
∴ 0 degrees of freedom
First Deck
Example 2.13: Mass balance with a reaction for removing impurities
Raw gases which contain hydrogen sulphide or carbon dioxide are considered as sour (ii) Basis: 2 500 kg of solid sulfur in an hour -à 77.967 kmol/hr
3 Bottom Overflow
gases. These gases need to go through a process for their impurities to be removed.
Sulfur balance: Second Deck 85% of all medium particles
Mercaptans, hydrogen sulphide, and other sulphur compounds are removed from
natural gas by a “sweetening process” producing less impure sour gases. The desired Out = In + Formed – Reacted X3S = 10%
condition in this specific process is the removal of H2S gas, by using the following 77.967 = 0 + 3Ɛ 4
equation: Ɛ = 25.989 kmol/hr Bottom Underflow 89% of all Small particles
2 H2S + SO2 à 3S + 2 H2O Water balance:

Out = In + Formed – Reacted i) Calculate the mass flowrates of the large, medium, and small particles of the
Out = 0 + 2Ɛ = 2Ɛ = 51.978 kmol/hr first deck’s overflow.

ii) Calculate the percentage composition of the particles in the first deck’s %x2S = (m2S/m2) × 100 = (0.39/54.14) × 100 = 0.72% Reactor H balances:
overflow. Out = In + Formed - Reacted
Example 2.15: Formation of milk of lime 𝑛"N = 𝑛#N + ᶓ" + ᶓ#
Solution: 0.8827*32.5 = 0 + 2.223 + ᶓ#
Basis: 100 tph feed flowrate. A simplified process used to produce monochloroethane and hydrochloric acid is ∴ ᶓ# = 26.465 kmol/min
i) To find: m2L, m2M, m2S shown below. Ethane is chlorinated in a continuous reactor by reaction 1:
Using the large, medium, small ratio of 2:1:1, the flowrates of stream 1 can be C₂H6 + Cl2 → C2H5Cl + HCl. From the given information ethane in the feed stream can be calculated and with the
calculated. reactive balance around the reactor we can find M and E in the reactor product.
X1L = (100/4) × 2 = 50% The reactor is deliberately used for low conversion of ethane to minimise the further Conversion information: 68%
m1L = 100 × 50% = 50 tph chlorination of the product C₂H₅Cl in the reactor by the undesirable side reaction 2:
++,-./,0/'2304.,0
C₂H₅Cl + Cl₂ → C₂H₄Cl₂ + HCl Percentage conversion = +5,,0
X1M = (100/4) × 1 = 25% 0.68 = +
ᶓ#
m1M = 100 × 25% = 25tph The reactor product reports to the first separator where only C₂H₅Cl is removed by #%
"3.73*
𝑛#P = = 38.919 kmol/min
stream 3. The second separator product (stream 6) has a flowrate of 32.5 kmol/min and $.3)
X1S = (100/4) × 1 = 25% its composition is 4.89 mole% chlorine, 6.84 mole% C₂H₄Cl₂ and the rest is HCl.
m1S = 100 × 25% = 25 tph Separator 2 removes all the HCl and C₂H₄Cl₂. The single pass conversion of ethane is Reactor E balance:
68%. Out = In +Formed-Reacted
Using recovery rate of small particles to the second deck underflow: 𝑛"P = 𝑛#P + 0 - ᶓ# = 38.919 – 26.465 = 12.454 kmol/min
m4S = 25 × 89% = 22.25tph Calculate the composition of reactor product.
Reactor M balance:
Total stream 4 flowrate is 22.25tph since: 3 Out = In + Formed –Reacted
m4L = 0 tph 𝑛"Q = 𝑛#Q + ᶓ# - ᶓ" = 0 + 26.465 – 2.223 = 24.242 kmol/min
SEPARATOR
m4M = 0 tph (screen only allows small particles through, medium particles are separated SEPARATOR
1 2
to stream 3)
1 2
4 6 To write a Cl balance around the reactor we need the flowrate of Cl in the feed.
Overall Cl balance:
Using recovery rate of medium particles to the second deck overflow: Out = In +Formed-Reacted
m3M = 25 × 85% =21.25tph REACTOR 𝑛3R? = 𝑛#R? - ᶓ# - ᶓ"
5
0.0489*32.5 = 𝑛#R? – 26.465 – 2.223
∴ 𝑛#R? = 30.277 kmol/min
KEY:
Because composition of m3 consists of 10% smalls and m3L=0tph: • E- Ethane
• Cl- Chlorine
x3M = 100% – x3S = 100% – 10% = 90%

• M- Monochloroethane
• H- Hydrochloric acid
• D- Dichloroethane
m3S = (21.25/90) × 10 = 2.36 tph Reactor Cl balance:
Out = In +Formed-Reacted
Solution:
Total mass balances are used to calculate flow rates of stream 2(first deck overflow): 𝑛"R? = 𝑛#R? - ᶓ# - ᶓ" = 30.277-26.465 – 2.223 = 1.589 kmol/min
Need to find the flowrate of each component in stream 3, but first need to find the
m1L = m2L + m3L + m4L
extents.
m2L = m1L –m3L – m4L = 50 – 0 – 0 = 50tph 𝑛" = ∑+S# 𝑛F = 𝑛"R? + 𝑛"P + 𝑛"Q + 𝑛"N + 𝑛"M
All D from 4 is removed by stream 6, so therefore 𝑛3M = 𝑛7M = 𝑛"M = 2.223 kmol/min
𝑛" = 1.589 + 12.454 + 24.242 + 28.688 + 2.223 = 69.196 kmol/min
m1M = m2M + m3M + m4M
Reactor D balance: +6
m2M = m1M – m3M – m4M = 25 –21.25 –0 = 3.75 tph 𝑥F = ∑!
Out = In + Formed - Reacted 67# +6
#.*)'
𝑛"M = 𝑛#M + 1*ᶓ" - 0 𝑥"R? = = 0.022967
3'.#'3
m1S = m2S + m3S+ m4S #".7*7
0.0684 × 32.5 = 0 + ᶓ" 𝑥"P = = 0.179982
m2S = m1S – m3S – m4S = 25 –2.36 – 22.25 = 0.39tph 3'.#'3
∴ ᶓ" = 2.223 kmol/min 𝑥"Q =
"7."7"
= 0.350336
3'.#'3
").3))
ii) To find %x2L , %x2m , %x2S 𝑥"N = = 0.414588
To find the extent 2 we can use H balance around the reactor because it relates the two 3'.#'3
Total flowrate of stream 2 is needed to calculate the percentage composition of stream
extents, and we have flowrate information given.
2: ∑+FS# 𝑥F =1
m2 = m2L + m2M + m2S = 50 + 3.75 + 0.39 =54.14 tph 𝑥"N + 𝑥"P + 𝑥"R? + 𝑥"Q + 𝑥"M =1
All H from 4 is removed by stream 6
Therefore, 𝑛3N = 𝑛7N = 𝑛"N = 28.688 kmol/min 0.414588 + 0.179982 + 0.022967 + 0.350336 + 𝑥"M = 1
%x2L = (m2L/m2) ×100 = (50/54.14) × 100 = 92.35% ∴ 𝑥"M = 0.032126
%x2M = (m2M/m2) × 100 = (3.75/54.14) × 100 = 6.93%

Example 2.16: Manufacturing of ethylene oxide –single reactor, single reaction

Solution:
A distillation column separates 10 000 kg/hr of a 50% benzene -50% toluene mixture. 8 000 kg/hr Basis: F = 10000 kg/hr
The product (D) recovered from the condenser at the top of the column contains 95% 0.95 Benzene
benzene and the bottom (W) from the column contains 95% toluene. The vapour 0.05 Toluene Liquid Total material balance: F = D + W
D
stream (V) enters a condenser at the top of the column at 800 kg/hr. A portion of the Benzene balance: F.xFB = D.xDB + W.xWB
product is reflux, and the rest is withdrawn for use elsewhere. Assume that the V 10000.(0.50) = D (0.95) + W (0.04)
compositions of the stream at the top of the column (V), the product withdrawn (D), Vapour
and the reflux (R) are identical because the stream is condensed completely. Find the W = 4950 kg/hr
ratio of the amount refluxed (R) to the product withdrawn (D). R D = 5050 kg/hr
Liquid: Balance around the condenser:

Reflux V=R+D
Liquid: F 8000 = R + 5050
10 000 kg/hr R = 2950 kg/hr
0.5 Benzene
0.5 Toluene Therefore: R/D = 2950/5050 = 0.85
Liquid:
0.04 Benzene

Heat transfer – Introduction
3 Heat transfer
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 What is heat transfer?
Heat transfer is the process of the movement of energy due to a temperature difference.
The calculations we are interested in typically include determining the final temperatures
of materials or how long it takes for these materials to reach these temperatures. This can
help inform the level of insulation required to ensure heat is not lost from a system.
Typically, heat loss is proportional to a temperature gradient (driving force or potential).
Heat transfer can be achieved by conduction, convection, and radiation.
3.1.2 Conduction
Conduction is the form of heat that exists due to direct contact without movement. A
temperature gradient within a substance causes a flow of energy from a hotter to a colder
region. These gradients can exist in solids, liquids, and gases; provided there is no
movement in the fluid phases, i.e., fluids which are not well mixed. Over time the
temperature difference will reduce and approach thermal equilibrium (same temperature).
Conduction occurs in a solid, liquid or gas; provided there is no bulk movement.
Examples of conduction include the end of a metal rod placed in a fire heating up from one
end to the other, hot coffee heating through the mug or the cooling of ice cream in the
bowl it is placed in.
Figure 3.1: Conduction – heat moves from the hot end to the cold end of a metal pole
3.1.3 Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat due to the bulk movement of fluids. As such convection
only applies to heat transfer within a fluid or between a solid and fluid but not the heat
transfer within a solid. This heat transfer is achieved by the movement of molecules within

Heat transfer – Introduction
the fluid. The term convection can refer to either mass transfer and/or heat transfer.
Typically, when referred to as ‘convection’, heat transfer is meant.
Convection is the sum of advection and diffusion:

Advection is the heat transported by the large-scale movement of currents in the fluid; and
Diffusion is the random Brownian motion of individual particles in the fluid.
Examples of convection include the effect of hot air rising and falling (convection currents)
or the large-scale convection currents of the atmosphere and oceans.
Figure 3.2: Convection – movement of water as it heats in a pot
3.1.4 Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of energy due to electromagnetic waves when thermal energy is
converted by the movement of the charges of electrons and protons in the material. When
a body radiates, the energy comes from the entire depth of the body, not just the surface.
Radiation does not require a temperature gradient. A person standing some distance from
the source will still feel the effects of the heat, e.g., a person near a fire is heated by the fire,
not by the air surrounding them.
Examples include infra-red radiation such as, an incandescent light bulb emitting visible
light, the infrared radiation emitted by a common household radiator or electric heater, as
well as the sun heating the earth.
Video 3.3: Heat transfer – Introduction (YouTube)

Heat transfer – Conductive heat transfer
Example 3.1: Keeping a cup of coffee warm
The power is going to be down for the next 5 hours. You have just enough time to boil a cup of water for
a cup of coffee. However, you don’t really want a cup of coffee right now – but would rather have it in
30 min time. Your colleagues come up with several suggestions on how to ensure the coffee is as warm as
possible when you want to drink it. Unfortunately, they are not sure if these will make the coffee hotter
or colder. For each suggestion indicate which would keep the coffee hotter for when you want to drink
it. Explain why.
a) Pouring the (cold) milk in when the coffee has been made OR pouring the milk in just before drinking.
Assume the milk stays at the same temperature even with the power out due to good insulation of the
fridge.
b) Covering the top of the coffee cup with something OR leaving the top of the cup open to the
atmosphere.
c) Using a steel mug OR a ceramic mug.
d) Leaving a spoon in the coffee cup OR taking the spoon out.
e) Leaving the coffee near an open window where there is a slight draft OR where there is no wind.
Solution:
a) Pouring the cold milk in as soon as the coffee has been made will keep it warmer.
Pouring cold milk into the coffee after the coffee has been left to cool for some time results in a larger
temperature gradient and the coffee will cool down faster at the start.
b) Covering the top of the coffee cup will keep it warmer.
This will reduce convective heat transfer between surface of the coffee and the surrounding air.
c) Using a ceramic mug will keep it warmer.
Ceramic is a good insulator, while metal is a very good conductor. Convective heat loss from the coffee
through the walls of the mug to the surrounding air will be faster through metal walls than ceramic
walls.
d) Taking the spoon out of the coffee mug will keep it warmer.
The spoon (assuming it is metal) is a good conductor and acts as a type of fin and increases the surface
area for heat transfer. This would increase the convective heat loss.
e) Leaving the coffee cup where there is no wind will keep it warmer.
A draft around the outside of the coffee mug will increase the rate of convective heat loss from the
walls of the mug and from the liquid surface. The draft moves heat away from the outer edges of the
mug and the liquid surface faster; thereby creating a larger temperature gradient. Heat will then be
transferred from the system more quickly.
3.2 Conductive heat transfer

3.2.1 Fourier’s Law
Conduction is governed by Fourier’s Law: The energy flux (rate of energy transfer per unit
area; W/m) is proportional to the temperature gradient, and inversely proportional to the
thickness of the object.

∆$
q0 ∝ 3.1
∆)
where:
q’ = Heat flux (W/m2)
DT = Temperature difference (K)
x = direction in which there is a temperature gradient (direction of heat transfer) (m)
Including a proportionality constant, this can be written as:

D$
q0 = −k D) 3.2
where:
k = thermal conductivity (W/(m.K))
Or more conveniently:
D$
q̇ = −k. A D) 3.3
where:
q̇ = Heat (W)
A = Cross sectional area (m2)
Thot
Tcold
q̇
Assumptions:
- Thot is at the same temperature across entire area;
- Use area perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer; and
- x is the direction from hot to cold (direction of temperature gradient).

3.2.2 Thermal conductivity

The constant, k, is the thermal conductivity of the material through which heat is
transferring. Simply, thermal conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat.
Materials with a good heat transfer ability, e.g., metals, have a high conductivity, while
those with a poor conductivity (gases) have a low k-value (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: Typical thermal conductivities
Material Thermal conductivity (W/(m.K))

Air 0.025
Wood 0.04 – 0.4
Hollow fill fibre insulation 0.042
Alcohols and oils 0.1 – 0.21
Polypropylene 0.25
Mineral oil 0.138
Rubber 0.16
LPG 0.23 – 0.26
Cement, Portland 0.29
Water (liquid) 0.6
Thermal grease 0.7 – 3
Thermal epoxy 1–7
Glass 1.1
Soil 1.5
Concrete, stone 1.7
Ice 2
Stainless steel 12.11 ~ 45.0
Lead 35.3
Aluminium 237 (pure)
120 — 180 (alloys)
Gold 318
Copper 401
Silver 429
In reality, k is not a constant but dependent on temperature:

Figure 3.3: Thermal conductivities of various materials
Good conductors have high thermal conductivity, e.g., copper.

Poor conductors, i.e., good insulators, have low thermal conductivity, e.g., asbestos.
3.2.3 Conduction through a wall

Case 1: Conduction through a single slab
Consider the heat transfer across a single slab.
Th
Tc
k
q̇
L
x=0 x=L
where:

Th: Hot temperature on one side of the slab (K)

Tc: Cooler temperature on other side of the slab (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
A: Area perpendicular to heat flow (m2)
L: Length of the slab (m)
x: Direction in which heat flows (m)
k: Thermal conductivity of the slab (W/(m.K))
From Fourier’s Law:

D$
q̇ = −k. A D) 3.3
Assumptions:
- Area through slab is constant
- k is constant
- Steady state conditions. “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out other face of
the slab”
This is a separable differential equation:

Rearranging:
K̇
dx = dT 3.4
#MN
Therefore:
)IO K̇ $
∫)I/ dx = ∫$ D dT 3.5
#MN E
Since none of q̇ , k or A are functions of temperature or x, we can remove these from the
integral:
K̇ )IO $
∫ dx = ∫$ D dT 3.6
#MN )I/ E
And integrate:
K̇
(L − 0) = (TE − T4 ) 3.7
#MN
Therefore:
MN($E #$D )
q̇ = 3.8
O
Example 3.2: Conduction through a single slab

An aluminium plate (k = 215 W/m°C) is heated to 300°C. If the heat flux is 8.6 MW/m2, how hot is the
other face, if the metal is 5 mm thick?
Solution:
dT
𝑞1 = −k
dx
Assuming constant k and A:
𝑘(𝑇F − 𝑇G )
𝑞1 =
𝐿
𝑞1 𝐿
∴ = 𝑇F − 𝑇G
𝑘
𝑞1 𝐿 (8600000)(0.005)
∴ 𝑇G = 𝑇F − = 300 −
𝑘 215
∴ 𝑇G = 100
Case 2: Conduction through 2 slabs

Consider the heat transfer across two slabs.
T1
Th
Tc
k1 k2
q̇
L1 L2
x=0 x = L1 x = L1 + L2
where:
T1: Temperature at the end of slab 1 (K)
Tc: Cold temperature on the other side of slabs (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
L1: Length of slab 1 (m)
k1: Thermal conductivity of slab 1 (W/(m.K))
k2: Thermal conductivity of the slab 2 (W/(m.K))

Assumptions:
- k1 ≠ k2
- Steady state conditions; therefore, “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out other face
of the slab”
From single slab calculation:

MN($E #$D )
q̇ = 3.9
O
Therefore:
M" N($E #$" )
Slab 1: q̇ = 3.10
O"
M! N($" #$D )
Slab 2: q̇ = 3.11
O!
Re-arranging, this gives:

K̇ O"
T4 − T& = 3.12
M" N
K̇ O!
T& − TE = 3.13
M! N
Adding these equations, we are left with an expression without T1 and can calculate q̇ :
K̇ O" K̇ O!
T4 − T& + T& − TE = + 3.14
M" N M! N
K̇ O" K̇ O!
T4 − T& + T& − TE = + 3.15
M" N M! N
K̇ O" O
T4 − TE = % + M! & 3.16
N M" !
K̇ $E #$D
= H H 3.17
N P "- !Q
I" I!
To determine T1, either of the original heat transfer equations can then be used.
Example 3.3: Conduction through two slabs
The wall of a furnace is constructed from an inner steel layer of 0.5 cm (k = 40 W/m.K) and a brick outer layer of
10 cm (k = 2.5 W/mk). The inner surface temperature is 900K and the outside surface temperature is 460K. What is
the temperature between the steel and the brick?
Solution:
Assumptions:
- Steady State (energy in = energy out)
- Linear heat transfer (ignore the effects of edges)
&'
From Fourier’s Law: 𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 &!

( '!" "'#$%
For 2 slabs this simplifies to: )
= &' &)
*
(' ()
Therefore:
𝑞 (900 − 460) 440
= = = 10965.732 … 𝑊/𝑚$
𝐴 0.005 0.1 (0.000125 + 0.04)
40 +
2.5
If we let 𝑇# be the temperature between the steel and the brick and:
-./'
𝑇# = 𝑇+, − = 900 − (10965)(0.000125) = 898.629 … 𝐾
).0'
The temperature between the brick and steel is approximately 625°C
Case 3: Conduction through n-slabs

Consider the heat transfer across multiple slabs.
T1 T2 T3 Tn-1
Th
k1 k2 kk33 ... kknn Tc
q̇
L1 L2 L3 Ln
x=0 x = L1 x = L1 + L2 + L3
x = L1 + L2 x = L1 + L2 + L3 + … + Ln
where:
Ti: Temperature at the end of slab i (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
Li: Length of slab i (m)
ki: Thermal conductivity of slab i (W/(m.K))
n: Number of slabs
Assumptions:
- ki ≠ ki +1
- Steady state conditions; therefore “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out other face
of the slab”
As before we can solve for the heat flow through each slab:
M" N($E #$" )
Slab 1: q̇ = 3.18
O"
M! N($" #$! )
Slab 2: q̇ = 3.19
O!
M# N($! #$# )
Slab 3: q̇ = 3.20
O#
M* N($*J" #$D )
Slab n: q̇ = 3.21
O*
Rearranging as before:
K̇ O"
T4 − T& = 3.22
M" N
K̇ O!
T& − T. = 3.23
M! N
K̇ O#
T. − T% = 3.24
M# N
K̇ O*
T,#& − TE = 3.25
M* N
Adding these equations, we are left with an expression without Ti and can calculate q̇ :
K̇ O O O O*
T4 − TE = % " + M! + M# + ⋯ + & 3.26
N M " ! # M*
This is more commonly written as:

O O O O*
T4 − TE = q̇ %M "N + M !N + M #N + ⋯ + & 3.27
" ! # M* N
Which can also be expressed as:

∆$
q̇ = HK 3.28
∑*
KM" I L
K
Video 3.4: Heat transfer – Conduction through slabs (YouTube)

Example 3.4: Conduction through multiple layers
On a chilly winter day, you decide to add on a few layers of clothes to stay warm. What heat flux do you
experience for each successive layer added as below? Assume your skin is at 36°C and the temperature
outside is at 4°C:
1) T-Shirt (k = 0.05 W/mK; Thickness = 0.75 mm)
2) Jersey 1 (k = 0.06 W/mK; Thickness = 2 mm)
3) Jersey 2 (k = 0.05 W/mK; Thickness = 2 mm)
4) Jacket (k = 0.005 W/mK; Thickness = 3 mm)
5) Overcoat (k = 0.02 W/mK; Thickness = 4.5 mm)
It is estimated that the body released between 90-140 W of heat. Further, the body has an average surface
area of between 1.6 and 1.9 m2. Given this information, what would be a reasonable number of layers to
wear?
Solution:
∆O ∆O
q̇ = \] OR 𝑞1 = \]
∑`
]a" ∑`
]a"
^] _ ^]
∆O ,(
1) 𝑞 = 1
\" = b.cd×"bef
= 2133.3 𝑊/𝑚(
^" b.bd
∆O ,(
2) 𝑞1 = \" \ = b.cd×"bef !×"bef
= 662.1 𝑊/𝑚(
0 ! 0
^" ^! b.bd b.bg
∆O ,(
3) 𝑞 = \" 1
\ \ = b.cd×"bef !×"bef !×"bef
= 362.2 𝑊/𝑚(
0 !0 f 0 0
^" ^! ^f b.bd b.bg b.bd
∆O ,(
4) 𝑞1 = \" \ \ \ = b.cd×"bef !×"bef !×"bef f×"bef
= 46.5 𝑊/𝑚(
0 !0 f0 h 0 0 0
^" ^! ^f ^h b.bd b.bg b.bd b.bbd
∆O ,(
5) 𝑞1 = \" \ \ \ \ = b.cd×"bef !×"bef !×"bef f×"bef h.d×"bef
= 35 𝑊/𝑚(
0 !0 f0 h0 d
^" ^! ^f ^h ^d 0 0 0 0
b.bd b.bg b.bd b.bbd b.b!
From the average body data, it can be shown that the body releases between 47 and 87 W/m2. Therefore,
is would be a reasonable assumption that the average person would be most comfortable with four layers
as calculated.
Temperature profile through n-slabs

From the calculation of heat transfer in one slab it was show that:
MN($E #$D )
q̇ = 3.8
O
Rearranging:
q̇ L = kA(T4 − TE ) 3.29
K̇ O
= T4 − TE 3.30
MN
#K̇ O
TE = + T4 3.31
MN
When 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, plot of T vs. x gives a straight-line temperature profile (for a constant

k, at steady state). An insulator has a LOW thermal conductivity, therefore (-q̇ /k.A) is

LARGE, and the slope is great, i.e., not much temperature change. NOTE: Only applicable
for a constant heat transfer constant.
k
Th
Tc
x
0 L
In the same way, this can be extended for n-slabs in series. The temperature profile in each
slab is linear (provided k is constant), with a different linear slope depending on the value
of k.
k1 k2 k3 ... kn
Th
Tc
x
x1 x2 x3 xn-1 xn
0
3.2.4 Conduction through a cylinder

Case 1: Conduction through a single cylinder
Consider the heat transfer across a single cylinder.

Tin
ri
Tout
ro
q̇
where:
Tin: Temperature on the inside of the cylinder (K)
Tout: Temperature on the outside of the cylinder (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
ri: Inner radius of the cylinder (m)
ro: Outer radius of the cylinder (m)
k: Thermal conductivity of the slab (W/(m.K))
Assumptions:
- Cylinder thickness is constant throughout
- k is constant
- Steady state conditions; therefore, “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out other face
of the slab”
- No axial heat flow
- Area through which heat flows is NOT constant!

D$
q̇ = −k. A D) 3.3
But we do not have an x-direction in a cylinder. Therefore, convert Fourier’s Law into
cylindrical equivalent:
D$
q̇ = −k. A DC 3.32
The area is that which is perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer. Therefore:
A = 2π.r.L (circumference of a cylinder × length) 3.33
And Fourier’s Law becomes:

D$
q̇ = −k. (2πrL) DC 3.34
Assuming k is constant and solving the separable differential equation:

K̇ CQ DC $
∫ = ∫$ QRS dT 3.35
#M.TO CK C K*
Integrating:
K̇ C
ln % CQ & = T>?@ − T=, 3.36
#M.TO K
Or:
K̇ C
T=, − T>?@ = M.TO ln % CQ & 3.37
K
Video 3.5: Heat transfer – Conduction through cylinders (YouTube)
Example 3.5: Conduction through a cylinder
Water enters a pipe at a temperature of 60°C. Assuming the pipe is made of stainless steel (k = 30 W/m2)
and that the pipe has an inner and outer diameter of 20 and 25 cm respectively, what is the outer
temperature of the pipe if heat is lost at a rate of 15 kJ/m.s? Assume the temperature is constant down the
length of the pipe.
Solution:
𝑞̇ 𝑟7
𝑇5/ − 𝑇789 = 𝑙𝑛 0 7
𝑘2𝜋𝐿 𝑟5
𝑞̇ 𝑟7 15000 25
𝑇789 = 𝑇5/ − 𝑙𝑛 0 7 = 60 − 𝑙𝑛 0 7
𝑘2𝜋𝐿 𝑟5 (30)2𝜋 20
𝑇789 = 42.2°𝐶
Example 3.6: Conduction through a sphere
Liquid ammonia at 0.5 atm (-45°C) is stored in a spherical container of ID 1 foot and OD 18 inches. The
walls of the sphere are filled with insulation (k = 0.0692 W.m-1.K-1), and the outer surface is at room

temperature of 20°C. What is the heat transfer through the sphere? Assuming the temperature in the
sphere remains constant, how much ammonia is lost per hour by evaporation? Hvap NH3: 1390 kJ/kg
Solution:
Fourier’s law:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟
𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝑟 (
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑟
∴ = 𝑑𝑇
−4𝜋𝑘 𝑟 (
Ti Ui
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑟
Q ( = Q 𝑑𝑇
−4𝜋𝑘 𝑟
Tj Uj
𝑞̇ −1 Ti
∴ ? @ = 𝑇5 − 𝑇7
−4𝜋𝑘 𝑟 Tj
𝑞̇ 1 1
0 − 7 = 𝑇5 − 𝑇7
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟5 𝑟7
4𝜋𝑘(𝑇5 − 𝑇7 )
𝑞̇ =
1 1
)𝑟 − 𝑟 *
5 7
4𝜋(0.0692𝑊𝑚%& 𝐾 %& )(228𝐾 − 293𝐾)
𝑞̇ = = −25.84 𝑊 = −25.84 𝐽𝑠 %& = −93.024 𝑘𝐽ℎ%&
1 1
−
)0.1524𝑚 0.2286𝑚*
𝑞̇ 93.024 𝑘𝐽ℎ%&
𝑚̇ = = = 0.06692 𝑘𝑔ℎ%& = 66.92 𝑔ℎ%&
∆𝐻mVWX,YZ, 1390 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔%&
3.2.5 Conduction through an irregular shape

When the heat flows through a material which is not a uniform shape, the area term can
no longer be taken out of the integral term as was done previously.
From the Fourier form as before:

)IO K̇ $
∫)I/ dx = ∫$ D dT 3.5
#MN E
Now:
K̇ )IO & $
∫ dx = ∫$ D dT 3.38
#M )I/ N E
Typically, area will be given as a function of x, e.g., A = x + 3; or A = 2x2 – 4 or others and

needs to be integrated appropriately.
Example 3.7: Conduction when area is not constant
In a building in a hot climate (45°C), the inside is cooled to 15°C. The walls of the building include an
irregular shaped steel girder which forms a structural member of the wall. If no heat is lost or gained to
or from the insulation through the sides of the girder, calculate the heat flow from the room from a single
girder.

Given: Thickness of the wall, 20 cm; k = 45 W.m-1.K-1; A = -50.x2 +3
Solution:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘. 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘. (−50𝑥 ( + 3)
𝑑𝑥
𝑞̇
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘(−50𝑥 ( + 3)
$6[ Uk
𝑞̇
Q 𝑑𝑥 = Q 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘(−50𝑥 ( + 3)
$6\ Ul
$6[ Uk
𝑞̇ 1
Q 𝑑𝑥 = Q 𝑑𝑇
𝑘 50𝑥 ( − 3
$6\ Ul
[
𝑞̇ 2 2 × 3𝑥
? 𝑡𝑎𝑛%& @ = 𝑇F − 𝑇G
𝑘 √4 × 50 × 3 √4 × 50 × 3 \
𝑞̇ 2 6𝑥 \.(
? 𝑡𝑎𝑛%& @ = 45 − 15 = 30
45 √600 √600 \
(30 × 45)
𝑞̇ =
2 6(0.2) 2 6(0)
0 𝑡𝑎𝑛%& 7− 0 𝑡𝑎𝑛%& 7
√600 √600 √600 √600
1350
𝑞̇ =
1.2
)0.081 𝑡𝑎𝑛%& 24.5* − 0
1350
𝑞̇ = = 810.6 𝑊
1.665
Example 3.8: Conduction through irregular shape (1)
The figure shows the plan view of a steel girder forming a structural member in the wall of a cold room.
The thickness of the wall is 30 cm. The width of the girder is 10 cm on the inside and 20 cm on the outside.
Assuming no heat transfer across the insulation on the sides, calculate the heat flow from the cold room
To = 25°C
Ti = 5°C
per metre of the girder. k = 45W.m-1.K-1
Solution:
Drawing the system in 3-D, with heat flowing perpendicular to the diagram, the surface area perpendicular
to the flow of heat will be rectangular, with the area increasing as the heat flows from the cold room to
the outside because of the tapering sides of the girder (the girder boundaries become increasingly further
apart).

20 cm To = 25°C
30 cm
10 cm x
Ti = 5°C
Area
We need an expression to describe how the rectangular surface area perpendicular to the direction of heat
flow changes with distance through the wall. The sides of the girder can be described using the equation
for a straight line. Defining an x-y coordinate system such that at x = 0, y = 10 cm , and at x = 30 cm, y =
20 cm.
Given two points and knowing that y = mx + c, we can find:

&
𝑏(𝑥) = , 𝑥 + 0.10, where b is the breadth of the rectangle
Now from Fourier’s law:

𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
With: 𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑏(𝑥)
$j Uj
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑥
∴ Q = Q 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘 1 𝑥 + 0.10
$i 3 Ui
Let u = 1/3 x + 10
du = 1/3 dx
3du = dx
And at x = 0, u = 0.10
at x = 0.30, u = 0.20
\.(\ Uj
𝑞̇ 3
∴ Q 𝑑𝑢 = Q 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘 𝑢
\.&\ Ui
3𝑞̇ 0.20
. 𝑙𝑛 0 7 = 𝑇] − 𝑇5
−𝑘 0.10
−𝑘(𝑇] − 𝑇5 ) −45𝑊𝑚%& 𝐾 %& (298𝐾 − 278𝐾)
𝑞̇ = = = −433 𝑊. 𝑚%&
3 × 𝑙𝑛 (2) 3 × 𝑙𝑛 (2)
The sign is negative because heat flow is conventionally down the temperature gradient (i.e. from hot to
cold)
3.2.6 Conduction when thermal conductivity is not constant

Typically, thermal conductivity is not constant, but a function of temperature. As such:
From the Fourier form as before:

)IO K̇ $
∫)I/ dx = ∫$ D dT 3.5
#MN E
Now:
K̇ )IO $
− N ∫)I/ dx = ∫$ D kdT 3.39
E
Typically, k will be given as a function of temperature, e.g., k = T + 30; or k = 2T2 – 4 or

others and needs to be integrated appropriately.
Example 3.9: Conduction with variable conductive heat transfer coefficient (1)
A furnace wall has a thickness of 0.5 ft, with inner and outer temperatures of 200°F and 100°F respectively.
The thermal conductivity is given by: K(BTU/h.ft.°F) = 0.1 + 0.001T(°F).
Calculate the heat transfer per square foot through the furnace wall.
Solution:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
$ U!
𝑞̇
Q 𝑑𝑥 = − Q 𝑘𝑑𝑇
\ 𝐴 U"
𝑞̇ $ U!
Q 𝑑𝑥 = − Q (0.1 + 0.001 𝑇)𝑑𝑇
𝐴 \ U"
𝑞̇ 0.001𝑇( ( 0.001𝑇& (
(𝑥 − 0) = − r(0.1𝑇( + , − (0.1𝑇& + ,s
𝐴 2 2
𝑞̇ 0.001(100)( 0.001(200)(
(0.5) = − r(0.1(100) + , − (0.1(200) + ,s
𝐴 2 2
𝑞̇ t(10) − (40)u
=−
𝐴 0.5
^̇
`
= 60 BTU/hr.ft2
Example 3.10: Conduction with variable conductive heat transfer coefficient (2)
A house in a cold climate with a flat insulated rook is heated and maintained at 23°C. The roof consists of
three layers that are in contact with one another: ceiling board (1.50 cm thick), insulation (40.0 cm thick)
and a waterproof layer on the outside (0.5 cm thick). The thermal conductivities of the ceiling board,
insulation and waterproof material are k1 = 0.690 W.m-1.K-1, k2 = 85.0 W.m-1.K-1 and k3 = 377 W.m-1.K-1.
Lying on the waterproof material is a layer of snow, which gets thicker as the snow falls. Due to
compression of the snow in contact with the roof, the thermal conductivity is a function of the thickness
of the snow according to:
1
𝑘a/7b =
𝑎𝑙 + 𝑏
Where:
l is the thickness of the snow in m, with a = 15.6 K.W-1 and b = 1.24 m.K.W-1

The film heat transfer coefficient on the inside is 18 W.m-2.K-1 and on the outside it is 50 W.m-2.K-1. If
heat is lost at a rate of 50.0 W.m-2 and the outside temperature is -5°C, what is the thickness of the snow
on the roof and the overall heat transfer coefficient?
Ta
h0 T4
L4
L (m)
L3 = 42cm
3
L2 = 41.5cm
2
1 L1 = 1.5cm
0cm
hi
Solution:
𝑞̇v %(
𝐴 = 50.0 𝑊. 𝑚
𝑇W = −5℃ = 268𝐾
For the inner film:
𝑞̇ 𝑞̇
= ℎ5 (𝑇5 − 𝑇\ ) ⇒ 𝑇\ = 𝑇5 −
𝐴 𝐴ℎ5
∴ 𝑇\ = 293.22𝐾
For the ceiling board:
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇
= −𝑘& ⇒ (𝐿 ) = 𝑇& − 𝑇\
𝐴 𝑑𝐿 −𝑘& 𝐴 &
∴ 𝑇& = 292.13𝐾
For the insulation:
= −𝑘( ⇒ (𝐿 − 𝐿& ) = 𝑇( − 𝑇&
𝐴 𝑑𝐿 −𝑘( 𝐴 (
∴ 𝑇( = 291.89𝐾
For the waterproofing:
= −𝑘, ⇒ (𝐿 − 𝐿( ) = 𝑇, − 𝑇(
𝐴 𝑑𝐿 −𝑘, 𝐴 ,
∴ 𝑇, = 291.89𝐾
For the snow:
𝑞̇ 1 𝑑𝑇
=−
𝐴 (𝑎𝐿 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝐿
𝑞̇
⇒ − (𝑎𝐿 + 𝑏)𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝑇
𝐴
Integrating, with L = thickness of the snow:
^̇ W[!
−`) (
+ 𝑏𝐿* = 𝑇- − 𝑇, (1)
For the outer film:
𝑞̇ 𝑞̇
= ℎ\ (𝑇- − 𝑇W ) ⇒ 𝑇- = 𝑇W +
𝐴 𝐴ℎ\
∴ 𝑇- = 269𝐾
From (1):

15.6
−50𝑊. 𝑚%( /0 𝐾𝑊 %& 7 𝐿( + (1.24 𝑚𝐾𝑊 %& )𝐿= = 269𝐾 − 291.89𝐾
2
(7.8 𝐾𝑊 %& )𝐿( + (1.24 𝑚𝐾𝑊 %& )𝐿 − 0.4578 𝑚𝐾. 𝑊 %& = 0
Using the quadratic formula, and the positive result:

L =0 .1755m
The snow is 17.55 cm thick
And from 𝑞 = 𝑈∆𝑇

𝑞
𝑈=
∆𝑇
50
𝑈=
23 − (−5)
𝑈 = 1.78 𝑊/𝑚( 𝐾
3.2.7 Thermal Resistance

From the slab calculations, it was shown that:
O O O O*
T4 − TE = q̇ %M "N + M !N + M #N + ⋯ + & 3.40
" ! # M* N
Or:
$E #$D
q̇ = H" H! H H 3.41
P - - # -⋯- * Q
I" L I! L I# L I* L
∆$
q̇ = HK 3.42
∑*
KM" I L
K
This can be simplified to:

∆$
q̇ = 3.43
V
where:
DT: Temperature difference (K)
R: Thermal resistance (K/W)
OK
For slab calculations, R = ∑,=I& , however, R can represent the resistance for any range
MK N
of shapes.
It is possible to relate thermal resistance to the resistance in an electrical circuit. In this

way the resistance through solid slabs can be represented as below.
R1 R2 R3

Example 3.11: Conduction through an irregular shape (2)
A circular pipe of 20 cm is enclosed centrally in a square section insulator of side 36 cm. The thermal
conductivity of the material is given as 8.5W/mK. The inside surface is at 200°C, while the outside is at
30°C. Determine the heat flow for a length of 5 m.
& & &.\fW

Given: 𝑅 = (cd e
{ 𝑙𝑛 (T
|
where:
a = side length of length of square section
l = length
r = radius of inner portion
k = 8.5 W/m.K
30°C
0.2 m
b=5m
200°C
a = 0.36m
Solution:
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ =
𝑅
1 1 1.08 × 0.36
𝑅= } 𝑙𝑛 ~ = 0.002489362 °C/W
2𝜋 × 5 8.5 0.2
2. 2
∆𝑇 200 − 30
∴ 𝑞̇ = = = 68290.59 = 68 000 W
𝑅 0.002489 …
Example 3.12: Conduction through an irregular shape (3)
A pipe of 30 cm diameter is insulated by a material of thermal conductivity 0.45 W/mK. Due to space
restrictions, the pipe is placed slightly off-centre (5cm), resulting in a portion of insulation thicker than
the rest of the pipe (see diagram). The inner surface is at 250°C and the outer surface is at 60°C. Determine
the heat loss for a 5 m length of pipe.
& g[(T! 0T" )! %i ! ]0g[(T! %T" )! %i ! ]

Given: 𝑅 = (c.e.d
𝑙𝑛
g[(T! 0T" )! %i ! ]%g[(T! %T" )! %i ! ]
where:
e = eccentricity, m

Heat transfer – Convective heat transfer
60°C
0.15 m
0.05 m
0.3 m
250°C
k = 0.45 W/m.K
Solution:
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ =
𝑅
1 €[(0.15 + 0.3)( − 0.05( ] + €[(0.15 − 0.3)( − 0.05( ]
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 × 0.45 × 5 €[(0.15 + 0.3)( − 0.05( ] − €[(0.15 − 0.3)( − 0.05( ]
1 0.4472 + 0.14142
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛 = 0.046325 ℃/W
2𝜋 × 0.45 × 5 0.4472 − 0.14142
250 − 60
∴ 𝑞̇ = = 4101 W
0.046325
3.3 Convective heat transfer

3.3.1 Newton’s Law of Cooling
Convection (film) heat transfer occurs through the bulk movement of fluid within a fluid
or between a solid and a fluid.
Consider the convective heat from surface.
Ts
Tb
Solid surface
Approximation: Linear temperature flow

through boundary layer
d
Film of fluid; stationary

(boundary layer)

where:
δ: thickness of stationary boundary layer (m)
Ts: Surface temperature (K)
Tb: Bulk temperature (K)
If we assume that there is no movement in a boundary layer between the slab and bulk
fluid (δ – Greek delta), we can approximate the heat transfer to Fourier’s Law:
MN($k #$l )
q̇ = 3.44
W
Defining a heat transfer coefficient as h:

M
h= 3.45
W
The equation for heat transfer becomes:

q̇ = hA(TF − T2 ) 3.46
q̇ = h. A. ∆T 3.47
where:
h: Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2.K)
This is known as Newton’s Law of Cooling:
Note:
It is harder to measure wall temperatures compared to the bulk fluid temperatures.
Therefore, the equations are developed to use the bulk fluid temperatures and not
intermediate wall temperatures.
3.3.2 Convection from a wall

Case 1: Convection from a single slab:
Consider the convective heat from a single slab (ignoring the heat transfer through the
wall).

T1
Tc
q̇
hc
where:
Tc: Cold temperature (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
hc: Heat Transfer coefficient on the cold side (W/m2.K)
Assumptions:
- The fluid has a heat transfer coefficient (h)
- Area through convective area is constant
- Steady state conditions, therefore, “Energy in” = “Energy out”
Convective heat transfer is given as:

q̇ = hA(TF − T2 ) 3.46
Using the nomenclature here:
q̇ = hX A(T& − TE ) 3.48
Example 3.13: Convective heat transfer
A stainless-steel plate is maintained at 150°C, while the surrounding temperature is 20°C. The heat transfer
coefficient is given as 11.2 W/m2.K. What is the convective heat loss per square meter?
Solution:
𝑞̇ = ℎ𝐴(𝑇( − 𝑇& )
𝑞̇
= ℎ(𝑇( − 𝑇& )
𝐴

𝑞̇
= 11.2(150 − 20) = 1456 𝑊/𝑚( = 1.456 𝑘𝑊/𝑚(
𝐴
Case 2: Convection on either side of 2 slabs:

Consider the heat across two slabs, considering both conduction and convection.
T0 T1 T2
Th
Tc
q̇
hh k1 k2 hc
L1 L2
x=0 x = L1 x = L1 + L2
where:
T0: Temperature at the start of slab 1 (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
k1: Thermal conductivity of slab 1 (W/(m.K))
k2: Thermal conductivity of the slab 2 (W/(m.K))
hh: Heat Transfer coefficient on the hot side (W/m2.K)
hc: Heat Transfer coefficient on the cold side (W/m2.K)
Assumptions:
- The slabs have thermal conductivities (k); the fluids have heat transfer coefficients
(h)

- Area through the slabs is constant

- k1 ≠ k2 (k1 and k2 are constant)
- Steady state conditions, therefore, “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out
other face of the slab”
Heat transfer equations from inside to outside:

For inside convective film: q̇ = h4 A(T4 − T/ ) 3.49
M" N($. #$" )
Slab 1 (conduction): q̇ = 3.50
O"
M! N($" #$! )
Slab 2 (conduction): q̇ = 3.51
O!
For outside film: q̇ = hE A(T. − TE ) 3.52
Rearranging for each in terms of temperature:

K̇
T4 − T/ = 3.53
4E N
K̇ O"
T/ − T& = 3.54
M" N
K̇ O!
T& − T. = 3.55
M! N
K̇
T. −TE = 3.56
4D N
Then adding the last four equations, we are left with an expression without Tc and are able
to calculate q̇ :
K̇ K̇ O" K̇ O! K̇
T4 − T/ + T/ − T& + T& − T. + T. −TE = +M +M +4 3.57
4E N "N !N DN
K̇ K̇ O" K̇ O! K̇
T4 − T/ + T/ − T& + T& − T. + T. −TE = +M +M +4 3.58
4E N " N ! N DN
K̇ & O O &
T4 −TE = % + M" + M! + 4 & 3.59
N 4E " ! D
K̇ $E #$D
= " H" H! "
3.60
N Y - - - Z
EE I" I! ED
Given the area, heat transfer coefficients ad thermal conductivities, only need to know
inner and outer temperatures (NOT any of the inside temperatures) to solve for q.
Example 3.14: Conduction and convection through a furnace wall
The inner surface of a 23 cm brick furnace wall is kept at 820°C, while the temperature of the outer surface
is 180°C.
a) Calculate the heat loss from the furnace, given a thermal conductivity of the brick of 0.865 W.m-1.K-1.
b) A further 23 cm is added to the furnace wall, consisting of insulating brick with a thermal conductivity
of 0.26W.m-1.K-1. Calculate the reduction in the heat loss, and the maximum temperature to which

the insulating brick is exposed. Assume that the inner temperature remains at 820°C. The temperature
of the surrounding air is 20°C.
c) Re-calculate the heat loss and the maximum temperature to which the insulating is exposed, but allow
for a convective heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface of 11.9 W.m-2.K-1. Assume that the inner
temperature remains at 820°C, and the temperature of the surrounding air is 20°C.
d) How do the answers compare when convection is included?
Solution:
mU
a) 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 m$
[ Uj
𝑞̇
∴ Q 𝑑𝑥 = Q 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘𝐴
\ Ui
𝑞̇ 𝑘 0.865 𝑊𝑚%& 𝐾 %&
= (𝑇5 − 𝑇\ ) = (1093𝐾 − 453𝐾) = 2407 𝑊. 𝑚%(
𝐴 𝐿 0.23𝑚
b) For wall 1:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘& 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
[" Um
𝑞̇
∴ Q 𝑑𝑥 = Q 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘& 𝐴
\ Ui
𝑞̇ 𝐿&
⇒ = 𝑇5 − 𝑇b
𝑘& 𝐴
^̇ e
`
= [" (𝑇5 − 𝑇b ) (1)
"
For wall 2:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘( 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
^̇ e!
`
= [
(𝑇b − 𝑇\ ) (2)
!
Equating (1) and (2)

𝑘& 𝑘(
(𝑇5 − 𝑇b ) = (𝑇b − 𝑇\ )
𝐿& 𝐿(
𝑘& 𝑇5 𝑘( 𝑇7 0.865 𝑊. 𝑚%& 𝐾 %& . 1093 𝐾 0.26 𝑊𝑚%& . 𝐾 %& . 293 𝐾
)𝐿 + 𝐿 * 0 0.23𝑚 + 0.23𝑚 7
& (
𝑇b = =
𝑘 𝑘 0.865 𝑊. 𝑚%& . 𝐾 %& 0.26 𝑊. 𝑚%& . 𝐾 %&
)𝐿& + 𝐿( * 0 + 7
& ( 0.23𝑚 0.23𝑚
𝑇b = 908 𝐾 = 635℃ is the maximum temperature to which the insulating brick is exposed
From (2):
𝑞̇ 0.26 𝑊. 𝑚%& . 𝐾 %&
= (908 𝐾 − 293𝐾) = 695.2 𝑊. 𝑚%(
𝐴 0.23 𝑚
∆𝑞 = 2407 𝑊. 𝑚%( − 695 𝑊. 𝑚%( = 1712 𝑊. 𝑚%( reduction in heat loss
c) For wall 1:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘& 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
^̇ e"
`
= [ (𝑇5 − 𝑇b ) (1)
"
For wall 2:

^̇ e!
`
=
[!
t𝑇b − 𝑇4 u (2)
For the film:
𝑞̇ = ℎ𝐴(𝑇4 − 𝑇\ )
^̇
𝑇4 − 𝑇\ =
F`
(3)
Add (1) + (2):
^̇ [ [
𝑇5 − 𝑇4 = ` )e" + e! * (4)
" !
Add (3) + (4)

𝑞̇ 𝐿& 𝐿( 1
𝑇5 − 𝑇\ = 0 + + 7
𝐴 𝑘& 𝑘( ℎ
𝑞̇ 𝑇5 − 𝑇\
∴ =
𝐴 )𝐿& + 𝐿( + 1*
𝑘& 𝑘( ℎ
𝑞̇ 1093𝐾 − 293𝐾
= = 648 𝑊𝑚%(
𝐴 ) 0.23𝑚 0.23𝑚 1
+ + *
0.896 𝑊𝑚%& 𝐾 %& 0.26 𝑊𝑚%& 𝐾 %& 11.9 𝑊𝑚%( 𝐾 %&
From (2):
𝑞̇ 𝐿(
𝑇b = + 𝑇4
𝑘( 𝐴
From (3):
𝑞̇
𝑇4 = + 𝑇\
ℎ𝐴
𝑞̇ 𝐿( 𝑞̇ 𝑞̇ 𝐿( 1
∴ 𝑇b = + = 𝑇\ + 0 + 7
𝑘( 𝐴 ℎ𝐴 𝐴 𝑘( ℎ
0.23𝑚 1
∴ 𝑇b = 293𝐾 + 648 𝑊𝑚%( × 0 %& %&
+ 7 = 920.68𝐾 = 648℃
0.26 𝑊𝑚 𝐾 11.9 𝑊𝑚%( 𝐾 %&
𝑞̇ 648 𝑊𝑚%(
𝑇4 = + 𝑇\ = + 293𝐾 = 347.45 = 74.5℃
ℎ𝐴 11.9 𝑊𝑚%( 𝐾 %&
The maximum temperature is 648°C.
d) The heat loss was 695.2 W/m2 neglecting the convective film heat transfer on the outer surface of the
furnace wall. Taking the convective heat transfer into account (as calculated above), there is a 47.2
W/m2 reduction in heat loss. The film acts as an additional insulating layer.
Reminder:
∆$
q̇ = 3.61
V
For the above equation:

∆$
q̇ = " H H "
3.62
Y - "- !- Z
EE L I" L I! L ED L
∆$
q̇ = 3.63
( V" -V! -V# -Vn )
where:
Ri : individual thermal resistances for different layers (K/W)
Compare this to U as defined later.

Example 3.15:
Solution
Case 3: Convection on either side of n-slabs:

Consider the heat transfer across multiple slabs.
T0 T1 T2 T3 Tn-1 Tn
Th
Tc
…
q̇
hh k1 k2 k3 kn hc
L1 L2 L3 L3
x=0 x = L1 x = L1 + L2 + L3
x = L1 + L2 x = L1 + L2 + L3 + … + Ln
Using similar derivations as above:

K̇ $E #$D
= " HK " 3.64
N Y -∑*
EE KM"I -ED Z
K
Example 3.16:
Solution
3.3.3 Convection (and conduction) through a cylinder

Case 1: Convection (and conduction) through concentric cylinders
Consider the heat transfer across multiple layers of a cylinder.

Insulation
Pipe wall
Tout T2 T1 T0 Tin
r2
hin r0
k1
k2 r1
hout
q̇
where:
Tin: Temperature on the inside of the cylinder (K)
Tout: Temperature on the outside of the cylinder (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
r0: Inner radius of the cylinder (m)
r1: Outer radius of the 1st cylinder (pipe) (m)
r2: Outer radius of the 2nd cylinder (insulation) (m)
k1: Thermal conductivity of cylinder 1 (W/(m.K))
k2: Thermal conductivity of cylinder 2 (W/(m.K))
hin: Heat Transfer coefficient on the inside (inside) (W/m2.K)
hout: Heat Transfer coefficient on the outside (outside) (W/m2.K)
Assumptions:
- Cylinder thickness is constant throughout

- Steady state conditions, therefore, “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out
other face of the slab”
- Area through which heat flows is NOT constant!
- k1 ≠ k2
- No axial heat transfer
Convection on inner surface:

q̇ = h=, A/ (T=, − T/ ) 3.65
A/ = 2πr/ L 3.66
Area is the area in contact with the film (we don’t know how thick the film is so can’t use
any other area)
∴ q̇ = h=, 2πr/ L(T=, − T/ ) 3.67
K̇
T=, − T/ = 3.68
4K .TC. O
Conduction across pipe:

D$
q̇ = −k& . (2πrL) DC 3.69
Assuming k is constant and solving the separable differential equation:

K̇ C" DC $
∴ ∫ = ∫$ " dT 3.70
#M" .TO C. C .
Integrating:
K̇ C
T/ − T& = M ln %C" & 3.71
" .TO .
Conduction across insulation:

K̇ C
As above for conduction through pipe: T& − T. = M ln %C!& 3.72
! .TO "
Convection on outer surface:

As for convection on inner surface:
q̇ = h>?@ 2πr. L(T. − T>?@ ) 3.73
Therefore:
K̇
T. − T>?@ = 3.74
4Q .TC! O
Consolidating for each layer:

K̇
T=, − T/ = 3.75
4K* .TC. O
K̇ C"
T/ − T& = M ln %C & 3.76
" .TO .
K̇ C
T& − T. = M ln %C! & 3.77
! .TO "
K̇
T. − T>?@ = 3.78
4QRS .TC! O
Adding equations these four equations:

K̇ K̇ C K̇ C
T=, − T/ + T/ − T& + T& − T. + T. − T>?@ = 4K* .TC. O
+M ln %C" & + M ln %C! & +
" .TO . ! .TO "
K̇
3.79
4QRS .TC! O
& & C & C
T=, − T/ + T/ − T& + T& − T. + T. − T>?@ = q̇ %4 +M ln %C" & + M ln %C!& +
K* .TC. O " .TO . ! .TO "
&
& 3.80
4QRS .TC! O
& & C & C &
T=, − T>?@ = q̇ %4 + ln %C" & + M ln %C! & + & 3.81
K* .TC. O M" .TO . ! .TO " 4QRS .TC! O
$K* #$QRS
q̇ = " " p " p "
3.82
Y - [,P "Q- [,P ! Q- Z
EK* !op. H I" !oH p. I! !oH p" EQRS !op! H
Example 3.17: Conduction and convection through a cylinder
Saturated steam at 14 bar (195°C) condenses inside a nickel tube 10 m long with a 2 cm ID and 4 cm OD.
The temperature of the surrounding air is 25°C. The thermal conductivity of nickel is 140 W.m-1.K-1. The
pipe is covered with a 0.5 cm layer of insulation (thermal conductivity 0.21 W.m-1.K-1).
a) Calculate the conductive energy across the pipe and insulation.
b) Given a convective heat transfer coefficient on the outside of the insulation (10 W.m-2.K-1), determine
the overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo
c) Determine the mass of steam which condenses per hour.
d) How do answers compare when convection is included vs when it is not?
Solution:
Ta T3 T2 T1 r3
r1 r2
h
mU
a) 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 mT
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿

𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑟
∴ = 𝑑𝑇
−2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟
Across the pipe:

T! U!
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑟
Q = Q 𝑑𝑇
−2𝜋𝑘Y 𝐿 𝑟
T" U"
^̇ T!
∴ %(ce . 𝑙𝑛 )T * = 𝑇( − 𝑇& (1)
n[ "
Across the insulation:

^̇ T
%(ceo [
. 𝑙𝑛 )Tf* = 𝑇, − 𝑇( (2)
!
Adding (1) + (2):

2𝜋𝐿(𝑇& − 𝑇, ) 2𝜋 × 10𝑚 × (468𝐾 − 298𝐾)
𝑞̇ = 𝑟( u 𝑟, u = = 10 006𝑊 ≅ 10 𝑘𝑊
𝑙𝑛t v𝑟& 𝑛t v𝑟( 𝑙𝑛t 2𝑐𝑚v u 𝑙𝑛)2.5𝑐𝑚v2𝑐𝑚*
/ + 1𝑐𝑚
𝑘Y 𝑘q = ƒ140 𝑊𝑚%& 𝐾 %& + 0.21 𝑊𝑚%& 𝐾 %& „
The conductive energy across the pipe and insulation is approx. 10 kW.
b) For concentric cylinders with film heat transfer:

𝑇5 − 𝑇W
𝑞̇ =
1 𝑙𝑛 (𝑟( 𝑟& ) 𝑙𝑛 (𝑟, ⁄𝑟( )
⁄ 1
02𝜋ℎ 𝑟 𝐿 + 2𝜋𝑘 + 2𝜋𝑘 𝐿 + 2𝜋ℎ 𝑟 𝐿7
5 \ &𝐿 ( \ ,
For this system, the overall heat transfer co-efficient (U0) is given by:
1
𝑈\ =
𝑙𝑛 (𝑟( ⁄𝑟& ) 𝑙𝑛 (𝑟, ⁄𝑟( ) 1
0 2𝜋𝑘 𝐿 + 2𝜋𝑘 𝐿 + 2𝜋ℎ𝑟 𝐿7
Y q ,
𝑈\
1
=
𝑙𝑛 (2𝑐𝑚⁄1𝑐𝑚) 𝑙𝑛 (2.5𝑐𝑚⁄2𝑐𝑚) 1
0 + + 7
2𝜋 × 140 𝑊𝑚%& 𝐾 %& × 10𝑚 2𝜋 × 0.21 𝑊𝑚%& 𝐾 %& × 10𝑚 2𝜋 × 10𝑊𝑚%( 𝐾 %& × 0.025𝑚 × 10𝑚
& %&
𝑈\ = e" = 12.4 𝑊𝐾
\.\f\rs t u
c) 𝑞̇ = 𝑈\ (𝑇5 − 𝑇W ) = 12.4 𝑊𝐾 %& (468𝐾 − 298𝐾) = 2108 𝑊 = 2.108 𝑘𝐽𝑠 %&
Energy balance for a flow process:

∆𝑣 (
m+
∆𝐻 ma
+ 𝑔∆𝑧 = 𝑞ˆ + 𝑊
2
𝑞̇
m = 𝑞ˆ =
∴ ∆𝐻
𝑚̇
𝑞̇
⇒ 𝑚̇ =
∆𝐻 m
For saturated steam at 14bar, Ts = 195°C, Hf = 830 kJ/kg and Hg = 2790 kJ/kg
∴ ∆𝐻VWX = 1960 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
The enthalpy change is the heat of vaporization since the steam is condensing.
2.108 𝑘𝐽𝑠 %&
𝑚̇ = = 1.076 × 10%, 𝑘𝑔𝑠 %& = 3.872 𝑘𝑔ℎ%&
1960 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔%&
d) The heat transfer is smaller when convection is included (2.108 kW compared to 10 kW)
3.3.4 Log Mean Radius and Log Mean Area

We define the log mean radius as follows:
C! #C"
rOH = p 3.83
[, !
p"
where:
rLM = Log mean radius
r2 = outer radius
r1 = inner radius
Note:
C! # C" C! # C"
p ≠ 3.84
[, ! .
p"
From this we can define the log mean area:

AOH = 2πrOH L 3.85
where:
ALM = Log mean area
From the heat flow through two cylinders, (conduction and convection, it was shown that:
$K* #$QRS
q̇ = " " p" " p "
3.86
Y - [,P Q- [,P ! Q- Z
EK* !op. H I" !oH p. I! !oH p" EQRS !op! H
Which we can re-write as:

$K* #$QRS
q̇ = " " p" (p" Jp. ) " p (p Jp ) "
3.87
Y - [,P Q.(p - [,P ! Q.(p! ")- Z
EK* !op. H I" !oH p. " Jp. ) I! !oH p" ! Jp" EQRS !op! H
From the definition of RLM, and converting wherever possible to surface area instead of
radius, this becomes:
$K* #$QRS
q̇ = " " (p" Jp. ) " (p Jp ) "
3.88
Y - . - . ! "- Z
EK* L. I" !oH pHv,". I! !oH pHv,!" EQRS L!
$K* #$QRS
q̇ = " (p" Jp. ) (p Jp ) "
3.89
Y - - ! " - Z
EK* L. w" LHv,". w! LHv,!" EQRS L!
For n concentric circles:

Heat transfer – Overall heat transfer coefficient
$K* # $QRS
q̇ = " * ∆xK "
3.90
Y -∑KM" - Z
EK* L. IK LHv,K EQRS L*
3.4 Overall heat transfer coefficient

Previously, heat transfer was expressed in terms of thermal resistance as:
∆$
q̇ = 3.91
V
where:
DT: Temperature difference (K)
R: Thermal resistance (K/W)
For multiple slabs in series the thermal resistance was shown to be:
OK
R = ∑,=I& 3.92
MK N
Which can be re-written to include the convection as:

& OK &
R=4 + ∑,=I& +4 3.93
EN MK N DN
And for cylindrical systems:

& ∆VK &
R= + ∑,=I& M N +4 3.94
4K* N. K Hv,K QRS N*
A new term is now introduced for the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U):
&
U = N.V 3.95
∴ q̇ = UA(T=, − T>?@ ) 3.96
Note: Thermal resistance (R) includes the term for area (A), while the overall heat transfer
coefficient (A) does not. Further, R and U are inverse relationships.
Defining the overall heat transfer coefficient for cylinders:

q̇ = UA(T=, − T>?@ ) 3.97
We can measure heat and temperatures independently; UA can be calculated as a combined

measured value.
&
UA = " ∆pK "
3.98
Y -∑ *
KM" I - Z
EK* K EQRS

Heat transfer – Heat transfer through composite walls
While we typically use the ALM for these calculations, or assume the thickness is thin
enough not to worry about which radius, and thus aera, to use, we can then define different
U values for different areas:
UA = U0A0 = UiAi 3.99
]N
U/ = For outer cylinder 3.100
N.
]N
U= = For inner cylinder 3.101
NK
Example 3.18: Convective heat transfer, with conduction, across multiple layers (overall heat transfer
coefficient)
A furnace is constructed of a 130 mm steel layer and an outer surface of bricks which is 170 mm thick.
The thermal conductivities of the steel and brick layers are 144 W/m.K and 4.38 W/m.K respectively,
whilst the heat transfer of the inner and outer surface are 18W/𝑚( . 𝐾 and 73W/𝑚( . 𝐾. Given that the
temperature inside the furnace is kept at 650°C and the temperature of the surroundings is 45°C, calculate
the overall heat flow and overall heat transfer coefficient.
Solution:
Because the system is at steady state, with areas and thermal conductivities, it was shown earlier that:
𝑞 𝑇5 − 𝑇W
=
𝐴 1 + 𝐿& + 𝐿( + 1
ℎ5 𝑘& 𝑘( ℎ\
Therefore:
𝑞
= 5552𝑊/𝑚(
𝐴
Now: 𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇5 − 𝑇W )
^
𝑈 = `(U %U ) = 9.18 W/𝑚( . 𝐾
i p
3.5 Heat transfer through composite walls

3.5.1 Heat transfer through series configuration
What we have looked at thus far has been heat transfer through a series configuration. This
can be represented in a similar way to an electrical circuit.

Th
Tc
k1 k2 k3
q̇ hh hc
L1 L2 L3
Rh R1 R2 R3 Rhc
h
where:
Ri = Thermal resistance through each layer (including convection and conduction)
In the same way as in an electrical circuit, to get the total resistance in series, add the
resistance.
For the slab above:

R = R 44 + R& + R . + R % +R 4E 3.102
where:
R = Total thermal resistance
Therefore, from:
∆$
q̇ = 3.91
V
∆$
q̇ = V 3.103
EE -V" -V! -V# -VED
∆$
q̇ = " H H H " 3.104
- "- !- #-
EEE. L I" L I! L I# L EED. L
3.5.2 Heat transfer through parallel configuration

Similarly, heat transfer through a parallel configuration can be equated to an electrical
circuit.

The sum of resistance in a parallel configuration is equal to the sum of the inverse
resistances, all to the power of negative one.
For the diagram below:

R1
R2
& & #&

R = %V + V & 3.105
" !
where:
R = Total thermal resistance
Given the configuration below, heat will travel from the left to the right through the
parallel configuration. In the calculations we have performed so far, we have assumed 1-
dimendionsal heat transfer. However, with the parallel configuration now in place, when
k2 and k3 are not equal, heat will move between these sections. To ensure the 1-
dimensional assumptions in the calculations, two scenarios are presented with simplifying
assumptions.
L2
Th
Tc
k1 k2 k4
q̇ hh hc
k3
L1 L3 L4
Scenario 1: Assuming the surfaces normal to the direction of heat flow are isothermal, i.e.,
the entire length of slabs 1 and 4 have the same temperature, this gives:

Rh R1 R2 R4 Rhc
h
R3
where:
Ri = Thermal resistance through each layer (including convection and conduction)
∆$
q̇ = 3.91
V
In a similar manner to calculating electrical resistance, the resistance through the parallel
section can be written as:
& & #&
R ./% = %V + V & 3.106
! #
M N M# N #&
R ./% = % O! + & 3.107
! O#
Therefore:
∆$
q̇ = " H I L I L J" H "
3.108
- " -P ! - # Q - n -
EEE. L I" L H! H# In L EED. L
Scenario 2: However, if we assume that the surfaces parallel to heat flow are adiabatic, i.e.,
no heat flows from slab 2 to 3, a better approximation is given by:
Rh R1 R2 R4 Rhc
h
Rh R1 R3 R4 Rhc
h
Now:
∆$
q̇ = 3.91
V
Adding all the sections which are in series, inverting to account for addition of multiple
parallel sections and again inverting the sum of this:

∆$
q̇ = J" 3.109
" "
_ " H" H! Hn " - " H" H# H "
`
+ + + + + + + n +
EEE. L I" L I! L In L EED. L EEE. L I" L I# L In L EED. L
Video 3.6: Heat transfer – Parallel configurations (YouTube)
3.5.3 Contact resistance

The diagrams shown thus far indicate that the materials in successive layers are in perfect
contact with each other. However, if we look at these more closely, at a microscopic level
in some instances, we will find there are spaces between each layer. This is often most clear
in rough materials. Depending on the space between the materials, and the type of
materials involved, this can act as a further level of insulation.
Th
Tc
k1 k2
q̇
L1 L2
R1 RC R2
where:
RC = Contact resistance (m2.K/W)
Table 3.2: Examples of contact resistance values

Interface RC × 104 (m2.K/W)

Silicon chip/lapped aluminium in air (27-500 kn/m2) 0.3 – 0.6
Aluminium/aluminium with indium foil filler (~100 kN/m2) ~0.07
Stainless/stainless with indium foil filler (~3500 kN/m2) ~0.04
Aluminium/aluminium with metallic Pb coating 0.01 – 0.1
Aluminium/aluminium with Dow Corning 340 grease ~0.07
(~100 kN/m ) 2
Aluminium/stainless with Dow Corning 340 grease (~3500 kN/m2) ~0.04

Silicon chip/aluminium with 0.02 mm epoxy 0.2 – 0.9
Brass/brass with 15 µm tin solder 0.025 – 0.14
3.5.4 Porous materials

Not all materials are homogenous, and this will impact the heat transfer through them.
Once example are porous materials. The porosity of a material will influence the heat
transfer through the material.
Th
Tc
q̇
Various estimations of the heat transfer through the material are available, including ways
such as dividing the material into parallel and series systems (not presented here), but a
more comprehensive method is given as:

D$
q̇ = −k. A D) 3.3
Simplifying for a porous material, with constant area, at steady state:

Myzz N($E #$D )
q̇ = 3.110
O
where:

Heat transfer – Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces
keff: Effective heat transfer coefficient across slid and porous section of slab
(W/(m.K))
For a porous material:

M - .M{ # .abM{ # M| c
k B'' = d Mz e 3.111
z - .M{ - abM{ # M| c
where:
kf: Heat transfer coefficient of the fluid in the void (W/(m.K))
ks: Heat transfer coefficient of the solid (W/(m.K))
e: Void fraction (-)
3.6 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces

3.6.1 Introduction
To cool something down, we may have a cooling fin. A hot object may have a long flat (or
thin) piece protruding from it to increase surface area and the conductive and convective
heat transfer, thereby cooling the object down faster.
Fins may come in various forms. These could be as straight, annular or pins.
Figure 3.4: Some examples of fins: Rectangular, Pins, Triangular, Parabolic, Annular.

3.6.2 Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area

Fins of a uniform cross-sectional area could be rectangular (Figure 3.5) or pins (Figure 3.6).
TW TA
Convection
y
Conduction
TS
w
x x + Dx
Convection
Figure 3.5: Graphical representation of a rectangular fin protruding from a wall
TW TA
Convection
Conduction
r
TS
x x + Dx
Figure 3.6: Graphical representation of a circular pin protruding from a wall
Simplifying assumption (for rectangular fins of uniform cross-sectional area): Assume thin
slice of fin that has a temperature profile in x-direction only, NOT in y-direction.

By an energy balance:
Energy in (left – conduction) = energy out (right - conduction) + energy out (top + bottom
- convection) 3.112
q̇ |) = q̇ |)-∆) + h(2w∆x)(TF − TN ) 3.113
(Multiplied by 2 because there are 2 surfaces)
where:
q̇ : Conductive heat transfer
h: convective heat transfer coefficient
Dx: element through which heat flows
TS surface temperature
TA: Ambient/air temperature
Replacing q̇ terms with conductive heat flow terms:

D$ D$
−kA D) h = −kA D) h + h(2w∆x)(TF − TN ) 3.114
) )-∆)
D$ D$
−k(w. y) D) h = −k(w. y) D) h + h(2w∆x)(TF − TN ) 3.115
) )-∆)
Rearrange and divide by Dx

}~ }~
#M(d.+) e -M(d.+) e
}• •+∆• }• •
= −h(2w)(TF − TN ) 3.116
∆)
Taking limits as Dx à 0
}~ }~
#M(d.+) e -M(d.+) e
}• •+∆• }• •
lim = −h(2w)(TF − TN ) 3.117
∆)→/ ∆)
D D$
2−k(w. y) D) 3 = −h(2w)(TF − TN ) 3.118
D)
Assuming k is constant:
D! $
−k(w. y) D)! = −h(2w)(TF − TN ) 3.119
Simplifying:
D! $
ky D)! = 2h(TF − TN ) 3.120
And since there is no temperature profile in the y-direction, Ts = T at all x

Therefore Ts = T

And:
D! $
ky D)! = 2h(T − TN ) 3.121
D! $ .4
= M+ (T − TN ) 3.122
D)!
Let:
q = T – TA 3.123
And:
m = i2h/ky 3.124
D! g
= m. θ 3.125
D)!
D. − m. θ = 0 3.126
(D − m)(D + m)θ = 0 3.127
θ = C& eG) + C. e#G) 3.128
We have two constants, therefore need two boundary conditions (BC):

BC1: At x = 0, q = q1 Known temp at wall
BC2: At x = L, dq/dx = 0 Temperature has stationary point at x = L
From BC1:
q1 = C1 + C2 3.129
From BC2:
Dg
= C& meG) − C. me#G) 3.130
D)
0 = C1memL – C2me-mL 3.131
C2 = C1e2mL 3.132
g"
C& = 3.133
&- B!€•
g" .B!€•
C. = 3.134
&- B!€•
g .B€• g" .B!€• .BJ€•

θ = &-" B!€• + 3.135
&- B!€•
g B€• bBJ€• .B€• -B€• .BJ€• c
θ = &- B"!€• neG) + e.G[ . e#G) o = θ& 3.136
B€• bBJ€• -B€• c
g BJ€• .B€• -B€• .BJ€•
= 3.137
g" BJ€• -B€•

Heat transfer – Radiative Heat Transfer
g E>F4 G.(O#))
= 3.138
g" E>F4 GO
Re-introducing the temperature and h, k and y terms:

Reminder:
q = T – TA 3.123
m = i2h/ky 3.124
$#$L E>F4 h.4/M+.(O#))

= 3.139
$‚ #$L E>F4 h.4/M+.O
where:
TW: Wall temperature (K)
cosh i2h/ky. (L − x)
∴ T = (Ti − TN ) p r + TN
cosh i2h/ky. L
Video 3.7: Heat transfer – Conduction through slabs (YouTube)
3.7 Radiative Heat Transfer

Black Body: A perfect idealized physical body which absorbs all incident electromagnetic
radiation and is also the best possible emitter of thermal radiation.
q̇ = AσT 5 Stefan Boltzmann Law 3.140
where:
q̇ : Heat Flux (W)
A: Cross Sectional Area (m2)
σ: Stefan Boltzmann Constant = 5.67 × 10-8 W.m-2K-4
2π6 k 5j
=
15h% c .
kB = Boltzmann constant – 1.38 × 10-23 J/K;
Heat transfer – Heat Exchangers
h = Plank constant – 6.626× 10-34 J.s

c = speed of light m/s
T = Temperature (K)
Example 3.19: Radiative heat transfer
What is the radiative heat transfer per square meter for a body at the following temperatures?
a) 100°C
b) 400°C
c) 800°C
Solution:
𝑞̇ /𝐴 = 𝐴𝜎𝑇 -
𝑞̇ /𝐴 = 𝜎𝑇 -
𝑞̇ /𝐴 = 5.76 × 10%f . 𝑇 -
a) 𝑞̇ /𝐴 = 1.12 kW/m2
b) 𝑞̇ /𝐴 = 11.8 kW/m2
c) 𝑞̇ /𝐴 = 76.4 kW/m2
Given that the Stefan Boltzmann constant is very small, radiative heat transfer only plays
a part at high temperatures (approx. greater than 400°C), while conduction and convection
describe heat transfer at lower temperatures.
3.8 Heat Exchangers

3.8.1 Introduction
To transfer heat efficiently, both for energy and cost savings, industrial processes require
heat transfer equipment. Hot fluids may also need to be cooled before being discarded to
the environment – either for environmental and/or personal safety reasons.
Various heat transfer equipment exists. These include:

- Heat Exchanger; including shell and tube-, plate and frame-, radiators, and others
- Air cooling; including fin fan coolers, fans, and others
- Water cooling; including cooling towers, water jackets, and others
- Radiators
- Heat pipes
A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium
to another.

Figure 3.7: Plate and frame heat exchanger (metal plates transfer heat between two fluids)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plate_frame_1.svg)
Figure 3.8: Passive heat sink on a motherboard (metal pins act as fins to allow for cooling)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Harumphy.dg965.heatsink.jpg)
Figure 3.9: Typical radiator found in a car (liquid inside the mechanism allows for conductive cooling
despite the contradictory naming) (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Automobile_radiator.jpg)

Figure 3.10: Various cooling tower designs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_tower)
A shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger most commonly used in oil
refineries and other large chemical processes. It consists of a shell with a bundle of tubes
inside. One fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through
the shell) to transfer heat between the two fluids.
3.8.2 Types of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

Shell and tube heat exchangers can be as simple as having a single pipe enclosed in a second
pipe (double pipe heat exchanger), or can become more elaborate to include baffles, bends
or more elaborate designs.
Figure 3.11: Double pipe heat exchanger (one Figure 3.12: Shell and tube heat exchanger (one
pass tube side; one pass shell side; no baffles) pass tube side; one pass shell side; with baffles)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Double- (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Straight-
Pipe_Heat_Exchanger.png) tube_heat_exchanger_1-pass.png)

Figure 3.13: Shell and tube heat exchanger (two Figure 3.14: U-tube heat exchanger (two pass
pass tube side; one pass shell side; with baffles) tube side; one pass shell side; with baffles)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Straight- (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:U-
tube_heat_exchanger_2-pass.png) tube_heat_exchanger.png)
It is common to put the dirtier fluid (fluid which would foul) inside the tubes as the tubes
are easier to clean or replace. The easiest way to increase the area of a heat exchanger could
simply be to in increase the number of tubes.
3.8.3 Co-current Heat Exchangers

Two streams of fluid enter at the same end of the heat exchanger – one hot and one cold.
The two fluids exchange energy with the hotter getting colder and the colder getting
hotter. The temperature of the cold stream can never be greater than the hot stream and
vice versa.
Temperature
Length
Figure 3.15: Temperature profile through a co-current heat exchanger
3.8.4 Counter Current Heat Exchangers

Two streams of fluid enter on opposite ends heat exchanger – one hot and one cold. The
two fluids exchange energy with the hotter getting colder and the colder getting hotter.
The temperature of the cold stream exiting can be hotter than the temperature of the hot
stream exiting.

Typically, the maximum temperature difference at any point can be no lower than 10°C.
Note in the counter current setup that the outlet temperature difference can be less than
this.
Temperature
Length
Figure 3.16: Temperature profile through a co-current heat exchanger
Video 3.8: Heat transfer – Heat exchangers introduction (YouTube)
3.8.5 Derivation of Heat Exchanger Equation

Consider two fluids flowing in a counter current fashion, one hot and one cold.
Side 1 Th Th + dTh Side 2

Hot Th
Tc Cold
Tc + dTc Tc
dA
- Consider a temperature, Th on the hot stream and a temperature Tc on the cold

stream
- Consider a small area dA, over which it can be assumed the temperature is constant
Assumptions:

- No phase change
- No reaction
- Constant pressure
- Constant specific heat (Cp)
From overall heat transfer equations:

q̇ = UA∆T (1) 3.141
For the portion over dA (assuming the hot and cold fluids don’t change over the length of
the heat exchanger – because the length is so small):
dq̇ = UdA(T4 − TE ) 3.142
For the hot stream: Energy balance

dq̇ = ṁ4 Cvp4 [T4 − (T4 + dT4 )] 3.143
dq̇ = −ṁ4 Cvp4 . dT4 (2) 3.144
For the cold stream: Energy balance

dq̇ = ṁE CvpE [TE − (TE + dTE )] 3.145
dq̇ = −ṁE CvpE . dTE (3) 3.146
(2) x ṁE CvpE

dq̇ /ṁE CvpE 1 = −ṁ4 Cvp4 . dT4 /ṁE CvpE 1 (4) 3.147
(3) x ṁ4 Cvp4

dq̇ /ṁ4 Cvp4 1 = −ṁE CvpE . dTE /ṁ4 Cvp4 1 (5) 3.148
(4) – (5)
dq̇ /ṁE CvpE 1 − dq̇ /ṁ4 Cvp4 1 = −ṁ4 Cvp4 . dT4 /ṁE CvpE 1 + ṁE CvpE . dTE /ṁ4 Cvp4 1 3.149
dq̇ /ṁE CvpE − ṁ4 Cvp4 1 = −ṁ4 Cvp4 . ṁE CvpE (dT4 − dTE ) 3.150
Substituting (1)
−UdA(T4 − TE )/ṁE CvpE − ṁ4 Cvp4 1 = ṁ4 Cvp4 . ṁE CvpE (dT4 − dTE ) 3.151
Rearranging:
" lD #ĠE k
ĠD k " lE D$E #D$D
−UdA " lE .ĠD k
" lD
= 3.152
ĠE k $E #$D
Now:

" lD #ĠE k
ĠD k " lE
Let " lE .ĠD k
" lD
=R (6) 3.153
ĠE k
Or
" lD #ĠE k
ĠD k " lE & &
R= " "
= %Ġ "
− Ġ " lD
& 3.154
ĠE klE .ĠD klD E klE Dk
D$E #D$D
∴ −RUdA = 3.155
$E #$D
D($E #$D )
∴ = −RUdA 3.156
$E #$D
Integrate:
∆$
ln(T4 − TE )∆$!" = −RUA 3.157
∆$
ln ∆$! = −RUA 3.158
"
Or:
∆$
ln ∆$" = RUA 3.159
!
∆~"
[,
∆~!
R= (7) 3.160
]N
Overall energy balance for each fluid:

ṁ4 Cvp4 nT4,=, − T4,>?@ o = ṁE CvpE nTE,>?@ − TE,=, o = Q
n
" lE
= nT4,=, − T4,>?@ o (8) 3.161
ĠE k
n
" lD
= nTE,>?@ − TE,=, o (9) 3.162
ĠD k
(8) – (9)
& &
Q %Ġ "
− Ġ " lD
& = nT4,=, − T4,>?@ o − nTE,>?@ − TE,=, o 3.163
E klE Dk
& &
Q %Ġ "
− Ġ " lD
& = nT4,=, − TE,>?@ o − nT4,>?@ − TE,=, o 3.164
E klE Dk
Substituting (6):
QR = ∆T& − ∆T. 3.165
∆$" #∆$!
Q= 3.166
V
Substituting (7)
∆$" #∆$!
Q = UA p ∆~" r 3.167
[,
∆~!
where:
∆$" #∆$!
p ∆~" r = ∆TOH 3.168
[,
∆~!
∴ Q = UA∆TOH 3.169
Assumptions:
i) Overall heat transfer co-efficient (U) is constant
ii) Heat exchanger is well insulated
iii) Physical properties of each fluid are constant
iv) Steady state
v) No phase change, no reaction, no mixing, constant pressure
If there is a phase change, deal with each phase separately

The DTLM calculation can only be done on a fluid which does not have a phase change OR
if there is a phase change ONLY.
Can use DTLM calculation
Phase change; no
temperature change
Can use DTLM calculation

Steam; phase change,

water
Steam; phase change,
water
DTLM,a
DTLM,b
DTLM,c
CAN NOT use DTLM calculation BUT: If we break the problem into 3,
can use DTLM calculation
Example 3.20: Heat exchanger – log mean temperature vs. temperature difference
Calculate the log mean temperature difference given the following information for a counter current
system:
Temperature hot in: 90°C
Temperature hot out: 65°C
Temperature cold in: 40°C
Temperature cold out: 70°C
Solution:
90°C
Temperature 65°C
DT2
70°C DT1
40°C
Length
DT1 = 25°C; Thot,out – Tcold,in = 65 – 40°C = 25°C

DT2 = 20°C; Thot,in – Tcold,out = 90 – 70°C = 20°C
∆𝑇& − ∆𝑇( 25 − 20
∆𝑇[ƒ = Š ‹= ƒ „ = 22.4℃
∆𝑇 25
𝑙𝑛 & 𝑙𝑛 ) *
∆𝑇( 20
(s0(\
This is not the same as average temperature: ∆𝑇`„… = ) (
* = 22.5℃
Example 3.21: Heat exchanger – log mean temperature undefined
Calculate the log mean temperature difference given the following information for a counter current
system Temperature hot in: 90°C
Heat transfer – Heat Generation
Temperature hot out: 60°C

Temperature cold in: 40°C
Temperature cold out: 70°C
Solution:
90°C
Temperature
DT2 60°C
70°C
DT1
40°C
Length
DT1 = 20°C; Thot,out – Tcold,in = 60 – 40°C

DT2 = 20°C; Thot,in – Tcold,out = 90 – 70°C
∆𝑇# − ∆𝑇$ 20 − 20
∆𝑇/1 = C F= G J = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
∆𝑇# 20
𝑙𝑛 ∆𝑇 𝑙𝑛 H20I
$
Since DTLM is undefined, can use DTAVE. Also: since DT is constant across the length of heat exchanger (and also equal
to DTAVE), DTAVE can be used.
20 + 20
∆𝑇)23 = O P = 20℃
2
3.9 Heat Generation

Heat generation in terms of heat transfer:
Energy can be generated in a solid element by:

- Nuclear reaction;
- Catalyst and exothermic reactions; and
- Electrical current
3.9.1 Nuclear Reactions

Given in terms of G (per volume of radioactive material)
3.9.2 Catalysts
Metals are expensive. To maximize the surface area to volume ratio of a catalyst, we
typically use metal oxide supports which have a large surface area, e.g., activated carbon.
Reactants adsorb and react in the pores; products desorb and are released.

3.9.3 Electric Current
Example 3.22: Heat generation due to an electrical current
Consider an electric wire of circular cross section with radius R and electrical conductivity ke ohm-1cm-1.
Through this wire an electric current is passed with a current density of I amp/cm2. This process is an
irreversible process, converting some electrical energy into heat (thermal energy). The rate of heat
production per unit volume is given by the expression:
𝐼(
𝑆i =
𝑘i
The quantity Se is the heat source resulting from electrical dissipation. It is assumed that the temperature
rise in the wire is not so large that the temperature dependence of either the electrical or thermal
conductivity need be considered. The surface of the wire is maintained at temperature T0.
Find the radial temperature profile within the wire.
R
L
Dr
Solution:

For the system we take a cylindrical shell of thickness Dr and length L.
The contributors to the energy balance across this shell are:

Rate of heat across the cylinder at r (2𝜋𝑟𝐿)(𝑞T |T ) = (2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞T ) |T
Rate of heat out across cylindrical surface at r + Dr (2𝜋(𝑟 + ∆𝑟)𝐿)(𝑞T |T0∆T ) = (2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞T ) |T0∆T
Rate of thermal production by electrical dissipation (2𝜋𝑟∆𝑟𝐿)𝑆i
By an energy balance: Energy in + Energy generated = Energy out

(2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞T ) |T + (2𝜋𝑟∆𝑟𝐿)𝑆i = (2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞T ) |T0∆T
Re-arranging:
(2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞T ) |T0∆T − (2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞T ) |T = (2𝜋𝑟∆𝑟𝐿)𝑆i
÷ 2pLDr
(𝑟𝑞T ) |T0∆T − (𝑟𝑞T ) |T
= 𝑆i 𝑟
∆𝑟
Taking limits as Dr à 0
(𝑟𝑞T ) |T0∆T − (𝑟𝑞T ) |T
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑆i 𝑟
∆T→\ ∆𝑟
𝑑
(𝑟𝑞 ) = 𝑆i 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 T
This is a first order DE and can be integrated to:

𝑆i 𝑟 𝐶&
𝑞T = +
2 𝑟
The integration constant C1 must be zero, since at r = 0, qr is not infinite

𝑆i 𝑟
𝑞T =
2
Now, from Fourier’s Law for heat transfer:

𝑞T = −𝑘. (𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑟)
Equating:
𝑑𝑇 𝑆i 𝑟
−𝑘. 0 7 =
𝑑𝑟 2
Assuming k is constant, integrating:

𝑆i 𝑟 (
𝑇= + 𝐶(
4𝑘
At r = R; T = T0
𝑆i 𝑅(
𝐶( = + 𝑇\
4𝑘
𝑆i 𝑅( 𝑟 (
𝑇 − 𝑇\ = ?1 − ) * @
4𝑘 𝑅
Maximum temperature is at r = 0
ˆq ‰ ! ˆq ‰ !
𝑇‡W$ − 𝑇\ = -e
OR 𝑇‡W$ = -e
+ 𝑇\

Heat transfer – Unsteady State Heat Transfer
Average temperature:
(c ‰
∫\ ∫\ (𝑇(𝑟) − 𝑇\ )𝑟𝑑𝑟. 𝑑𝜃 𝑆i 𝑅(
〈𝑇〉 − 𝑇\ = (c ‰ =
∫\ ∫\ 𝑟𝑑𝑟. 𝑑𝜃 8𝑘
3.10 Unsteady State Heat Transfer

A non-steady state system is on that has properties (state variables – independent of path)
that are changing with time.
Non-steady state conduction problem:
q̇ &,=, q̇ .,>?@
q̇ &,>?@ q̇ .,=,
1 2
- Some of q used to heat up temperature

- q1 ≠ q2
- At the point where q no longer increases, then all of q1,in = q1,out = q2,in = q2,out
Example 3.23: Non-steady state heat transfer through sphere
A well-stirred spherical vessel of diameter 6.5 cm containing water at 50°C is placed in a constant
temperature bath at 20°C. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 625 W/m2.K.
a) Assuming a constant heat loss over time, how much energy is lost from the sphere in 2 minutes?
b) What is the temperature of the water in the vessel after 2 minutes?
Solution:
a) 𝑞 = 𝑈\ 𝐴(𝑇5 − 𝑇\ )∆𝑡
𝑞 = 625 𝐽𝑠 %& 𝑚%( 𝐾 %& × 4𝜋(0.0325)( 𝑚( × (323𝐾 − 293𝐾) × 120𝑠
𝑞 = 625 𝐽𝑠 %& 𝑚%( 𝐾 %& × 4𝜋(0.0325)( 𝑚( × (323𝐾 − 293𝐾) × 120𝑠
𝑞 = 29865 𝐽 = 29.865 𝑘𝐽
b) Set up a differential balance describing how the temperature of the water within the vessel (the system)
varies with time. This is a constant pressure system => ∆H = q
𝐻|9 = 𝐻|90∆9 + 𝑞̇ ∆𝑡

Heat transfer – Unsteady State Heat Transfer
𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶“X ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝐶“X (𝑇 − 𝑇Š )
where Tb is the basis temperature relative to which the Cp is calculated
Also note that q is a function of Ti

𝑚𝐶“X (𝑇5 − 𝑇Š )|9 = 𝑚𝐶“X (𝑇5 − 𝑇Š )|90∆9 + 𝑈\ 𝐴(𝑇5 − 𝑇\ )∆𝑡
∴ 𝑚𝐶“X (𝑇5 )|90∆9 − 𝑚𝐶“X (𝑇5 )|9 = −𝑈\ 𝐴(𝑇5 − 𝑇\ )∆𝑡
𝑚𝐶“X (𝑇5 )|90∆9 − 𝑚𝐶“X (𝑇5 )|9
= 𝑈\ 𝐴(𝑇\ − 𝑇5 )
∆𝑡
𝑑𝑚𝐶“X 𝑇5
⇒ = 𝑈\ 𝐴(𝑇\ − 𝑇5 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝐶“X
𝑑𝑇 = 𝑈\ 𝐴𝑑𝑡
(𝑇\ − 𝑇5 ) 5
Ur 9
1
𝑚𝐶“X Q 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑈\ 𝐴 Q 𝑑𝑡
𝑇\ − 𝑇5 5
,(, \
where Tf is the final temperature of the water inside the sphere
$ &
Note: ∫$ ! W%$ 𝑑𝑥 = [− 𝑙𝑛(𝑎 − 𝑥)]$$"!
"
U
∴ 𝑚𝐶“X [−𝑙𝑛 (𝑇\ − 𝑇5 )]s\r = 𝑈\ 𝐴𝑡
𝑙𝑛 (𝑇\ − 323)
𝑚𝐶“X = 𝑈\ 𝐴𝑡
𝑙𝑛 (𝑇\ − 𝑇4 )
𝑇\ − 323 𝑈\ 𝐴𝑡
𝑙𝑛 ( ,=
𝑇\ − 𝑇4 𝑚𝐶“X
‹b `9
𝑇\ − 323 Ž‡Œ•
( ,=𝑒 s
𝑇\ − 𝑇4
‹b `9
Ž‡Œ•
𝑇\ − 323 = 𝑒 s × (𝑇\ − 𝑇4 )
‹b `9 ‹b `9
Ž‡Œ• Ž‡Œ•
𝑇\ − 323 = 𝑇\ . 𝑒 s − 𝑇4 . 𝑒 s
‹b `9
Ž‡Œ•
𝑇\ (𝑒 s − 1, + 323
∴ 𝑇4 = ‹b `9
Ž‡Œ•
𝑒 s
𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋(0.0325)( 𝑚(

𝑡 = 2𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 120𝑠
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 4v 𝜋(0.0325), 𝑚,
𝑚= = 3 = 0.14 𝑘𝑔
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 50℃ 0.001 𝑚, 𝑘𝑔%&
𝐶“X = 4.182 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔%& 𝐾 %& = 4182𝑘 𝐽𝑘𝑔%& 𝐾 %& 𝑎𝑡 323𝐾 (50℃)
r(s×-c(\.\,(s)! ×&(\‘
• \.&-×-&f(’
293 × (𝑒 − 1, + 323
𝑇4 = r(s×-c(\.\,(s)! ×&(\‘
• \.&-×-&f(’
𝑒
𝑇4 = 298.5𝐾 = 25.5℃

Heat transfer – Additional Reading
Additional Reading
Çengel, YA, Ghajar, AJ, 2011. Heat and Mass Transfer – Fundamentals and Applications,
McGraw Hill.
Coulson, JM, Richardson, JF, Backhurst, JR, Harker, JH, 1999. Coulson & Richardson’s
Chemical Engineering, Volume 1, Elsevier.
Incropera, FP, DeWitt, DP, Bergman and Lavine, 2013. Fundamentals of Mass and Heat
Transfer, 7th Edition, John Wiley & Sons.
Perry, RH, and Green, DW, 1984. Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook.
Rathakrishnan, E, 2012. Elements of Heat Transfer, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
Skogestad, S, 2009. Chemical and Energy Process Engineering, CRC Press.
Welty, JR, Wicks, CE, Wilson, RE, Rorrer, GL. 2008. Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat,
and Mass Transfer, Wiley.

Heat transfer – Problems
Problems
e.) None of the above How is a phase change dealt with in a heat exchanger? In order to calculate the heat
Example 3.24: [MCQ] Conduction: Definition of A exchanger area needed:
Solution: a.) Calculate the log mean temperature for three sections (liquid,
Conduction is given by the equation: q = -k.A.dt/dx, where x is the direction of heat B phase change and gas) and use the average of these temperatures
flow. A is the: in a single calculation.
a.) Average surface area of the object, in m2 Example 3.28: [MCQ] Units of k b.) Use the log mean temperature across the whole exchanger.
b.) Area parallel to heat flow, in m2 c.) Calculate the log mean temperature for three sections (liquid,
c.) Area perpendicular to heat flow, in m2 What are the units of k (thermal conductivity coefficient): phase change and gas) and calculate 3 individual areas.
d.) Amount of material through which heat flows, in kg a.) J/(m.K.s) d.) Divide the calculation into one part for the liquid and one for the
e.) Total amount of material through which heat flows PLUS b.) W/(kg.K) gas.
insulating material which does not allow heat flow, in kg c.) J/(m.K) e.) Use the average (NOT log mean) temperature across the whole
d.) W/K exchanger.
Solution: e.) J/(m2.K)
C Solution:
Solution: C
Example 3.25: [MCQ] Definition of thermal insulator C
Example 3.32: [MCQ] Overall heat transfer coefficient
A material that is considered a thermal insulator will have a: Example 3.29: [MCQ] Conduction through the walls of a cylinder
a.) High thermal conductivity UA is given as 100 W/K. Ao = 20 m2 and Ai = 10m2. The correct Uo and Ui respectively
b.) Low thermal conductivity Heat flows through a cylinder (from inside to outside). Which of the following are (in W/m2.K):
c.) Large cross-sectional area equations would you use to solve heat flow: a.) 2&5
d.) Large surface area a.) 𝑞 = −𝑘2𝜋𝑟𝐿(𝑇L − 𝑇B ) b.) 2 & 10
e.) None of the above b.) 𝑞=
&J"UV(W8&W.)
2
c.) 5 & 10
?+ 6!960,
234/960,
d.) 5 & 20
&J"UV(W8&W.)
Solution: c.) 𝑞 = (; & & e.) 10 & 20
34/960,) &(;6!960,)
B d.) 𝑞=
&J"UV(W8&W.)
;34/960,&;6!960,
Solution:
e.) None of the above
Example 3.26: [MCQ] Definition of 𝒒̇ C
Solution:
𝑞̇ has the units of: Example 3.33: Heat transfer around a pipe
B
a.) kJ
b.) kJ/kg Water flows through a 2” steel pipe (2.067” ID & 2.375” OD). The pipe is heated on
Example 3.30: [MCQ] Heat transfer equipment
c.) kJ/m3 the outside by steam at 230°F. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 250 Btu/hr ft2
d.) kJ/s °F based on the outside area of the pipe. If the inlet and outlet temperatures for a 1 ft
Which of the following is least likely to be classified as heat transfer equipment:
e.) kJ/m2 length of pipe are 80°F and 180°F, what is the water flow rate?
a.) Fin fan cooler
b.) Distillation column
Solution: Solution:
c.) Radiator
D 𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇VQ
d.) Heat Exchanger
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟$ 𝐿
e.) Furnace
Example 3.27: [MCQ] Conduction: Proportionality
∆𝑇# − ∆𝑇" }𝑇EA@:=,F+ − 𝑇N"$,>HA ~ − }𝑇EA@:=,>HA − 𝑇N"Y,F+~
Solution: ∆𝑇VQ = =
∆𝑇 }𝑇EA@:=,F+ − 𝑇N"Y,>HA ~
Conductive heat transfer is proportional to: 𝑙𝑛 # 𝑙𝑛
B ∆𝑇"
}𝑇EA@:=,>HA − 𝑇N"Y,F+ ~
a.) Dx/DT
b.) DT/Dx
Example 3.31: [MCQ] Heat exchanger: Phase change Assume that Tsteam,in = Tsteam,out = 230°F
c.) DA/DT
d.) DT/DA

(230℉ − 180℉) − (230℉ − 80℉) Cp, oil = 1.6 kJ/kg.K (1m – 3(5mm)/2 = 0.4925 mm thick. Further assume that the section is 1m deep.
∴ ∆𝑇VQ = = 91℉
(230℉ − 180℉) Cp, steam = 2 kJ/kg.K NOTE: Units DO NOT balance with this assumption and as such, the heat transfer
𝑙𝑛
(230℉ − 80℉)
given needs to be written as 4kW as we are taking a basis of 1 m.
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇VQ
1𝑓𝑡 a) At a viscosity of 6508 cP; x = 119.8653 m [2nd equation] Numbering the sections from 1 – 8 from left to right (top to bottom):
&# &" &#
𝑄 = 250 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ℉ × 2𝜋 × 1.1875𝑖𝑛 × × 91℉ This also corresponds to a temperature of 30°C [1st equation]
12𝑖𝑛
&#
&#
1 𝑘𝐽𝑠 Calculating the heat needed to raise the oil from 30°C to 80°C: Li Ki Ai Resistance per
𝑄 = 14 145.35 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ℎ × = 4.146 𝑘𝐽𝑠 &# section
3412 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ℎ&# 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝∆𝑇 = 100 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 1.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 ∗ (80 − 30)𝐾 = 7999.529 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
(mm) (m) (w/mK) (m2) Ri = Li/KiAi
Since the heat gained by the oil must be equal to the heat lost by the hot
1 Ceramic 40 0.04 0.52 1 0.076923077
At T = 27°C, hf = 113.1 kJ/kg water: 2 Al left 20 0.02 200 1 0.0001
𝑄>F? = 𝑄Z:A@; = 7999.529 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟 = 𝑚 ∗ 4.1868 ∗ (10) 3 Al top 500 0.5 200 0.005 0.5
At T = 80°C, hf = 334.9 kJ/kg ∴ 𝑚Z:A@; = 399.976 ≈ 400 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟 4 Air top 500 0.5 0.0234 0.4925 43.38583019
At T = 85°C, hf = 355.9 kJ/kg b) Length at which viscosity is at the limit = 119.86m (from above). Therefore, 5 Al middle 500 0.5 200 0.005 0.5
6 Air bottom 500 0.5 0.0234 0.4925 43.38583019
By interpolation, hf = 343.3 kJ/kg at T = 82°C need a heat exchanger every 119 m 7 Al bottom 500 0.5 200 0.005 0.5
Therefore (3716/119) = 31 8 Al right 24 0.024 200 1 0.00012
Energy balance: Plus adding the initial heat exchanger to the start of the line, a total of 32 heat
∆𝐻 „N"Y = 𝑞… exchangers are needed. Now:
∴ 𝑞̇ = 𝑚̇N"Y ∆𝐻 „N"Y ∆𝑇
𝑞̇ =
𝑞̇ = 𝑚̇N"Y }ℎ†-,)"℃ − ℎ†-,"2℃ ~ Example 3.35: Heat transfer through composite slab 𝑅
𝑞̇ 4.146 𝑘𝐽𝑠 &#
⇒ 𝑚̇N"Y = = = 0.01801 𝑘𝑔𝑠 &#
}ℎ†-,)"℃ − ℎ†-,"2℃ ~ (343.3 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔&# − 113.1 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔&#) Assuming a section of composite material below, what is the inside wall temperature Or for the system above:
𝑚̇N"Y = 0.01801 𝑘𝑔𝑠 &# × 2.205 𝑙𝑏𝑘𝑔&# × 3600 𝑠 ℎ&# = 143 𝑙𝑏 ℎ&# ∆𝑇
if the outside is maintained at a temperature of 1000°C and the heat transfer is 𝑞̇ =
𝐿# 𝐿 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 &# 𝐿
4 kW/m. Give your answer to the nearest degree Fahrenheit. + " + 7 5 5 + 7 7 + * * + 3 3 + 2 2; + )
𝑘# 𝐴# 𝑘" 𝐴" 𝐿5 𝐿7 𝐿* 𝐿3 𝐿2 𝑘) 𝐴
k-values (W/mK):
Aluminium: 200 Ceramic: 0.52 Air: 0.0234 Which can also be simplified to (because portions of the parallel section are the same
material, i.e., same k, AND same area):
Assumptions to be used: ∆𝑇
𝑞̇ =
- Ignore convection 𝐿# 𝐿" 𝑘5 𝐴5 𝑘7 𝐴7
&#
𝐿
𝑘# 𝐴# + 𝑘" 𝐴" + Ž3 - 𝐿5 . + 2 - 𝐿7 .• + 𝑘 )𝐴
- Assume the surfaces normal to the direction of heat flow are isothermal )
Video 3.9: Heat transfer – Heat transfer around a pipe (YouTube)

Aluminium Substituting numbers from above:
Outside Ceramic Inside ∆𝑇
𝑞̇ = &#
Example 3.34: Heat loss and viscosity effects 𝐿# 𝐿" 𝑘5 𝐴5 𝑘7 𝐴7 𝐿
𝑘# 𝐴# + 𝑘" 𝐴" + Ž3 - 𝐿5 . + 2 - 𝐿7 .• + 𝑘 )𝐴
)
Air
As hot oil flows through a pipe it loses heat, thereby reducing its viscosity. For the
oil to remain flowing, the viscosity needs to remain above 6 508 cP, at which point it Tinside = 24.84397…°C
enters a heat exchanger to increase the temperature to 80°C. 1m Converting to Fahrenheit:
Tinside = 85.71915…°F
a) How much water (at 95°C) is required in the heat exchanger if 100 kg/hr of oil 5 mm Therefore, to the nearest degree:
is flowing through the pipe? Assume the temperature of the steam drops by Tinside = 86°F
10°C.
b) How many heat exchangers will be needed for a length of pipe 3 716 m long? Example 3.36: Heat transfer equipment
Assume the oil needs to be at 80°C at the start and end of the pipe, i.e., 40 mm 20 mm 500 mm 24 mm
include a heat exchanger at each end of the pipe. List as many types of heat transfer equipment as possible. How does these work?
Solution: Solution:
Given: Heat exchangers A process stream is heated or cooled via exchange of heat
It can be assumed that all three “bars” are 5 mm thick. Therefore, the length of the
𝑇 = 25 + 55𝑒 &$.$"/
Units: °C with another process stream
air sections are:
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 5000 + 5000𝑒 &$.$#/ Units: cP
Where x is the length down the pipe (in metres)

Heaters A process stream is heated via exchange of heat with a Hot always A stream (oil) of 9.2 kg/s is to be heated from 65°C to 95°C in a heat exchanger, using
hotter than
hot service/utility stream (e.g. steam) cold 16.7 kg/s of water entering at 105°C. If the overall heat-transfer coefficient is
Hot out
Coolers A process stream is cooled via exchange of heat with a lower than
1300 J/m2s°C, calculate the area of heat exchanger required if the flows are counter
cold service/utility stream (e.g. cooling water) cold out
current.
Reboilers Typically associated with distillation columns. The
liquid bottoms product is heated and partially or fully Solution:
vaporized via exchange of heat with a hot service/utility mH,in = 16.7kg/s mH,out = 16.7kg/s
TH,in = 105°C TH,out = ? °C
stream (e.g. steam)
Condensers Typically associated with distillation columns. The mC,out = 9.2kg/s mC,in = 9.2kg/s
vapour top product is heated and partially or fully TC,out = 95°C TC,in = 65°C
Example 3.38: Counter current heat exchanger
condensed via exchange of heat with a cold
For the oil stream:
service/utility stream (e.g. cooling water/refrigerant)
A small counter current heat exchanger operates with the following stream 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶‘G ∆𝑇
Agitated vessels (jacketed heaters) Process fluid is heated or cooled in an
temperatures: Assume vegetable oil or mineral oil (both have the same heat capacity)
agitated tank via exchange of heat with a hot or cold
Cp,oil = 1.67 kJ/kg.K
jacket (steam or cooling water circulated through the
Cold stream in: 20°C 𝑄 = 9.2 𝑘𝑔𝑠 &# × 1.67 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔&# 𝐾 &# × (368𝐾 − 338𝐾)
outer jacket of the vessel) 𝑄 = 460.92 𝑘𝐽𝑠 &#
Cold stream out: 100°C
Hot stream in: 120°C
Example 3.37: Shell and tube heat exchanger For the water stream:
Hot stream out 70°C
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶‘G ∆𝑇
In a shell and tube heat exchanger: 𝑄
The unit has a total area for heat transfer of 1 m² and an overall heat transfer ∴ ∆𝑇 =
𝑚𝐶‘G
coefficient of 500W/m².K. What is the rate of energy transfer?
a) What are the role of baffles?
b) How does fouling influence heat transfer? Solution: Assume Cp,water = 4.19 kJ/kg.K
c) Can the outlet temperature of a hot stream be less than the outlet temperature 460.92 𝑘𝐽𝑠 &#
∆𝑇 =
of the cold stream? Explain and include a sketch to show this. TH,in = 120°C 16.7 𝑘𝑔𝑠 &# × 4.19 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔&# 𝐾 &#
TH,out = 70°C ∆𝑇 = 6.6𝐾
Solution: ∆𝑇 = 𝑇N,>HA − 𝑇N,F+
a) Baffles define the flow path of fluid through the heat exchanger, increase the TC,out = 100°C ∴ 𝑇N,>HA = 371.4𝐾 = 98.4℃
TC,in = 20°C
surface area for heat exchange and support the tubes.
𝑄 = 𝑈$ 𝐴∆𝑇VQ 𝑄 = 𝑈$ 𝐴∆𝑇VQ
}𝑇N,F+ − 𝑇R,>HA ~ − }𝑇N,>HA − 𝑇R,F+ ~ (393𝐾 − 373𝐾) − (343𝐾 − 293𝐾) 𝑄
b) Fouling refers to the deposition of solid material on the heat exchange surfaces. ∆𝑇VQ = = ∴𝐴=
}𝑇N,F+ − 𝑇R,>HA ~ (393𝐾 − 373𝐾) 𝑈$ ∆𝑇VQ
All process and utility streams will cause fouling and the extent depends on the 𝑙𝑛 Ž • 𝑙𝑛 7 ;
}𝑇N,>HA − 𝑇R,F+ ~ (343𝐾 − 293𝐾) }𝑇N,F+ − 𝑇R,>HA ~ − }𝑇N,>HA − 𝑇R,F+ ~ (105℃ − 95℃) − (98.4℃ − 65℃)
composition of the fluid. The fouled material acts as a resistance to heat transfer ∆𝑇VQ = =
= 32.74𝐾 }𝑇N,F+ − 𝑇R,>HA ~ (105℃ − 95℃)
and, therefore, reduce the rate of heat transfer. ln Ž • ln 7 ;
}𝑇N,>HA − 𝑇R,F+ ~ (98.4℃ − 65℃)
𝑄 = 500 𝑊𝑚&" 𝐾 &# × 1 𝑚" × 32.74𝐾 = 16.37 𝑘𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝐽. 𝑠 &# = 19.40℃

c) In a co-current heat exchanger m this will never be possible since the hot is 460.92 𝑘𝐽𝑠 &#
always hotter than the cold when flowing in the same direction (below – left). 𝐴= = 18.28 𝑚"
1.300 𝑘𝐽𝑠 &# 𝑚&" ℃&# × 19.40℃
However, theoretically, in a counter-current configuration, the hot (coming in
from the left) could still ALWAYS be hotter than the cold (coming on the right) Example 3.40: Heat transfer down a length of rod
along the heat exchanger from left to right, but because the outlets are on
different sides, by the end of the heat transfer process, these hot/cold A metal rod of length L and radius R has its two ends maintained at temperatures T1
temperatures could have ‘switched’ (below – right). = 150°C and T2 = 60°C respectively. The length of the rod is exposed to air at constant
temperature To = 0°C, and hence will be cooled by the surrounding air. The film
Video 3.10: Heat transfer – Counter current heat exchanger (YouTube) coefficient of heat transfer between the curved surface of the rod and the air is h.
Assume that at any point x along the length of the rod the metal temperature is
constant over the circular cross-section of the rod – although this ‘constant’
Example 3.39: Counter-current heat exchanger temperature varies, along the length of the rod. Regard the thermal conductivity k of
the metal as constant.

a) Obtain an expression for the temperature at the midpoint (x = L/2) of 𝑏¢ 𝑟"

where 𝜃 = •
"L 𝑞̇ " 2 £ + 𝑞̇ ¤ln} ¢𝑟#~ + 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇b ¥ − Ÿ𝑎(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) + 𝑏 }𝑇 " − 𝑇 "~
7 ; ¡
the rod. J_
𝐿 (2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟" )" 𝐿 2𝜋 2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟" $ b
2 $ b
b) What is the energy input required at the ends of the rod to maintain =0
the specified temperatures T1 and T2? b) For conduction down the length of the rod: 𝑞̇ = ℎ(2𝜋𝑅𝐿)(𝑇" − 𝑇#)
Using the quadratic formula:
𝑞̇ −𝑏 ± √𝑏 " − 4𝑎𝑐
Solution: =
𝐿 2𝑎
a) Energy in|x = Energy out|x+∆x – energy loss due to convection over ∆x Example 3.41:
Note:
𝑞̇ |/ = 𝑞|̇/,∆/ + ℎ(2𝜋𝑅∆𝑥)(𝑇 − 𝑇$ ) A thick-walled pipe of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 is constructed of material k (W/mK) = a (W/mK) + b (W/mK2) * T (°C)
whose thermal conductivity is a function of the temperature, i.e. k = a + bT, where a 𝑏¢
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 2
Applying Fourier’s Law: and b are constants. Inside the pipe, there is a liquid at temperature To. Outside, the (2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟")"
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 pipe is surrounded by air at a temperature TA. The film coefficients on the inside and 0.004 𝑊𝑚&# 𝐾 &"¢
−𝑘(𝜋𝑅" ) — = −𝑘(𝜋𝑅" ) — + 2𝜋ℎ𝑅∆𝑥(𝑇) 2
𝑑𝑥 / 𝑑𝑥 /,∆/ outside of the pipe are h1 and h2 respectively. 𝑎= = 2.0264 × 10&3 𝑊 &# 𝑚
(2𝜋 × 25 𝑊𝑚&" 𝐾 &# × 0.20 𝑚)"
Re-arranging and dividing throughout by ∆x:
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑘𝜋𝑅" - ˜ − a.) If the coefficient h1 is very large, so that the temperature of the inner surface 𝑟
𝑑𝑥 /,∆/ 𝑑𝑥 ˜/ . ln} "¢𝑟# ~ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇b
= 2𝜋ℎ𝑅𝑇 may be assumed to be at To, calculate the steady-state heat flow through the 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏 = +
∆𝑥 2𝜋 2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟"
Taking lim pipe wall per unit length. 1 }0.1 + 0.004(10℃)~𝑊𝑚&# 𝐾 &#
Žln-0.20 𝑚¢0.05 𝑚. +
∆/→$
𝑑 𝑑𝑇 2ℎ𝑇 b.) Recalculate 𝑞̇ /𝐿 allowing for h1 given in the data below. 𝑏= • = 0.22509
2𝜋 (25 𝑊𝑚&" 𝐾 &# × 0.20 𝑚)
7 ;=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑅
𝑑 " 𝑇 2ℎ𝑇 𝑑 " 𝑇 2ℎ 𝑏
∴ "= 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇=0 Data:
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑅 𝑑𝑥 " 𝑘𝑅 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑇$ − 𝑇b ) + }𝑇$ " − 𝑇b " ~
r1 = 5 cm 2
If D = d/dx and we let θ = (2h/kR)½ , then: 0.004
(𝐷" − 𝜃 " )𝑇 = 0 r2 = 20 cm 𝑐 = 0.1 𝑊𝑚&# 𝐾 &# (100℃ − 10℃) + 𝑊𝑚&# 𝐾 &"(100℃" − 10℃" )
2
(𝐷 + 𝜃)(𝐷 − 𝜃)𝑇 = 0 h1 = 150 W/m2.K = 28.8 𝑊𝑚 &#
⇒ 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑒 &]/ + 𝐵𝑒 ]/ h2 = 25 W/m2.K
To = 100°C `̇ &$.""*$'±d$.""*$'&&7(".$"37×#$;< f;#=)(&").) f=;#)
= = 128 𝑊𝑚&#
TA = 10°C V "(".$"37×#$;< f;#=)
Boundary condition 1: At x = 0, T = T1 = 150°C
150 = 𝐴𝑒 &]($) + 𝐵𝑒 ]($) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 k = 0.1 + 0.004T in W/mK for T in °C
∴ 𝐵 = 150 − 𝐴 b) Film heat transfer from fluid to inner pipe wall:
Boundary condition 2: At x = L, T = T2 = 60°C Solution:
60 = 𝐴𝑒 &]V + (150 − 𝐴)𝑒 ]V a) If h1 is very large, it offers minimal resistance to heat transfer 𝑞̇ = ℎ# (2𝜋𝑟# 𝐿)(𝑇$ − 𝑇#)
`̇
𝐴(𝑒 ]V − 𝑒 &]V ) = 150𝑒 ]V − 60 𝑇# = 𝑇$ − (1)
"UL#;#V
150𝑒 ]V − 60 Conduction through the pipe material:
𝐴 = ]V
𝑒 − 𝑒 &]V 𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 Conduction through the pipe material:
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑇
150𝑒 ]V − 60 ;& W& 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
∴ 𝐵 = 150 − ]V 1 𝑑𝑟
(𝑒 − 𝑒 &]V ) ∴ 𝑞̇ ž 𝑑𝑟 = − ž (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇)𝑑𝑇 ;& W&
2𝜋𝑟𝐿 1
150(𝑒 ]V − 𝑒 &]V ) − (150𝑒 ]V − 60) ;# W: ∴ 𝑞̇ ž 𝑑𝑟 = − ž (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇)𝑑𝑇
𝐵= `̇ ;& 9 9 2𝜋𝑟𝐿
(𝑒 ]V − 𝑒 &]V ) ln = 𝑎𝑇$ + 𝑇"− 𝑎𝑇" − 𝑇" " (1)
"UV ;# " $ " ;# W#
60 − 150𝑒 &]V `̇
ln
;& 9
= 𝑎𝑇# + 𝑇# " − 𝑎𝑇" − 𝑇" "
9
(2)
𝐵= "UV ;# " "
𝑒 ]V − 𝑒 &]V
Film heat transfer from outer surface of pipe:
𝑞̇ = ℎ"(2𝜋𝑟" 𝐿)(𝑇" − 𝑇b) Film heat transfer from outer surface of pipe:
150𝑒 ]V − 60 &]/ 60 − 150𝑒 &]V ]/ `̇
𝑇= 𝑒 + ]V 𝑒 𝑇" = 𝑇b + (2) 𝑞̇ = ℎ"(2𝜋𝑟" 𝐿)(𝑇" − 𝑇b) (3)
𝑒 ]V − 𝑒 &]V 𝑒 − 𝑒 &]V "UL&;&V
]/
(150𝑒 ]V − 60)𝑒 &]/ + (60 − 150𝑒 &]V )𝑒
𝑇=
𝑒 ]V − 𝑒 &]V Substitute (2) into (1): Substitute (1) and (3) into (2):
"
𝑞̇ 𝑟" 𝑏 𝑞̇ 𝑏 𝑞̇ " 𝑞̇ 𝑟" 𝑞̇ 𝑏 𝑞̇ 𝑞̇
At x = L/2 ln = 𝑎𝑇$ + 𝑇$ " − 𝑎 Ÿ𝑇b + − Ÿ𝑇b + ln = 𝑎 Ÿ𝑇$ − + Ÿ𝑇$ − − 𝑎 Ÿ𝑇b +
2𝜋𝐿 𝑟# 2 2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟" 𝐿 2 2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟" 𝐿 2𝜋𝐿 𝑟# 2𝜋ℎ# 𝑟# 𝐿 2 2𝜋ℎ# 𝑟# 𝐿 2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟" 𝐿
"
]V
(150𝑒 ]V − 60)𝑒 & ^" + (60 − 150𝑒 &]V )𝑒
]V^
" Re-arranging to solve for q/L: 𝑏 𝑞̇
𝑇= − Ÿ𝑇b +
𝑒 ]V − 𝑒 &]V 2 2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟" 𝐿
Re-arranging to solve for q/L:

𝑏¢ 𝑏¢ 𝑟" a = 0.25
𝑞̇ " 2 2 £ + 𝑞̇ ¤ln} ¢𝑟# ~ + 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇$ + 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇b ¥
7 ; ¡ − x1 = 50 mm
𝐿 (2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟" )" (2𝜋ℎ# 𝑟# )" 𝐿 2𝜋 2𝜋ℎ# 𝑟# 2𝜋ℎ" 𝑟"
x2 = 250 mm
𝑏
− Ÿ𝑎(𝑇$ − 𝑇b ) + }𝑇$ " − 𝑇b " ~ = 0 T1 = 600K
2
T2 = 400K
Using the quadratic formula:
k = 3.46 W/m.K
𝑞̇ −𝑏 ± √𝑏 " − 4𝑎𝑐
=
𝐿 2𝑎
Note: The sides are well insulated, while the top surface of the cone (x1) is maintained at T1,
k (W/mK) = a (W/mK) + b (W/mK2) * T (°C) T2 T1
𝑏¢ q and the bottom surface (x2) at T2. What is the rate of the heat transfer across the cone?
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 2 Ÿ 1 − 1
(2𝜋)" (ℎ" 𝑟" )" (ℎ# 𝑟#)" Ignore convection.
0.004 𝑊𝑚&# 𝐾 &"¢ 1 1
𝑎= 2Ÿ −
(2𝜋)" (25 𝑊𝑚&" 𝐾 &# × 0.20 𝑚)" (150 𝑊𝑚&" 𝐾 &# × 0.05 𝑚)" Given:
𝑎 = 1.1258 × 10&3 𝑊 &# 𝑚 X2 X1
kaluminium: 238 W/m.K
;
With 𝑏 =
ghi &^;# j
+
:,9W:
+
:,9W= a: 1m-1/2
"U "UL#;# "UL&;& Solution:
1 }0.1 + 0.004(100℃)~𝑊𝑚&# 𝐾 &# a) Assuming, steady-state, heat transfer only in x direction and well insulated lateral x1: 0.075 m
𝑏= Žln-0.20 𝑚¢0.05 𝑚. +
2𝜋 (150 𝑊𝑚&" 𝐾 &# × 0.05 𝑚) surface – no heat transferred to wall. T1: 100°C
}0.1 + 0.004(10℃)~𝑊𝑚&# 𝐾 &#
+ • q = -kAdT/dx x2: 0.225 m
(25 𝑊𝑚&" 𝐾 &# × 0.20 𝑚)
𝑏 = 0.23570 T2: 20°C
With: A = π D2/(4)
But D = ax
𝑏
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑇$ − 𝑇b ) + }𝑇$ " − 𝑇b " ~ ⸫ A = (π/4) × a2.x2 Solution:
2
0.004 DW UM&
𝑐 = 0.1 𝑊𝑚&# 𝐾 &# (100℃ − 10℃) + 𝑊𝑚&# 𝐾 &"(100℃" − 10℃" ) From Fourier’s law: 𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 D/, with 𝐴 = = 𝜋𝑎" /4)𝑥 5
Substituting: q = -k [(π/4).a2x2]dT/dx 7
2
= 28.8 𝑊𝑚&#
Rearranging:
4q/[-π.k.a2x2]dx = dT Therefore:
𝑞̇ −0.23570 ± ¨0.23570" − 4(1.1258 × 10&3 𝑊 &# 𝑚)(−28.8 𝑊𝑚&# )
= 4𝑞𝑑𝑥
𝐿 2(1.1258 × 10&3 𝑊 &# 𝑚) Integrating: = −𝑘𝑑𝑇
𝜋𝑎" 𝑥 5
𝑞̇
= 122 𝑊𝑚&# [4q/- π.k.a2] × (-1/x + 1/x1) = T(x) – T1
𝐿 T(x) = T1 – (4q/π.k.a2) × (1/x1 – 1/x)
Rearranging and integrating:
Example 3.42: Temperature distribution through a solid conical section At time t2: q = (T1 – T2)(π.k.a2)/[4 × (1/x1 – 1/x2)] 4𝑞 −1 𝑥
Ÿ = −𝑘(𝑇# − 𝑇" )
𝜋𝑎" 2𝑥 " 𝑥#
A conical section fabricated in a wall (as below) has a diameter of D = ax. Assuming Substituting q in into T(x): T(x) = T1 + (T1 – T2) × [(1/x – 1/x1)/(1/x1 – 1/x2)]
2𝑞 1 1
the lateral surface is well insulated, derive an expression for the temperature 𝑇 = 𝑇# + " Ÿ " − "
𝜋𝑎 𝑘 𝑥 𝑥#
distribution assuming one dimensional heat flow. b) Substituting all the constants to solve for q: 2.12 W
𝜋𝑎" 𝑘 𝑇" − 𝑇# 𝜋(1)238 (20 − 100)
𝑞= = . = 189.2613 … 𝑊
a) Show an expression for T(x) in terms of T, q, k, a, and x values AND An Example 3.43: Heat transfer through truncated cone 2 Ÿ 1 − 1 2 [(0.225)&" − (0.075)&"]
𝑥" " 𝑥# "
expression for T(x) in terms of T and x values ONLY
b) Given the following information, calculate the heat transfer rate (in Watts A truncated solid aluminium cone of circular cross section area, has a diameter given
to 3 significant figures) through the cone.
by D = ax3/2

Energy balances – Introduction
4 Energy balances
4.1 Introduction
As for mass balances, the conservation laws extend in an analogous way for energy. This
chapter will cover basic introductory concepts and then energy balances over non-reacting
systems as well as over reacting systems.
Video 4.1: Intensive vs extensive properties (YouTube)
4.1.1 Heat
Heat is the disorganized transfer of energy that results due to a temperature gradient. Heat
is not included in the energy of a system since it is the transfer of energy between systems
while energy that part within a system.
For a closed system heat, energy and work are related by:
DE = Q + W 4.1
Where DE = Ef – E0, or the change in energy from the initial to final states.
4.1.2 Work
Work is typically the transfer of energy through movement due to a force. It is typically
broken down into the following subcategories:
- Expansion work (W∆" ) [mechanical work], also called PV Work (WPV), is the work needed
to change a systems volume.
- Flow work (WFlow) is the work performed when a stream exits or enters a system.
- Shaft work (WS) is the work due to mechanical work changing the pressure, e.g. from
pumps compressors, turbines etc.
- Electrochemical work (Wel) is the work performed due to such things as batteries or fuel
cells.

- Other forms of work (Wother) might include electromagnetic work, sound work, etc.
Adding these gives us the total work of the system:

W = W'[>d + W∆o + WF + WB[ + W>@4BC 4.2
This is typically re-written as:

W = W'[>d + W, 4.3
Where:
Wn is all the non-flow work
4.1.3 Energy
Energy is often referred to as the “ability to perform work”. However, the definition needs
to further extend to include the concept of being able to release heat. Therefore, the
definition of energy can be said to be either the ability to perform work or to release heat.
As with work, energy can have various forms:
- Kinetic energy (EK) is the energy due to movement of the centre of mass of an object.
- Rotational energy (ER) is the energy when the centre of mass is at rest but there is rotation.
- Potential energy (EP) is the energy due to an elevated height relative to a reference point.
- Electric energy (Eel) is energy stored in such things as a capacitor.
- Surface energy (ES) is the intermolecular energy creating a surface.
- Internal energy (U) is the energy of molecules. It can be seen as the sum of thermal energy,
chemical bonding energy and latent energy on a molecular level.
Adding these gives us the total energy of the system:

E = U + Ep + EV + Eq + EB[ + Er + E>@4BC 4.4
4.1.4 Internal Energy

For a closed system it was shown that:
DE = Q + W 4.5
Since energy was defined as:

E = U + Ep + EV + Eq + EB[ + Er + E>@4BC 4.6
For a system with no potential, kinetic, rotational etc. energy, this can be simplified to:
E=U 4.7

Therefore:
DU = Q + W 4.8
Strictly speaking, this should be written as:

dU = δQ + δW 4.9
where the internal energy term is an ordinary differential, while Q and W are partial
differentials.
For a constant volume (closed) system, we can simplify this as:

dU = δQ 4.10
Or
DU = Q 4.11
Since, from the work term below, all W terms are zero
W = W'[>d + W∆o + WF + WB[ + W>@4BC 4.12
4.1.5 Enthalpy
Enthalpy is defined as:
H = U + PV 4.13
where:
H: Enthalpy (J)
U: Internal Energy (J)
P: System pressure (N/m2)
V: System volume (m3)
Since internal energy is a function of temperature, enthalpy too is a function of

temperature. For process purposes, it is common to work with enthalpy.
Enthalpy is measured according to some known value. This is known as the basis.
Typically, the basis is chosen as elements in their standard state (at 1 atm and 298.15K) à
H = 0.
Since basis is elements, we define the heat of formation as the following:

H'/ : Standard enthalpy of formation
0: standard state
f: formation
We can only add enthalpies which have the SAME basis.
Example 4.44: Stream enthalpy at standard conditions
Given a stream of CO(g), flowing at 100 mol/min at a temperature of 298.15 K and pressure of 1 bar,
calculate the enthalpy.
Given: 𝐻4\ CO(g) = -110.53 kJ/mol
Solution:
Basis: Elements in standard state at 298.15K and 1 bar
Enthalpy flow:
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝐽
𝐻̇ = 100 × (−110.53)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
𝐻̇ = −11 053
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Converting:
𝑘𝐽 1000 𝐽 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐻̇ = −11. 053 × 10, × × = −1.84 × 10s 𝐽/𝑠
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝐽 60𝑠
𝐻̇ = −1.84 𝑥 10s 𝑊 = −184 𝑘𝑊
The negative value indicates that energy is being released, i.e. exothermic
Q: Is the basis always 25°C and 1 atm?

A: No. It is the basis when we are dealing with reactions. Most data is given at standard
conditions and, particularly enthalpies of formation (H0f) is needed.
In addition to 25°Cand 1atm basis entails elements in standard state having H0f = 0 kJ/mol
(this accounts for formation and breaking of bonds in a reactor).
It is possible to measure these properties under other conditions for use as a basis. However,
25°C and 1 atm is the most convenient for measurement.

Video 4.2: Energy balance – Introduction (YouTube)
4.1.6 Specific Heat

Specific heat (at constant pressure): Cvl , J.K-1.mol-1 OR J.K-1.kg-1
Definition:
s!
Cvl = %s$ & 4.14
)t,q
Where:
𝑥} = composition
P = Pressure
i.e., constant composition and pressure
Enthalpy under standard conditions:

Ḣ = ṅ H'g 4.15
Calculation of enthalpy under non-standard conditions:

$!
Ḣ = ṅ H'g + ṅ ~ Cvl dt
$"
Where:
T1 = reference temperature (K)
T2 = new temperature (K)
$! $! s!
∫$" Cvl dt = ∫$" % s$ & dt = H|$! − H|$" 4.16
)t,q
i.e., if we don’t have Cp data, we can use the enthalpy data (if available)
NOTE:
If Cp is constant, i.e., NOT dependent on T, then:

$!
$!
~ Cvl dt = Cvl T•$ = Cvl (T. − T& ) = Cvl ∆T
$" "
If Cp is a function of temperature the integral becomes more complex and integral tables
may be needed.
Example 4.45: Stream enthalpy at standard conditions
Given a stream of CO(g), flowing at 100 mol/min at a temperature of 350 K and pressure of 1 bar, calculate
the enthalpy.
Given: Cp = 29.14 J/K.mol
Solution:
∴ 𝐻̇ = −11.053 × 10% 𝑘𝐽. 𝑚𝑖𝑛"# + 𝑛̇ 𝐶X4 ∆𝑇
𝐻̇ = −11.053 × 10% 𝑘𝐽. 𝑚𝑖𝑛"# + [100𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑚𝑖𝑛"# × 29.14𝐽. 𝐾 "# 𝑚𝑜𝑙"# × (350 − 298.15)𝐾]
𝐻̇ = −11.053 × 10% 𝑘𝐽. 𝑚𝑖𝑛"# + 151 090.9𝐽. 𝑚𝑖𝑛"#
𝐻̇ = −11.053 × 10% 𝑘𝐽. 𝑚𝑖𝑛"# + 151.0909𝑘𝐽. 𝑚𝑖𝑛"#
𝐻̇ = −10.902 × 10% 𝑘𝐽. 𝑚𝑖𝑛"#
NOTE:
From previous examples, we see that H = -11.053 x 103 kJ/min when T = 298.15K, and when
T = 350 K, H = -10.902 x 103 kJ/min. Therefore, energy is taken in when the reaction
proceeds at a higher temperature of 350K
(More negative to less negative à energy taken in)
Logically, to move from -10°C to -5°C, energy is taken in as we are heating the substances.
Therefore, a change from a negative larger magnitude value to a negative smaller
magnitude value, energy is absorbed or taken in.
Constant composition (x}):

- No phase changes
- No reaction
- No mixing
Note:
- We cannot measure specific heat directly; we measure enthalpy relative to some basis.
- In practice, enthalpies are measured, and a polynomial model is fitted to the data in order
to obtain specific heat. The model has different constants depending on which units of
temperature, say, were used to make the enthalpy measurements

Energy balances – Steam Tables
4.2 Steam Tables

4.2.1 Introduction
Steam tables (for example Rogers and Mayhew, 1995) are a collection of data for, amongst
others, the enthalpy of steam related to its state, temperature, and pressure. These are
collated into single sets of data and used to calculate the data of liquid systems in various
scenarios e.g., energy balances.
The data is often compiled into three main parts for water (steam):
- Saturated Water and Steam;
- Superheated and Supercritical Steam; and
- Further Properties of Water and Steam
While colloquially called steam tables, most compilations also include a section on the
properties of other materials such as Mercury, Ammonia and CFCs.
4.2.2 Saturated Water and Steam

This collection of data includes the enthalpy and entropy of liquid and gaseous water for
saturated water at varying temperatures or pressures. The data includes the internal
energy, specific volume as well as the corresponding vaporisation data as appropriate.
4.2.3 Superheated and Supercritical Steam

The specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy are given for water vapour that
is hotter than its saturation limit, i.e. superheated steam. Data is also given for water under
supercritical conditions.
4.2.4 Further Properties of Water and Steam

The steam tables may also give data such as the specific volume of the liquid phase, specific
heat, thermal conductivities, and Prandtl Numbers (Pr). Certain tables also include data
on compressed water and/or ice.
Video 4.3: Energy balance – Steam tables (Part 1) (YouTube)

4.2.5 Other Properties

Like above, it is also possible to obtain enthalpy and entropy data for Mercury, Ammonia,
and other CFCs. While not strictly speaking water, the steam table compilations sometimes
also give the specific heat values for air and specific gases, enthalpies and entropies, heats
of reaction, partial pressure, and equilibrium data as well as conversion factors and general
information.
Video 4.4: Energy balance – Steam tables (Part 2) (YouTube)
Example 4.46: Using steam tables (I)
Using the ‘Steam Tables’, find:

(a) The enthalpy of saturated water at 20°C and Ps.
(b) The enthalpy of saturated steam at 90°C and Ps.
(c) The specific volume of saturated steam at 30°C and Ps.
(d) The specific volume of saturated water at 30°C and Ps.
(e) The enthalpy of steam at 10 bar and 300°C.
(f) The internal energy of saturated steam at 0.525 bar and Ts.
(g) Heat of vaporisation at 201 bar and Ts.
(h) Enthalpy of steam at 200°C and 5 bar.
(i) The enthalpy of superheated steam at 350°C and 85 bar
(j) The saturated temperature and pressure at which the saturated steam has an enthalpy of
2720 kJ/kg
Solution:
(a) 909 kJ/kg
(b) 2743 kJ/kg
(c) 0.06665 m3/kg
(d) 0.0010030 m3/kg
(e) 3052 kJ/kg
(f) 2421 kJ/kg
(g) 572 kJ/kg
(h) 2857 kJ/kg
(i) 2974.5 kJ/kg
(j) 130°C and 2.7 bar
Example 4.47: Using steam tables (II)
We have saturated steam at 10 bar with 𝑉” = 0.02m3/kg. How much liquid and vapor do we have?
Solution:
For saturated steam:
P = 10 bar; Ts = 179.9°C; 𝑉”“ = 0.1944 m3/kg
But the specific volume of the system is only 0.02 m3/kg. Therefore, the system is not only steam; there
must be some liquid present in equilibrium with the steam.
For liquid water:

P = 10 bar à
P = 7.920 bar and 𝑉”d = 0.1114 × 10-2 m3/kg
P = 10.03 bar and and 𝑉”d = 0.1128 × 10-2 m3/kg
By interpolation:
(0.1128 × 10%( − 0.1114 × 10%( )𝑚, t𝑉”d − 0.01114 × 10%( u𝑚,
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
=
(10.03 − 7.920)𝑏𝑎𝑟 (10 − 7.920)𝑏𝑎𝑟
(0.1128 × 10%( − 0.1114 × 10%( )𝑚, /𝑘𝑔 × (10 − 7.920)
𝑉”d = + 0.01114 × 10%( 𝑚, /𝑘𝑔
(10.03 − 7.920)
𝑉”d = 1.125 × 10%( 𝑚, /𝑘𝑔
Total Mass Balance: Mt = Ml + Mg [1]

Total Volume balance: Vt = Vl + Vg [2]
Since we only have specific volumes, (2) becomes:
Mt𝑉”t = Ml𝑉”l + Mg𝑉”g [3]
Assuming 1 kg of steam:
𝑀9 𝑉m9 = 𝑀d 𝑉md + (𝑀9 − 𝑀d ) 𝑉m“
𝑀9 𝑉m9 = 𝑀d 𝑉md + 𝑀9 𝑉m“ − 𝑀d 𝑉m“
𝑀d t𝑉md − 𝑉m“ u = 𝑀9 t𝑉m9 − 𝑉m“ u
Steam quality derivation
(0.02 − 0.1944)𝑚, /𝑘𝑔
𝑀d = 1𝑘𝑔
(1.125 × 10%, − 0.1944)𝑚, /𝑘𝑔
𝑀d = 0.9024𝑘𝑔
Therefore:
Mg = (1 – 0.9024) kg AND Mg = 0.0976 kg
Example 4.48: Using interpolation in steam tables
Find the enthalpy of steam at T = 175°C and P = 5 bar. Interpolate between saturation point and 200°C.
Solution:
At saturation: T = 151.8°C; P = 5 bar; hg = 2749 kJ/kg
And at T = 200°C and P = 5 bar: hg = 2857 kJ/kg
Therefore:
2857 − 2749
ℎ“ = 0 7 . (175 − 151.8) + 2749
200 − 151.8
hg = 2801 kJ/kg
Steam quality
The quality of steam is defined as the mass fraction (or percentage) of vapour in the mixture.
G
x = G” 4.17
~
Since the volume is constant:

V = Vu + Vv 4.18
And, by definition:
V = mV$ 4.19
We can re-write the volume as:

$ m$ = V
V $u mu + V
$v mv 4.20
Divide by mT:
" G~
o " • G•
o " ” G”
o
= + 4.21
G~ G~ G~
" "
$ = o• G • + o” G ”
V 4.22
G ~ G ~
From the definition of quality:

G
x = G” 4.17
~
We obtain:
G~ G G
− x = G~ − G” 4.23
G~ ~ ~
G~ # G”
1−x= 4.24
G~
G
1 − x = G• 4.25
~
Substituting 1 and 9 into 6:

$ = (1 − x). V
V $u + x. V
$v 10

Energy balances – General Energy Balance Equation
And re-arranging:
$=V
V $u − x. V
$u + x. V
$v 11
$−V
V $u = x. /V
$v − V
$u 1 12
o" #o"•
x= " ” #o"•
13
o
4.2.6 H-S type diagrams/Mollier Diagrams
Video 4.5: Energy balance – Mollier diagrams (YouTube)
4.3 General Energy Balance Equation

4.3.1 General derivation energy balance
From the conservation laws we know that In = Out (during steady state)
In Out
When considering energy this can be in the form of energy due to material flowing through
the system, work or added heat.
Min Mou
t

where:
M = Mass (kg or kg/s)
W = Work (J or J/s)
Q = Heat (J or J/s)
Energy balance becomes:

In = Out 4.26
Energy=, = Energy>?@ 4.27
Energy from flow=, + Q̇ + Ẇ = Energy from flow>?@ 4.28
Rearranging:
0 = Energy from flow=, − Energy from flow>?@ + Q̇ + Ẇ 4.29
But this is only true for steady state – if not at steady state:
(Change in Energy) = (Energy from flow=, − Energy from flow>?@ ) + Q̇ + Ẇ 4.30
Energy is going to be defined as the internal energy (U) of the system/flow terms:
D]
= (U=, − U>?@ ) + Q̇ + Ẇ 4.31
D@
From the definition of enthalpy:

H = U + PV
Since U is not possible to measure, we wish to replace with enthalpy, therefore:

U = H − PV 4.32
D]
= ((H − PV)=, − (H − PV)>?@ ) + Q̇ + Ẇ 4.33
D@
Rearranging:
D]
= (H=, − H>?@ ) + Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇqo 4.34
D@
D]
= ∑,=I& H= + Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇqo 4.35
D@
What about kinetic and potential energy? These are forms of energy due to movement
(flow terms) or change with time (‘/dt’ terms).
Db]- wI - w– c
= ∑,=I&/H= + EM + El 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇqo 4.36
D@

Or:
—!
Dx]- HY - yZz
! |!
= ∑,=I& Ṁ { %H
$+ + φ& + Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇqo 4.37
D@ . =
Typically, the kinetic and potential energy terms are ignored as they do not influence
temperature and work terms are written as a single term, so:
D]
$ 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇqo
= ∑,=I&/MH 4.38
D@ =
Or as a molar basis:
D]
= ∑,=I& %NH& + Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇqo 4.39
D@ − =
4.3.2 Specific energy balance examples

Some common forms of the energy balance:
Closed system, non-steady state

D]
= Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇqo 4.40
D@
Closed system, Steady state

0 = Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇqo 4.41
Open system, Steady state

$ 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇqo
0 = ∑,=I&/MH 4.42
=
Adiabatic process
D]
$ 1 + Ẇ + Ẇqo
= ∑,=I&/MH 4.43
D@ =
Sign Conventions
[Q]: What does positive or negative Q represent?
Energy Balance/Enthalpy calculations

[A]: Positive Q is heat ADDED to a system. Negative Q is REMOVED from the system.
Heat Transfer
[A]: Positive Q is heat transferred from hot to cold, i.e., out of the system.
Therefore, definition of heat transfer is opposite in Energy Balance calculations to Heat Transfer
calculations.

Energy balances – Energy Balances for Non-Reacting Systems
BEWARE: When looking at both types of approaches in a single problem ensure the correct sign for Q.
Video 4.6: Energy balance – General equation (YouTube)
4.4 Energy Balances for Non-Reacting Systems

4.4.1 Introduction
Example 4.49:
Using Simpson’s Rule, determine the enthalpy from 20°C to 200°C given the data below.
T [°C] 20 50 80 110 140 170 200 230

Cp [J/mol.°C] 28.95 29.13 29.30 29.48 29.65 29.82 29.99 30.1
Solution:
Note:
h = constant value of 30
7 points à 6 intervals (even number)
Therefore, we can use Simpson’s
Now:
(\\
𝐻= Q 𝐶𝑝(𝑥)
(\
Š F
Simpson’s Rule: ∫W 𝑓(𝑥) ≈ , [𝑓(𝑥& ) + 4𝑓(𝑥( ) + 2𝑓(𝑥, ) + ⋯ + 2𝑓(𝑥/%( ) + 4. 𝑓(𝑥/%& ) + 𝑓(𝑥/ )]
Therefore:
(\\
ℎ
𝐻= Q 𝐶𝑝(𝑥) ≈ [𝐶𝑝& + 4𝐶𝑝( + 2𝐶𝑝, + 4𝐶𝑝- + 2𝐶𝑝s + 4𝐶𝑝r + 𝐶𝑝˜ ]
(\ 3
𝐻 ≈ 5305.6𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
NOTE:
If we were asked to find the integral up to 230°C, this would have been an odd number of intervals and
Simpson’s would not work. Therefore, would need to use Simpson’s as above AND then add the last
portion by another technique, e.g., Trapezoidal Rule.

Energy balances – Energy Balances for Non-Reacting Systems
(,\ (\\ (,\

𝐻= Q 𝐶𝑝(𝑥) ≈ rQ 𝐶𝑝(𝑥)s + rQ 𝐶𝑝(𝑥)s
(\ (\ ˆ5‡Xa7/« a‰8di (\\ UTWXi™75mWd ‰8di
ℎ
𝐻 ≈ 5305.6 + [𝐶𝑝˜ + 𝐶𝑝f ] UTWXi™75mWd ‰8di
2
𝐻 ≈ 5305.6 + 902
𝐻 ≈ 6207𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
4.4.2 Heat of Formation

The heat of formation (also called the enthalpy of formation) is the energy (enthalpy)
needed to form one mole of a compound from its elements in their standard states.
4.4.3 Heat of Mixing

The heat of mixing (also called the enthalpy of mixing) is the energy (heat) taken up or
released when two non-reacting materials mix. The heat of mixing is the energy needed
to bring the mixed substances back to their standard states (from changed temperature to
original temperature).
Video 4.7: Energy balance – Heat of mixing (YouTube)
4.4.4 Heat of Vaporisation

The heat of vaporisation (also called the enthalpy of vaporisation or the heat of evaporation)
is the energy needed to convert a material from a liquid to a vapour.

Energy balances – Energy Balances for Reacting Systems
4.4.5 Heat of Fusion

The heat of fusion (also called the enthalpy of fusion) is the heat needed to change a
material from a solid to a liquid.
4.4.6 Heat of Sublimation

The heat of sublimation (also called the enthalpy of sublimation) is the heat required to
sublime one mole of a substance.
4.4.7 Heat of Melting
4.4.8 Evaporation vs. Boiling

From the Clausius-Clapeyron equation it can be shown that the boiling point of water can
be calculated by:
#&
Rln(P/ ) 1
Tj = p + r
∆H|3l T/
where:
TB = the normal boiling point, K
R = the ideal gas constant, 8.314 J/K.mol
P0 = the vapor pressure at a given temperature, atm
DHvap = the heat of vaporization of the liquid, J/mol
T0 = the given temperature, K
4.5 Energy Balances for Reacting Systems
4.5.1 Heat of Reaction

The heat of reaction (also called the enthalpy of reaction) is the energy involved in
converting various chemicals via chemical reaction, into another.
Video 4.8: Energy balance – Heat of reaction (YouTube)

Energy balances – Non-Flow Processes
4.5.2 Heat of Combustion

The heat of combustion for a fuel, coal or oil, is known as the heating value of the fuel. A
Lower (Nett) Heating Value (LHV) and a Higher (Gross) Heating Value (HHV) are both
defined, based on whether the water in the combustion products is in the form of a vapour
(LHV) or a liquid (HHV).
The HHV can be determined within 3% using the Dulong1 formula:
O
HHV (BTU/lb) = 14.544C + 62.028. JH − K + 4050S
8
Where C, H, O and S are the weight fractions of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulphur
respectively. These are typically obtained from flue gas analyses.
4.6 Non-Flow Processes

4.6.1 Joule-Thomson Expansion
Video 4.9: Energy balance – Joule Thomson expansion (YouTube)
4.7 Pressure changes vs. altitude:

Atmospheric pressure changes with altitude by the following equation:
AH
Lh VO gMh
P = P/ J1 − K ≈ P/ . exp J− K
T/ RT/
where:
P = Atmospheric pressure (Pa)
1
Lowry, HH (ed), 1945. Chemistry of Coal Utilization, Ch. 4, Wiley: New York
Energy balances – Additional Reading
P0 = Sea level standard atmospheric pressure (101 325 Pa)

L = Temperature lapse rate (0.0065 K/m)
h = height above sea level (m)
T0 = sea level standard temperature (298.15K)
g = Standard gravity (9.80665 m/s2)
M = molar mass of dry air (0.0289644 kg/mol)
R = universal gas constant (8.31447 J/mol.K)
Therefore:
(}.7/886).(/./.7}855)
0.0052h (7.%&559).(/.//86) (9.80665). (0.0289644). h
P = 101325 J1 − K ≈ P/ . exp p− r
298.15 (8.31447). (298.15)
P = 101325(1 − 0.000017441h)6..6699 ≈ 101325. exp(−0.00011458. h)

P = (101325 − 1.767198h)6..6699 ≈ 101325. exp(−0.00011458. h)
Additional Reading
Balmer, RT, 2011. Modern Engineering Thermodynamics, Academic Press.
Elliott, JR, Lira, CT, 2012. Introductory Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, 2nd ed.,
Pearson International Edition.
Felder RM, Rousseau RW, 2000. Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes, 3rd ed.,
Wiley.
Himmelblau, DM, 2012. Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering, 8th
ed., Prentice-Hall International.
Koretsky, MD, 2013. Engineering and Chemical thermodynamics, 2nd ed., Wiley.
Reklaitis, GV, 1983. Introduction to Material and Energy Balances, Wiley.
Rogers, G, Mayhew, Y, 1992. Engineering Thermodynamics – Work and Heat Transfer,
4th ed., Pearson – Prentice Hall.
Rogers, G, Mayhew, Y, 1995. Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids (SI
Units), 5th ed., Blackwell Publishing.
Sandler, SI, 2006. Chemical, biochemical, and Engineering Thermodynamics, 4th ed.,
Wiley.
Skogestad, S, 2009. Chemical and Energy Process Engineering, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group.

Energy balances – Problems
Problems
Example 4.50: Understanding energy b) Assuming that all the energy is converted to kinetic energy, what is the
Solution: water’s speed at the bottom of the waterfall?
Explain your understanding of energy: a) The reference point is taken as the floor. c) The terminal velocity of water is given as roughly 10 m/s (depending on the
a) What is energy (giving examples)? What are the different units of energy? size of the droplets). How does this compare to the answer for (b)?
b) What is power? How does it differ from energy? b) Assuming: d) Assuming that the water droplet is only travelling at 10 m/s when it reaches
- Mass of piston can be neglected the bottom of the waterfall, what happened to the remaining energy?
c) What is the difference between energy and heat?
- No heat transfer between system and surroundings e) If the temperature of the water at the top of the waterfall is 25°C, calculate
d) List as many types of energy as possible. No work done on or by the system
- the temperature of the water at the bottom of the waterfall. Assumption: No
e) For each answer listed above, give an example where it would be important to water evaporates.
understand this energy. Calculating potential energy: 𝐸k = 𝑚𝑔𝑧 f) If water evaporates, would the temperature in (e) be higher or lower?
𝐸†k = 𝑔𝑧 Explain.
Solution:
a) Energy is the ability to perform work or release heat. Energy is a conserved Height equals vertical distance from reference to bottom of piston, plus half the Solution:
quantity. The S.I. unit for energy is the joule (J), whose equivalent unit is the hight of the gas: a) 𝐸†k A>G = 𝑔ℎA>G = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 &" × 270 𝑚 = 2058 𝑚" 𝑠 &" 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑚/𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Newton Meter (Nm = kgm2s-2). Other units of energy include: the calorie (cal), 𝐸†k = 9.81 𝑚𝑠 &" × (2 + 0.5(0.1))𝑚 #
b) 𝐸†k A>G = 𝐸†l 9>AA>= = # 𝑣9>AA>= "
British thermal unit (Btu) and the foot-pound (ft lbf). 𝐸†k = 20.11𝑘𝑔. 𝑚" . 𝑠 &" . 𝑘𝑔&# = 20.11 𝑁. 𝑚. 𝑘𝑔&# = 20.11 𝐽. 𝑘𝑔&#
b) Power is the rate at which work is performed. It is a measure of the amount of
energy consumed or transmitted per unit time. c) 𝐸†k = 𝑔ℎ 𝑣9>AA>= = ¨2 × 2058 𝑚" 𝑠 &" = 64.76 𝑚𝑠 &#
c) Heat is the disorganized transfer of energy that results when systems of
different temperatures are contacted. In contrast to heat, work is organised Height equals vertical distance from reference to bottom of piston, plus half the c) It is significantly smaller than the calculated velocity.
energy transfer between systems. Heat is the energy transfer between systems, hight of the gas d) The remaining energy is lost to other forms, mainly evaporation
whereas energy is measured within the system boundary. 𝐸†k = 9.81 𝑚𝑠 &" × (0 + 0.5(0.1))𝑚 = 𝐸†k = 0.49 𝐽. 𝑘𝑔&# e) Kinetic energy is converted to internal energy
d) Kinetic energy (Ek), rotational energy (ER), potential energy (Ep), electric
energy (Eel), surface energy (Es), internal energy (U), solar energy. d) 𝐸†k = 𝑔ℎ From an energy balance that includes kinetic and potential energy:
+
e) „ + 𝐸†J + 𝐸†G ~
𝑑}𝑈
„F + 𝐸†J + 𝐸†G ~ + 𝑄 + 𝑊
= °}𝐻
• Kinetic energy: wind turbines Height equals vertical distance from reference to bottom of piston, plus half the 𝑑𝑡
FS#
• Potential energy: hydro-electric power generation hight of the gas, which is half of the original height
$.#
• Internal energy: energy balance in chemical processing plant, nuclear 𝐸†k = 9.81 𝑚𝑠 &"
× -0 + 0.5( ). 𝑚 = 𝐸†k = 0.24 𝐽. 𝑘𝑔 &#
If we assume no heat is leaving the water (all to temperature change), and for a closed
"
energy generation system (water fixed volume of water falling), with no work, this becomes:
• Electric energy: electricity generation *Compressing the piston will also increase the internal energy of the system, „ + 𝐸†J + 𝐸†G ~
𝑑}𝑈
= 0
• Rotational energy: turbines which we have ignored here. 𝑑𝑡
• Solar energy: solar panels for energy generation
e) Energy is typically a difference and not an absolute value. The values above This can be simplified to:
∆}𝑈„ + 𝐸†J + 𝐸†G~ = 0
are relative to the reference. If a different reference point was chosen, the
„ + 𝐸†J + 𝐸†G~ − }𝑈
}𝑈 „ + 𝐸†J + 𝐸†G ~ = 0
Example 4.51: Potential energy of a gas in a piston values above would have been different. However, the differences in the values A>G 9>AA>=
above would have been the same, even if the reference point was different. [See „ + 𝐸†G ~ − }𝑈
}𝑈 „ + 𝐸†J ~ = 0
A>G 9>AA>=
A piston (diameter 5 cm; height 10 cm) containing a certain volume of air is placed how this works for other forms of energy later in the section.]
2 m above the ground. Rearranging:
a) Define a suitable reference point. f) A reference is a vertical height above the ground. In the calculations, we used ∆𝑈9>AA>=→A>G = 𝐸†G A>G − 𝐸†J 9>AA>=
b) What is the potential energy of the gas in the piston? the term ‘z’, and not ‘h’ to calculate potential energy. ‘h’ is the distance from 𝐶C . ∆𝑇 = 𝐸†G A>G − 𝐸†J 9>AA>=
the ground, while ‘z’ is the distance from the reference point. 1 " 1
c) The piston is moved and placed on the floor. What is the potential energy of 𝐸†G A>G − 𝐸†J 9>AA>= 𝑔ℎA>G − 2 𝑣 9>AA>= 9.81.210A>G − 10"
A system is a defined mass or volume of material that we will be investigating. 2 9>AA>=
the gas at its new position? ∆𝑇 = = = = 0.48 ℃
𝐶C 𝐶C 4180
d) While still on the ground, what is the potential energy of the gas if the piston Therefore, the temperature at the bottom is 25.48°C
is compressed to halve its original height?* Example 4.52: Water from a waterfall
e) Discuss the importance of defining a reference point. f) Since energy is required for evaporation, it would cool the water.
Water falls from a 210 m waterfall.
f) How does a system differ from and a reference point?
a) What is the potential energy of the water at the top of the waterfall?

Example 4.53: Nitrogen cooled in a closed vessel The energy balance assuming no kinetic or potential energy: By interpolation: Specific volume = 0.98436 m3/kg
+
𝑑𝑈
= ° 𝐻F + 𝑄 + 𝑊
Nitrogen is stored in a 10 L flask at an initial pressure of 5.921 atm. Calculate the 𝑑𝑡
FS#
heat that is transferred when the nitrogen is cooled from 90 to 30°C. For a closed system:
Given: 𝑑𝑈
= 𝑄+𝑊
Cp [kJ/mol. °C] = 0.0290 + 0.2199 × 10-5T + 0.5723 × 10-8T2 – 2.871 × 10-12T3 𝑑𝑡
Example 4.56: Labelling enthalpy-pressure diagram for water
Therefore:
Solution: 𝑑𝑈 Given the enthalpy-temperature diagram for water below, label all unknowns.
𝑄= −𝑊
From an energy balance that assumes no kinetic or potential energy: 𝑑𝑡
+
𝑑𝑈
= °𝐻 +𝑄 +𝑊 Substituting values: c b
𝑑𝑡
FS# 𝐵𝑇𝑈 0.001285𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑄 = 8 𝑙𝑏. 4 − 2334 𝑓𝑡. 𝑙𝑏- . = 29 𝐵𝑇𝑈 g (from e à c) h (from c à e)
𝑙𝑏= 1𝑓𝑡. 𝑙𝑏-
For a closed system with no work added, this becomes: e
𝑑𝑈 a
=𝑄 Example 4.55: Specific volume from enthalpy calculation d
Enthalpy
𝑑𝑡
A stream of water (15 kg/hr) is heated from 25°C to T2 at a constant pressure of 2 bar i (from là d) j (from d à l)
Rearranging and rewriting for the definition of U:
such that the final enthalpy is 335630.9 kJ/hr. Calculate the specific volume of the
𝑄 = 𝑛 ž 𝐶C 𝑑𝑇 l
water at the new temperature.
k f
Cv = Cp – R Given:
= (0.0290 + 0.2199 × 10-5T + 0.5723 × 10-8T2 – 2.871 × 10-12T3) – (8.314 × 10-3) Cp [kJ/kg] = (4.2 – 2 × 10-3) T[K]
Temperature
= (0.02069 + 0.2199 × 10-5T + 0.5723 × 10-8T2 – 2.871 × 10-12T3) kJ/mol.°C Hf0 = -285820 kJ/kmol
Molar mass of water: 18 kg/kmol
Therefore: Solution:
5$
Solution: a) Liquid water
𝑄 = 𝑛 ž (0.02069 + 0.2199 × 10&* 𝑇 + 0.5723 × 10&) 𝑇 " – 2.871 × 10&#" 𝑇 5 )𝑑𝑇 ?@ b) Superheated steam
&")*)"$?A3B, Jn
„-° =
Conversion: 𝐻 = −15878.9
'$
#)
?C Jo c) Condensation point
0.2199 × 10&* ?A3B,
𝑄 = 𝑛 ²0.02069(30 − 90) + (30" − 90") d) Freezing point
2
&)
W"
e) Boiling point
0.5723 × 10 „-° + 𝑚̇ × ž 𝐶G 𝑑𝑇
+ (305 − 905) 𝐻 = 𝑚̇𝐻 f) Solid
3
2.871 × 10&#"
W#
g) Heat of vaporisation
− (307 − 907 )³ 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
4 335630.9 = 715 × −15878.9 ; h) Heat of condensation
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑄 = 𝑛[−1.24921 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙] 𝑘𝑔 W"
𝑘𝐽 i) Heat of fusion
+ 60 × ž (4.2 − 2 × 10&5)𝑇 ( ) j) Heat of solidification
ℎ𝑟 "') 𝑘𝑔
From the ideal gas law: 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 k) Absolute zero temperature
𝑃𝑉 (5.921𝑎𝑡𝑚)(10.0𝐿) 335630.9 ℎ𝑟 − 715 ℎ𝑟 × −15878.9 𝑘𝑔 ; 4.2 − 2 × 10&5 𝑘𝐽
𝑛= = = 1.9877 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = ¤Ž • × (𝑇" − 298)"¥ l) Melting point
𝑅𝑇 𝑎𝑡𝑚 15 2 ℎ𝑟
´0.08206𝐿. 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾µ (363𝐾)
4.2 − 2 × 10&5
38254.28 = Ž • × (𝑇" − 298)" Example 4.57: Steam table calculations involving interpolation
2
And: "
18225 = (𝑇" − 298)
𝑄 = 1.9877[−1.24921] = −2.483 𝑘𝐽 Using the steam tables, calculate the following:
135 = 𝑇" − 298
𝑇" = 433𝐾 1) Enthalpy of saturated water at 98 bar
Example 4.54: Heat loss in a closed system with work 𝑇" = 160 °𝐶 2) Enthalpy of saturated steam at 131°C
3) Enthalpy of saturated steam at 8 bar and 240°C
Calculate the total heat for a closed stationary system of 8lbs, when 2334 ft.lbf of work From steam table, at 2 bar (superheated steam): 4) Internal energy of saturated steam at 0.05 bar and 190°C
is done on it. The internal energy of the system increases by 4 Btu/lbm. 5) Enthalpy of vaporisation for saturated system at a pressure of 178 bar
150°C 160°C 200°C
Given: 1 ft.lbf = 0.001285 BTU
0.9602 1.081 [kJ/kg]
Solution:
Solution:

1) 1399.2 kJ/kg 1. What is its enthalpy?

Jn
2) 2659.6 kJ/kg 2. The liquid is brought to the vapor state at 300°C and 1 500 kPa where its 2. 𝑈" = 2 784.4 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
Jo
3) 2928.8 kJ/kg internal energy is 2 784.4 kJ/kg, and its specific volume is 169.7 cm³/g. H2 = U2 + P2V2 = 2784.4 + (1500 × [(169.7/1003).1000]) = 3038.95 kJ/kg
4) 2647.4 kJ/kg Calculate ΔU and ΔH for the process.
5) 819 kJ/kg ∆𝑈 = 𝑈" − 𝑈# = 2784.4 − 762.0 = 2022.4 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Solution: ∆𝐻 = 𝐻" − 𝐻# = 3038.95 − 763.13 = 2275.82 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Example 4.58: Internal energy and enthalpy over phase change 1. H = U + PV
A liquid at 180°C and 1 002.7 kPa has an internal energy of 762.0 kJ/kg and a specific Including the unit conversion:
volume of 1.128 cm³/g. H1 = 762 + (1 002.7 × [(1.28/1003).1000]) = 763.13 kJ/kg

Fluid Flow – Introduction
5 Fluid Flow
5.1 Introduction
In this section we will look at what affects fluid flow in a pipe. This may include fluid
density, fluid viscosity, pipe diameter, pipe roughness (materials of construction), pressure,
pipe height and other things.
5.2 Pressure Drop

5.2.1 Introduction
Pressure is the ratio of force divided by the area over which it is applied. Typical units
include psi (pound per square inch), mmHg (millimeters Mercury), atm (atmosphere) and
bar. The SI units of pressure are the Pa (Pascal – N/m2 or kg/m.s2)
Standard atmosphere is given as: 101.325 Pa (or 101.325 kPa = 1 013.25 hPa)
5.2.2 Gauge vs. Absolute Pressure

Gauge pressure is the pressure difference above ambient air pressure.
Absolute pressure is the pressure referenced against a perfect vacuum. It is equal to gauge
pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.
5.2.3 U-Tube Manometer

Given a U-tube manometer, derive the equation for the pressure drop across a pipe.
Fluid
Solution:
Step 1:

Fluid Flow – Pressure Drop
Divide the manometer into various sections: Vertically into A and B and horizontally into
point 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown below.
4 Fluid
3
2
h
1
0
A B
Step 2:
Calculate the pressure on Side A, at point 0.
This equals the pressure of the manometer fluid from 0 à 1 plus the pressure from the fluid
from 1 à2 plus from 2 à 3 plus the pressure due to the flow of the fluid at 4.
PN,/ = ρG3, gh/→& + ρ'[?=D gh&→. + ρ'[?=D gh.→% + PN,5 5.1
where:
man refers to the density of the fluid in the manometer
fluid refers to the density of the fluid in the pipe
Step 3:
Calculate the pressure on Side B, at point 0.
In a similar way to step 2:

Pj,/ = ρG3, gh/→& + ρG3, gh&→. + ρ'[?=D gh.→% + Pj,5 5.2
Step 4:
The fluid through the manometer is NOT moving, therefore pressure at 0 is not changing
and the pressure is equal
PB,0 = PA,0 5.3

Fluid Flow – Buoyancy
Equating equations for PB,0 and PA,0:

ρG3, gh/→& + ρ'[?=D gh&→. + ρ'[?=D gh.→% + PN,5
= ρG3, gh/→& + ρG3, gh&→. + ρ'[?=D gh.→% + Pj5
Discarding common terms:

ρ'[?=D gh&→. + PN,5 = ρG3, gh&→. + Pj,5 5.4
Rearranging:
PN,5 − Pj,5 = ρG3, gh&→. − ρ'[?=D gh&→. 5.5
Therefore:
−∆P = gh&→. (ρG3, − ρ'[?=D ) 5.6
Or simply:
−∆P = gh∆ρ 5.7
NOTE: This is different to: ∆P = ρG3, gh

This is only true when rman >> rfluid
Video 5.1: Fluid flow – U-tube manometer (YouTube)
5.3 Buoyancy
5.3.1 Introduction
Simply: buoyancy is the upward force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) on an object.
5.3.2 Archimedes’ Principle

Archimedes of Syracuse (287 BC – 212 BC), is credited with discovering much of how
buoyancy works. This includes the Archimedes’ Principle which states:

“Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal

to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.”
In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth (P = rgh). This means that a column of
fluid experiences greater pressure at the bottom of the column than at the top. This
difference results in a nett force that tends to accelerate an object upwards. The magnitude
of that force is proportional to the difference in the pressure between the top and the
bottom of the column, and is also equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise
occupy the column, i.e. the displaced fluid. For this reason, an object whose density is
greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink. If the object is either
less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a boat), the force can keep the
object afloat.
5.3.3 Force Balances

The force of an object is given by:
F = m.a 5.8
Which can be re-written as:

F = (ρ. V)g 5.9
Or:
FA = ρ> . V> . g 5.10
where:
Fg = Gravitational force
ro = density of the object
Vd = Volume of the object
Since the Archimedes principle states the buoyancy force equals the volume of displaced
water, the Bouyancy force can be written as:
F2 = ρ' . V~ . g 5.11
where:
Fb = Buoyancy force
rf = density of the fluid displaced
VD = Volume displaced

If the object is stationary, this means the forces are equal, therefore:
FA = F2 5.12
ρ> . V> . g = ρ' . V~ . g 5.13
Therefore:
ρ> . V> = ρ' . V~ 5.14
And:
•Q .oQ
V~ = 5.15
•z
Example 5.1:
What fraction of an iceberg is visible? Given:

ri = 917 kg/m3
rw = 1024 kg/m3
Where i and w refer to the iceberg and seawater, respectively.
Solution:
𝐹5 = 𝜌5 𝑉5 𝑔
𝐹b = 𝐹š = 𝜌b 𝑉b 𝑔
Since the iceberg floats, the forces are equal (Fi = Fw) and:
𝜌5 𝑉5 𝑔 = 𝜌b 𝑉b 𝑔
Therefore:
𝜌5 𝑉5 = 𝜌b 𝑉b
And:
›m „m ›i „i
𝑉5 = ›i
𝑉b = ›m
Now, we want to know the fraction of iceberg above the water:

𝑉5 − 𝑉b 𝑉b
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =1−
𝑉5 𝑉5
Substituting the equations above:

𝜌5 𝑉5
𝑉b 𝜌 𝜌5 917
1− =1− b =1− =1− = 0.1 = 10
𝑉5 𝜌b 𝑉b 𝜌b 1024
𝜌5
Example 5.2:

Fluid Flow – Pascal’s Principle
What maximum load (M) can a helium filled balloon with radius, R = 20 m and mass (including support
cables and basket), m = 196kg carry?
Given: rHe = 0.160 kg/m3 rair = 1.25 kg/m3
Solution:
𝐹W5T = 𝜌W5T 𝑉W5T 𝑔 Buoyancy force
𝐹Zi = 𝜌Zi 𝑉Zi 𝑔
Now:
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝑅, /3
From Archimedes’:
𝐹W5T = 𝐹Zi + 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑀𝑔
𝐹W5T 𝐹Zi
𝑀= − −𝑚
𝑔 𝑔
Substituting values:
4
𝑀 = 0 𝜋7 . 12, . (1.25 − 0.160) − 196
3
𝑀 = 7690 𝑘𝑔
This mass would result in the balloon forces balancing and thus not moving. Anything lighter would mean
the balloon rises.
5.4 Pascal’s Principle

Pascal’s principle states that pressure exerted in an incompressible, static fluid remains the
same throughout the fluid.
“A change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished

to all points in the fluid”.
The principle can be applied to hydraulic presses. Since the pressure in the fluid is constant,
a pressure exerted at one end of the press results in an equal pressure at the other end.
However, if the two areas are of different sizes, the resulting force at the end with the
larger area is greater.
A
B
A force exerted at point A results in a pressure throughout the fluid. This pressure exerts
a force upwards at point B. Since the area at B is larger than A, the force upwards is larger.
Fluid Flow – Terminal Velocity
5.5 Terminal Velocity

5.5.1 Introduction
An object which falls is subjected to the force of gravity (downwards) and a drag force
(upwards). When the force upwards equals the force downwards, the object will no longer
increase its speed. This is the terminal velocity of the object. Terminal velocity is a
function of the objects mass, projected area, density and co-efficient of drag.
Ignoring the effects of buoyancy, terminal velocity of an object is calculated as:
.GA
V@ = ‹•Nk 5.16
}
where:
Vt = terminal velocity (m/s)
m = mas of object (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
r = density of object (kg/m3)
A = projected area (m2)
Cd = coefficient of drag
5.5.2 Coefficient of Drag, Cd

The coefficient of drag (or drag coefficient), Cd (not to be confused with coefficient of
discharge), is a dimensionless quantity used to determine the drag of an object. Some
examples of drag are given in the table below
Table 5.1: Examples of drag coefficients (Cd)
Shape Drag coefficient (Cd)

Sphere 0.47
Half sphere 0.42
Cone 0.5
Cube 1.05
Angled cube 0.80
Long cylinder 0.82
Short cylinder 1.15
The coefficient of drag can be calculated as:

Fluid Flow – Flow through Pipes
.€œ
CD = 5.17
•• ! N
where:
Cd = coefficient of drag
Fd = drag force (N)
v = speed of the object relative to the fluid (m/s)
A = reference area (m2)
5.6 Flow through Pipes

5.6.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow:
Friction with the walls slows flow at the edges, resulting in flow which is faster near the
centre; flow is assumed to be ‘straight’. [Smooth, constant fluid motion]
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow:
Particles move and knock against each other. This movement results in a flat velocity
profile. [Chaotic eddies, vortices, and other flow instabilities]
Turbulent Flow
Video 5.2: Fluid flow – Laminar vs turbulent flow (YouTube)

5.6.2 Reynolds Number (Re)

The Reynolds Number (NRE or Re) of a fluid system is a measure of the turbulence in a
system. It is a dimensionless number that gives a measure of the ratio of inertial forces (the
ability of a fluid to resist a change in motion) to viscous forces. It is used to determine what
flow regime a fluid is in; e.g. laminar or turbulent flow.
Definition:
Reynolds Number is defined by the formula:
•|~
Re = 5.18
‚
Where:
r = density (kg/m3)
v = velocity (m/s)
D = pipe diameter (m)
µ = viscosity (kg.m-1.s-1) (although commonly given in cP)
Confirming the units of Reynolds number:

kg m
J % K % s & (m)
m
Re:
kg
J
m. sK
I• €
P # QP Q(G)
k
Re: €
I• = dimensionless
P Q
€.k
If:
- Re < 2300: Laminar Flow
- Re > 104: Turbulent flow
- Re between 2300 and 104: barrier between laminar and turbulent flow.
Video 5.3: Fluid flow – Reynolds number (YouTube)

5.6.3 Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid, i.e., the ‘thickness’ of the fluid. A fluid
with a high viscosity will not splash as much as one with a lower viscosity and may be able
to form peaks. A fluid with a low viscosity flows more easily.
As temperature increases, the viscosity of liquids decreases, e.g., syrup in cold temperatures
does not flow out a bottle as easily. However, as temperature increases, the viscosity of
gases increases.
Viscosity of Water = 1 cP = 10-3 kg.m-1.s-1 at approx. 20°C
A Nomograph (a graphical calculation technique) can be used to calculate the viscosity of

various substances (gases).
Figure 5.1: Nomograph for various gasses (Perry)

Example:
Using the attached nomograph, calculate the viscosity of Helium at:
a.) 20°C b.) 300°C
Solution:
For Helium:
x: 10.9 y: 20.5
a.) By drawing a straight line from 20°C, through the

intersection of 10.9 : 20.5 on the grid, viscosity is roughly
0.0185
b.) Drawing a straight line from 300°C, through the intersection
of 10.9 : 20.5 on the grid, viscosity is roughly 0.03
Viscosity is not constant but can be a function of temperature and/or force.

Figure 5.2: Viscosity for various chemicals as a function of temperature (unknown source)
Further, viscosity is a function of force.

Figure 5.3: Viscosity is a function of force (unknown source)
5.6.4 Dynamic vs. Kinematic Viscosity

Dynamic viscosity, also called absolute or shear viscosity (µ), is the interaction of fluid as
it flows; the shear between adjacent layers of fluid as they move past each other.
Units: 1 cP ≡ 0.001 kg.m-1.s-1 = 10-3 Pa.s

Units: 1 P ≡ 0.1 kg.m-1.s-1 = 1 g.cm-1.s-1
Kinematic viscosity (n) is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the fluid density.
n = µ/r
Units: 1 cSt = 1 mm2.s-1 = 10-6m2.s-1
5.6.5 Hagen-Poiseuille Equation

The Hagen-Poiseuille equation gives a correlation for the pressure drop of a fluid flowing
through a long cylindrical pipe. It assumes the fluid is incompressible, Newtonian and that
the flow is laminar. Further, it assumes that the length of the pipe is much longer than its
diameter and that the fluid is flowing at steady state.
7‚On &.7‚On
∆P = = 5.19
TCn TDn
where:
DP = pressure (Pa)
µ = viscosity (Pa.s)
L = length (m)
Q = volumetric flow (m3/s)

Fluid Flow – Bernoulli’s Equation
r = radius (m)
D = diameter (m)
5.7 Bernoulli’s Equation

5.7.1 Introduction
Bernoulli’s equation is a simplified equation used in process engineering to determine the
velocity, pressure, and height changes within an incompressible fluid flow system. It can
be derived by Euler’s Equations, through force (mass and acceleration) and streamline
derivations or from the First Law of Thermodynamics.
5.7.2 Derivation using the First Law of Thermodynamics
From the conservation of energy we have a simplified equation:
Change in Energy = (Energy in) – (Energy Out) + Heat + Work 5.20

∆E = E=, − E>?@ + Q̇ + W 5.21
where:
DE = change in energy of the system
E = the flow of energy into and out of the system
Q = Heat
W = All forms of work added to the system
Energy Energy Out

In
Energy (E) = Internal Energy (U) 5.22

AND
Internal Energy (U) = Enthalpy (H) – Flow Work (Wflow) 5.23
So:
Ein = Uin = Hin – Wflow,in 5.24

Eout = Uout = Hout – Wflow, out 5.25
And:
∆U = U=, − U>?@ + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.26
Therefore:
D]
= /H=, − W'[>d,=, 1 − /H>?@ − W'[>d,>?@ 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.27
D@
Including Potential (Ep) and Kinetic Energy (Ek) Terms:

D
/U + El + EM 1 = /H=, − W'[>d,=, + El,=, + EM,=, 1 − /H>?@ − W'[>d,>?@ + El,>?@ +
D@
EM,>?@ 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.28
Rearranging:
D
/U + El + EM 1 = /Ḣ=, + El,=, + EM,=, 1 − /Ḣ>?@ + El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ −
D@
/Ẇ'[>d,=, + Ẇ'[>d,>?@ 1 5.29
D
/U + El + EM 1 = /Ḣ=, + El,=, + EM,=, 1 − /Ḣ>?@ + El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.30
D@
Where:
W = all forms of work
5.7.3 Thermal Systems

For a thermal system, the energy balance accounts for factors which influence the
temperature of the system, i.e., factors that add or remove heat). We can approximate the
kinetic, potential and various other work terms as zero because they produce a negligible
change in the temperature and thermal energy of the system in comparison to enthalpy of
the components as well as the shaft work and PV work supplied.
Therefore:
D
/U + El + EM 1 = /Ḣ=, + El,=, + EM,=, 1 − /Ḣ>?@ + El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ + Ẇƒ@4BC
D@
5.31
D]
= /Ḣ=, − Ḣ>?@ 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.32
D@
D]
= ∑,=I& Ḣ= + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.33
D@

where:
i = stream (streams flowing in are positive; streams flowing out are negative)
n = number of streams in the system
At Steady State:
D
=0 5.34
D@
Therefore:
D]
= ∑,=I& Ḣ= + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.35
D@
0 = ∑,=I& Ḣ= + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.36
For a Closed System at Steady State (SS):

There is no mass flow between the system and surroundings (but there is energy flow) AND
there is no change over time.
D]
= ∑,=I& Ḣ= + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.37
D@
0 = Q̇ + Ẇ 5.38
5.7.4 Mechanical Systems

In a mechanical system we are interested in the changes in velocity and pressure, not
temperature. For mechanical systems we deal with the “Momentum” or “Mechanical
Energy” balance and account for the factors which influence the velocity of the system.
NOTE: The term ‘momentum balance’ is sometimes used in the concepts we are dealing
with here but is a different idea which should not be confused with what we are doing
here.

Energy Energy Out

In
Revisiting the general form of the energy balance:

D
/U + El + EM 1 = /Ḣ=, + El,=, + EM,=, 1 − /Ḣ>?@ + El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 + Q̇ + Ẇ 5.39
D@
D
D@
5.40
For thermal systems, Ek and Ep are approximately zero as they don’t affect the temperature
of the system. However, these terms do affect the velocity.
In a similar way, enthalpy (H) does not affect the velocity (nor does Q, Welec, Wsound and
other forms of work), even though they can/do affect the temperature.
Therefore, in a mechanical system:

D
D@
5.41
D
/U + El + EM 1 = /El,=, + EM,=, 1 − /El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 + ẆF + Ẇ>@4BC 5.42
D@
At Steady State:
D
/U + El + EM 1 = 0 5.43
D@
Therefore:
D
/U + El + EM 1 = /El,=, + EM,=, 1 − /El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 + ẆF + Ẇ>@4BC 5.44
D@
0 = /El,=, + EM,=, 1 − /El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 + ẆF + Ẇ>@4BC 5.45

/El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 = /El,=, + EM,=, 1 + ẆF + Ẇ>@4BC [1]
Other Work:
1) Friction/Friction loss (F)
Can also be written as: F, F$, f, fl, ff
2) Work due to a change in pressure:

q,>?@
ẆFCB| = ~ VdP
q,=,
Since Volume = Mass/Density:

q,>?@
m
ẆFCB| = ~ dP
q,=, ρ
q,>?@
dP
ẆFCB| = m ~
q,=, ρ
Therefore, the Energy Balance becomes:

/El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 = /El,=, + EM,=, 1 + ẆF + Ẇ>@4BC
q,>?@ Dq
/El,>?@ + EM,>?@ 1 = /El,=, + EM,=, 1 + ẆF − 2m ∫q,=, • + F3 [2]
With:
El = mgz [3]
&
EM = (mv . ) [4]
.
where:
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational constant (m2/s2)
z = height (sometimes written as h) (m)
v = velocity (m/s)
NOTE:
- Friction and energy change due to pressure change is negative since energy is lost;
- For laminar flow, velocity at the centre of the pipe is greatest;
- Friction reduces the flow at the pipe walls;
- Re indicates whether flow is laminar or turbulent ;
- Flow is almost never in a straight line; it is more circular motion and eddies are formed; and
- If it is not stated or cannot otherwise be determined, we assume turbulent flow.

Final form of the energy balance: (substitute [3] and [4] into [2] and re-arrange)
& & q,>?@ Dq
Jmgz + . (mv . )K + F = Jmgz + . (mv . )K − m ∫q,=, + ẆF [5]
•
𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐢𝐧
Units: J or J/s
Assuming mass in = mass out:

Therefore, steady state, we can divide through by mass
mgz (mv . ) F mgz (mv . ) m q,>?@ dP WF

p + r + =p + r − ~ +
m 2m >?@ m m 2m =, m q,=, ρ m
|! ‰ F |! ‰ q,>?@ Dq i̇k
%gz + & + G = %gz + & − ∫q,=, + [6]
. >?@ . =, • G
Defining a new term:

F. ρ
∆P' =
m
Where ∆𝑃Š is the pressure drop due to friction.
And therefore (rearranging):

∆P' F
=
ρ m

v. ∆P' v. q,>?@
dP ẆF
pgz + r + = pgz + r − ~ +
2 >?@ ρ 2 =, q,=, ρ m
Units: J/kg OR J/kg.s
Assuming density is constant:

Incompressible fluids (most liquids, NOT gases)
q,>?@
dP 1 q,>?@ P>?@ − P=, P>?@ P=,
~ = ~ dP = = −
q,=, ρ ρ q,=, ρ ρ ρ
Substituting into the energy balance:

v. ∆P' v. P>?@ P=, ẆF
pgz + r + = pgz + r − J − K +
2 >?@ ρ 2 =, ρ ρ m

Rearranging:
P v. ∆P' P v. ẆF
p + gz + r + = p + gz + r +
ρ 2 >?@ ρ ρ 2 =, m
[7]
Units: J/kg
Equation [7] is a form of Bernoulli’s equation
Multiplying throughout by density:

•|! ‰ •|! ‰ i̇k .•
%P + ρgz + & + ∆P' = %P + ρgz + & + [8]
. >?@ . =, G
Units: Pa
Defining:
𝑊̇Œ . 𝜌
∆𝑃u‹Š; =
𝑚
ρv . ρv .
pP + ρgz + r + ∆P' = pP + ρgz + r + ∆P[='@
2 >?@ 2 =,
•|!
∆ %P + ρgz + & = ∆P[='@ − ∆P' [9]
.
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 is the static pressure

•|! ‰
is the dynamic pressure
.
If we then make the following assumptions:

i) No friction (∆𝑃# = 0)
ii) Ẇ $ = 0; i.e. no pumping

ρv .
∆ pP + ρgz + r=0
2
ρv . ρv .
pP + ρgz + r = pP + ρgz + r
2 >?@ 2 =,
•• !
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [10]
.

We can also take Equation 9:

ρv . ρv .
pP + ρgz + r + ∆P' = pP + ρgz + r + ∆P[='@
2 >?@ 2 =,
Units: Pa (pressure)
Where:
ik .•
∆P[='@ = and
G
F. ρ
∆P' =
m
Therefore:
ρv . F. ρ ρv . WF . ρ
pP + ρgz + r + = pP + ρgz + r +
2 >?@ m 2 =, m
Dividing by 𝜌𝑔:
q |! F q |! i
%•A + z + .A& + GA = %•A + z + .A& + GAk [11]
>?@ =,
Units: m
Summary:
& & q,>?@ Dq

Jmgz + . (mv . )K + F = Jmgz + . (mv . )K − m ∫q,=, + ẆF J or J/s
•
𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐢𝐧
|! ∆qz |! q,>?@ Dq i̇k

%gz + & + = %gz + . & − ∫q,=, + (Bernoulli’s equation) J/kg OR
. >?@ • =, • G
J/kg.s
•|! •|!
%P + ρgz + & + ∆P' = %P + ρgz + & + ∆P[='@ Pa
. >?@ . =,
•|!
P + ρgz + = constant (ONLY when no friction, turbulent flow, no pumping)
.
q |! F q |! i
%•A + z + .A& + GA = %•A + z + .A& + GAk m
>?@ =,
q |! ∆qz q |! i
%•A + z + .A& + = %•A + z + .A& + GAk m
>?@ •A =,
5.7.5 Siphoning
A siphon is a device which typically involves a tube connecting two containers. Liquid in
the container of higher height will flow through the tube into the other container.

What is the linear velocity of a liquid at a tank surface when liquid is being removed in a thin pipe?
Mass flow is constant (conservation of mass)

Mass flow up the pipe = Mass flow downward in tank
Mtank = Mpipe
Qtank.r = Qpipe. r
Where
Q = volumetric flow
Since density is constant

Qtank. = Qpipe.
Now:
Q = Cross sectional area × linear velocity
XSAtank.vtank = XSApipe.vpipe
Rearranging:
vtank = (XSApipe/ XSAtank).vpipe )
If we assume XSAtank >> XSApipe
(XSApipe/ XSAtank). à 0
Therefore: vtank = 0

Example: Given the system below (not drawn to scale).

1) What is the velocity at point 3?
2) What is the pressure at point 2?
Further information: Pipe diameter = 5 cm (F = 5cm), Liquid is given as water. System is at the coast (Why is it
important to know that this is at the coast? Is it important?)
4m
1m
2m
3
Solution: Method to solve.

Starting at point 1:
𝜌𝑣 $
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
P1: Patm (this is why we needed to know it was at the coast – else it needed to be given)
r: density of water = 1000 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m2/s2
z = 0 (set a reference height at this point)
v1 = 0
Therefore the only unknown is the constant.

Calculate for the constant!
Now at point 3:
56 )
Again, 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + $
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
P3 = Patm
r: density of water = 1000 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2
z = -1m
v3 = unknown
Constant = Value from point 1
Therefore the only unknown is v3. Solve for v3.
At point 2:
56 )
Again, 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
$
v2 = v3, since mass is conserved, pipe diameter is fixed, incompressible fluid.

As before, all values are known, EXCEPT P2, therefore can solve.
Fluid Flow – Friction Factor
5.8 Friction Factor

From the mechanical energy balance, it was found that:
ρv . α ρv . α
pP + ρgz + r + ∆P' = pP + ρgz + r + ∆P[='@
2 >?@ 2 =,
∆P' is the pressure drop due to friction.

∆P[='@ is the pressure change as a result of shaft work.
Reminder: For Bernoulli’s equation, we simplified this to assume:

i) No friction (∆𝑃7 = 0)
ii) a = 1; i.e. turbulent flow
iii) Ws = 0; no pumping
We now look at what happens when this is not the case; i.e. there IS friction, and there are pumps.
The pressure drop due to friction is defined as:

L v.
∆P' = 4f ρ
D 2
where:
f = friction factor (Fanning Friction factor) – Obtained from a graph.
L = Length (m)
D = Diameter (m)
r = density (kg/m3)
v = velocity (m/s)
Unit analysis:
𝑁 [𝑚] 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 (
= [𝑓] ? @{ |
𝑚 ( [𝑚] 𝑚, 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 1
(
= [𝑓] ? @ ? ( @
𝑚. 𝑠 𝑚 𝑠
Therefore f à dimensionless
NOTE: Depending on the graph used (type of friction factor), the formula will change; e.g.
Fanning friction factor vs. Moody and others.
May also be written as:

O |! |!
∆P' = 4f ~ ρ à ∆P' = ηρ
. .
Where:

O
η = 4f ~
Friction will increase with:

- Longer pipe
- Smaller diameter pipe
- Larger density fluid
- Larger velocity through the pipe
5.8.1 Finding f
To find the friction (f), we use a Moody friction factor graph. This gives the friction factor as
a function of Reynolds number, for different roughness values of pipes.
Video 5.4: Fluid flow – Fanning friction factor (YouTube)
Figure 5.4: Fanning Friction factor chart
For this graph we need Re, and a term e/D.

Where:
•|~
Re = [dimensionless]
‚
e = surface roughness [Units: length; typically, in mm]
D = pipe diameter [Units: length (same as for e)]
e will either be given (tests, exams etc.) or can be obtained from Perry or other texts, such as
the one in Figure 5.5.
Video 5.5: Fluid flow – Pipe roughness (YouTube)

Figure 5.5: Roughness chart for friction factor chart
In the laminar region:

16
f=
Re
Therefore:
16 L v .
∆P' = 4 ρ
Re D 2
16 L v .
∆P' = 4 ρ
ρvD/µ D 2
Lµv
∆P' = 32 .
D
O‚
∆P' = %32 ~!& v ∆P' ∝ v

In the turbulent region:

L v.
∆P' = 4f ρ
D 2
O
∆P' = %2f ~ ρ& v . ∆P' ∝ v .
Example:
Water flows through a commercial steel pipe at 5m/s. If the pipe is 10 cm in diameter,
what is the pressure drop due to friction over 100m of pipe?
Solution:
𝐿 𝑣$
∆𝑃7 = 4𝑓 𝜌
𝐷 2
e = 0.00015 ft
e = 0.004572 cm
e/D = 0.004572/10 = 0.0004572
Re = rvD/µ
= (1000)(5)(0.1)/(1 × 10-3)
= 5 × 105
From Fanning friction factor curve

f = 0.0042
𝐿 𝑣$
∆𝑃7 = 4𝑓 𝜌
𝐷 2
= 4(0.0042)(100/0.1)(1000)(5^2)/2
= 210000 Pa
= 210 kPa
5.8.2 Bends, Valves, Fittings and Constrictions

So far, we have only looked at friction in a straight pipe. Friction also occurs due to bends,
valves, constrictions and other fittings in a pipe.
The friction for a pipe (length and bends/valves/constrictions) can be calculated from the
general equation:
L v.
∆P' = 4f ρ
D 2
However, we split this into:

LB v . LB v . LB v . LB v .
∆P' = p4f ρ r + p4f ρ r + … + p4f ρ r + p4f ρ r
D 2 & D 2 . D 2 ,#& D 2 ,

Oy |!
Where each term %4f ρ . & is pipe length and each bend, valve, and other fitting in the
~
system.
This can be simplified to:

v. LB LB LB LB
∆P' = ρ dJ4f K + J4f K + … + J4f K + J4f K e
2 D & D . D ,#& D ,
Why is this not factorized to pull the 4f and D terms to the left?
Reason:
Diameter could change.
Depending on the method to obtain the friction factor: 4fL/D = h
If the method of obtaining the friction factor does not involve using h, we can further factorize
this to:
v. LB LB LB LB
∆P' = ρ . 4f dJ K + J K + … + J K +J K e
2 D & D . D ,#& D ,
LB LB LB LB
∆P' = 2f. ρ. v . dJ K + J K + … + J K +J K e
D & D . D ,#& D ,
Le/D values for fittings are given in tables. Different researchers may have different values
(or formula) to calculate these.

Figure 5.6: Le/D values for friction factor calculations

Example:
Water at 90oF flows at 1000 lb/min through the system shown below. What is the friction term 𝐹h for the system?
Given:
e = 0.00015 ft or 0.00005 m
equivalent lengths:
elbow 30D
valve 12D
Pipe ID 2’’
Pipe ID 4’’ 100 ft
50 ft
10 ft
50 ft
Flow
25 ft 25 ft 50 ft
Solution:
𝐿8 𝑣 $
∆𝑃7 = 4𝑓 𝜌
𝐷 2
2 inch section:
1) Pipe length: 50 + 10 + 25+ 25 = 110ft
2) Pipe bends: 2
3) Number of valves: 1
Change in pipe diameter
4 inch section:
1) Pipe length: 50 + 50+ 100 = 200ft
Change in pipe diameter
𝐿8 𝑣 $ 𝐿8 𝑣 $ 𝐿8 𝑣 $
∆𝑃7 = 4𝑓 𝜌 + 4𝑓 𝜌 + 4𝑓 𝜌 + … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒.
𝐷 2 𝐷 2 𝐷 2
Factor out as needed.

Therefore:
𝑣 $ 𝐿8 𝑣 $ 𝐿8
∆𝑃7 = 54𝑓𝜌 O P6 + 𝐸𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 499 + 54𝑓𝜌 O P6 + 𝐸𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
2 𝐷 $** 2 𝐷 :**
𝑣 $ 𝐿 2. 𝐿8,<8,&= 𝐿8,6>?68 𝑣 $ 𝐿 2. 𝐿8,<8,&=

∆𝑃7 = 54𝑓𝜌 O + + P6 + 𝐸𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 49 + 54𝑓𝜌 O + +P6
2 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 $**
2 𝐷 𝐷 :**
+ 𝐸𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘

Fluid Flow – Fanning vs. Darcy Friction Factors
5.9 Fanning vs. Darcy Friction Factors

Different researchers have developed different friction factors, with corresponding friction
factor equations. Each curve should be used with the corresponding equation. The most
common friction factor equations are:
6)
Fanning: ∆𝑃7 = 4𝑓 @+ 𝜌
/
$
6)
Darcy: ∆𝑃7 = 𝑓@
/+
@
𝜌
$
(sometimes also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor or Moody friction factor)
Therefore:
𝑓@ = 4𝑓
The Darcy friction factor is simply four times larger than the Fanning friction factor.
Most Moody charts indicate on them which of the friction factor equations need to be used.
5.10 Friction Factor Approximations

Instead of using the friction factor graph (Moody plot), several researchers have derived
equations to obtain the friction value. Some of the more common forms are given below
for the Darcy friction factor:
Author Year Correlation

#/%
Moody 1947 e 10B
fA = 0.0055 n1 + o2 × 10: . + s t
D Re
Haaland 1983 1 6.9 e #D/E
= −1.8log 5 + H I 6
ufA Re 3.7D
NOTE: These are only applicable to the transition and turbulent regions

Fluid Flow – Additional Reading
Example:
a.) Compare Fanning friction factor values obtained using the Moody chart, the Moody approximation and the
Haaland approximation for a smooth pipes at Reynolds numbers of 1 × 105, 1 × 106, 1 × 107 and 1 × 108
b.) Assuming the value obtained from the chart is correct (not a good assumption), calculate the absolute
percentage error in each approximation.
c.) Which approximation method is “better”?
Solution:
a.)
Re Chart Moody approx. Haaland approx.
1 × 105 0.0045 0.00434 0.00446
1 × 106 0.0028 0.00275 0.00290
1 × 107 0.002 0.00201 0.00203
1 × 108 0.0015 0.00167 0.00150
b.)
Re Moody approx. Haaland approx.
1 × 105 3.75 0.98
1 × 106 1.82 3.34
1 × 107 0.66 1.61
1 × 108 10.25 0.31
Average 4.12 1.56
c.) If the definition of “better” is ‘more accurate’, the Haaland method should be used. If one wishes to have a faster
method, the Moody or chart may be more appropriate.
Additional Reading
Coulson, JM, Richardson, JF, Backhurst, JR, Harker, JH, 1999. Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical
Engineering, Volume 1, 6th Edition, Elsevier.
Munson, BR, Okiishi, TH, Huebsch, WW, Rothmayer, AP, 2012. Fluid Mechanics, 7th Edition
(SI Version), Wiley.Perry
Perry, RH, and Green, DW, 1984. Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Edition.
Skogestad, S, 2009. Chemical and Energy Process Engineering, CRC Press.
Welty, JR, Wicks, CE, Wilson, RE, Rorrer, GL. 2008. Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and
Mass Transfer, 5th Edition, Wiley.
Young, DF, Munson, BR, Okiishi, TH, Huebsch, WW, 2012. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics,
5th Edition (SI Version), Wiley.

Fluid Flow – Problems
Problems
5.1 For the Figures 1 à 4 below, answer the following questions:
a.) The diagram in Fig. 1 shows a water pipeline. For the section 1 to 2, calculate the pressure difference ΔP and the friction loss yFh{.
b.) Calculate ΔP and Fh for the system shown in Fig. 2.
c.) Repeat (b) for the case where the liquid flowing in the pipe is an organic solvent of density 1200 kg.m-3.
d.) Calculate ΔP and Fh for the system shown in Fig. 3.
e.) What would the manometer reading be in the system of Fig. 3 if the flow in the pipe were downwards? Assume the value of Fh to be unchanged.
f.) Determine the friction loss Fh for the liquid flowing in the system shown in Fig. 4.
37 kPa 10 kPa
Water
1 2 10cm Hg
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Water 10 cm
3m
0.5 m
15cm Hg
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
5.2 Water flows into a pipe which splits into two at a T-piece. Under what configuration/conditions will the flow split equally into the two arms? List at least 4 things.

5.3 Brine of s.g. 1.18 is to be pumped at 110 kg.min-1 through 5 cm piping in the system shown below. The friction term Fh is calculated as 0.418 kJ.kg-1. What is the power required to
do the pumping?
9m
1m
5.4 The figure below shows a water siphon. The siphon tube is initially filled with water before the lower end is opened to atmosphere.
a.) What is a siphon?

b.) Determine the volumetric flow rate through the siphon, and the pressure in the pipe at point A.
c.) If atmospheric pressure is 1.03 bar, determine the maximum elevation of A above the water level. (Neglect friction.)
1.5 m
20 mm siphon tube
2m
5.5 Brine of specific gravity 1.18 and viscosity 2.5 cp is to be pumped through 100 m of smooth copper tubing of 0.995” ID at 110 kg/min. What is the energy loss due to friction
measured in:
a) J/kg b) head (m) of liquid c) kPa

How does this compare to commercial steel?
5.6 Water at 90oF flows at 1000 lb/min through the system shown below. What is the friction term ∆𝑃7 for the system?
Given:
e = 0.00015 ft or 0.00005 m
equivalent lengths: elbow 30D, valve 12D
100 ft
Pipe ID 2”
Pipe ID 4”
50 ft
50 ft
Flow
10 ft
25 ft 25 ft 50 ft
5.7 A pump takes water at 15°C from a large reservoir and delivers it to the bottom of an open elevated tank 8 m above the reservoir surface through an 8 cm ID pipe. The inlet to the
pump is located 3 m below the water surface, and the water level in the tank is constant at 11 m above the reservoir surface. The pump delivers 400 L/min. Assume a total
equivalent length for the pipeline of 25 m. If the pump and motor have an overall efficiency of 55%, determine the electrical power required to do the pumping.
5.8 Calculate the power delivered to an electrical generator by the water turbine shown in the figure below if the efficiency of the turbine is 80%. The turbine inlet has an ID of 20 cm
and the outlet has an ID of 30 cm. (Neglect friction.)

3.5 bar gauge

20 cm Hg vacuum
50 m
10 cm ID
10 m
5.9 The figure below shows an elevated tank connected to a pipeline. The system contains water at 180oF. What must be the height of the water surface in the tank to produce a flow
of 100 gal/min through the line? The water sprays into the air at the right hand end of the 2” pipe.
7.48 gal = 1 ft3 μ = 0.347 cp ρ = 60.6 lb.ft-3 elbow = 20D
Pipe ID 2”
H Pipe ID 4”
9’ 8
”
20’
50’
10
’
25’

5.10 An edible oils factory (as shown below in aerial view – not to scale) currently stores oil in Tank A before moving it to a second storage area (Tank B) at 250kg/min. Line A-B, which
has a 60 mm portion including two 45° bends, as well as a 40 mm portion needs to be modified in order to make way for administration buildings. As such, Tank C will be
constructed and the oil will flow, at the same flowrate, in a more direct route to Tank B. Valve V1, which will remain in place, will be closed so as to block flow when all old piping
and tanks are removed.
a.) Calculate the energy loss due to friction (in J/kg) of the current system (Tank A to Tank B).
b.) Compare this to the energy loss of the new system (Tank C to Tank B). Explain why the friction is higher or lower in this pipe.
c.) How will the following two suggested modifications to the system affect the flow to tank B:
i) The oil is heated up before being pumped to Tank B.
ii) The pipe diameter is increased
Additional information:
Take e = 0.00005
Equivalent lengths:
Elbow: 30D
Valve: 12D
45° bends: 15D
Straight through Tee: 20D
Right angle Tee: 70D
Sudden contraction: 22D
μ = 0.347 cP ρ = 1200 kg.m-3

It can be assumed that there is no change in horizontal height in the pipeline. Further, the lengths from V1 to the Tee and V3 to the old pipeline are negligible; as is the frictional
loss at the entry and exit to a pipe.

25 m 65 m
30 m
Tank C
V2 V3
20 m
V1
15 m
Flow
Tank B
20 m
35 m 35 m
Pipe ID 40 mm
Tank A
Pipe ID 60 mm
Flow

Pumping – Introduction
6 Pumping
6.1 Introduction
A pump is a device used to move fluids from one location to another
What is the point of a pump?

Is it to increase velocity or to increase pressure? Is the pressure at the exit of the pump
the same as the entrance? What about velocity?
Pressure: Pressure at the outlet of the pump is higher than the inlet.
Velocity:
From the conservation of mass:
Mass in = mass out
Min = Mout
Therefore:
Qin. r = Qout.r where Q = volumetric flowrate
For an incompressible fluid, r is constant and:
Qin = Qout
Now:
Q = XSA × linear velocity
XSAin.vin = XSAout.vout
If the diameter of the pipe in = diameter of the pipe out (XSAin = XSAout) we are left with:
vin = vout
From the mechanical energy balance:

ρv . ρv .
pP + ρgz + r + ∆P' = pP + ρgz + r + ∆P[='@
2 >?@ 2 =,
where:
WF . ρ
∆P[='@ =
m
The shaft work is achieved by:

Liquid: Pump, Archimedes screw
Gas: Compression, Blowing
Solid: Conveyor, Lift
6.2 Pumps
There are four basic types of pumps:
i) Positive displacement pumps;

ii) Dynamic (kinetic) pumps;
iii) Lift pumps; and
Pumping – Pumps
iv) Electromagnetic pumps.
Some specific examples of common pumps include:

i) Reciprocating pumps;
ii) Positive Displacement pumps; and
iii) Centrifugal pumps.
6.2.1 Reciprocating Pump

Circular motion or back and forward motion (diaphragm pump). Resulting flow:
- Forward Action
- Reverse Action
Flow
Time
Figure 6.1: Flow as obtained using a reciprocating pump
- Difficult to control flow rate

- Disadvantage of backward-forward pump action is the dead space. Therefore, some pumps
designed to be able to ‘pump in reverse’ (dashed line on the graph) during dead space when
the piston returns to working position.
Types: Piston, plunger, Diaphragm, Metering
6.2.2 Positive Displacement Pump

Can easily control the flow rate in a peristaltic pump. Usually, a small pump used in industry
for adding small amounts of highly reactive chemicals. Also used in hospitals for heart
lung/lung/dialysis machines.
Types: Gear, Load, Peristaltic (flow inducer)

Pumping – Fluid Head
6.2.3 Centrifugal Pump

Constant flow; easy to control flow; can adjust speed on centrifuge; most robust and well
tested in industry
Figure 6.2: Centrifugal Pump
6.3 Fluid Head

From the mechanical energy balance, we had:
P v. F P v. WF
p + z+ r + =p + z+ r +
ρg 2g >?@ mg ρg 2g =, mg
Units: m (length)
|!
velocity head [a]
.A
q
pressure head [b]
•A
z potential head [c]
F
head loss due to friction [d]
GA
Total Fluid head = [a] + [b] + [c] + [d]
6.4 Manufactures’ Pump Curves

Pumps are quoted (described) relative to a specific head (measure of energy). This is
important when you are choosing pump to buy. You would design your system and calculate
the head needed. The pump manufacturer produces a pump curve (as below) which would
be used to determine if the required head/flow is achieved.

Pumping – System Curves
Figure 6.3: Example of a pump curve as supplied by the manufacturer
As flow rate increases, head decreases. The type of impellor fitted to the pump affects the
curve.
6.5 System Curves

Onto the manufacturers curve we plot the characteristics of our system. As the flow increases
the total head increases.
H (m)
Q (m3/s)
Figure 6.4: Example of a system curve
If there is zero flow, i.e., no pumping and Ws = 0, there can still be a head.
Velocity = 0
Friction = zero
Pressure change = zero
Therefore, the head is the potential head.
Pumping – Geometrically Similar Pumps
Example:
Water is to be pumped in the system shown below:
2m
7m
1m
1.5 m
Table 1 gives the head loss due to friction in the pipeline at various flow rates. Table 2 gives Q-H data for a certain
10 cm diameter pump running at 3000 rpm.
a) What flow rate will be obtained using this pump in the system?
Table 1: Head loss in pipeline

Q (m3/s) H (m)
0.02 6
0.08 25
0.12 57
0.16 87
Table 2: Head loss for a 10 cm diameter pump running at 3000 rpm

Q (m3/s) H (m)
0 25
0.01 24
0.02 22
0.04 18
0.06 12
0.08 2
The manufacturers curve describes what is available, while the system curve describes what
is wanted.
6.6 Geometrically Similar Pumps

Pumps are said to be geometrically similar if they have various characteristics which are
the same, e.g., number of impellor blades, impellor blade angle, ratio of impellor diameter
to pump casing diameter, and others. [Think of this in terms of similar triangles].

Pumping – Geometrically Similar Pumps
Further, geometrically similar pumps have a constant Ns according to the dimensionless

relationship below:
𝑁𝑄&/.
𝑁Œ =
(𝑔𝐻)%/5
This gives rise to the Affinity Laws which give correlations between geometrically similar
pumps:
Affinity laws for a specific pump:

n" Ž ~
= Ž" . ~" [1]
n! ! !
!" Ž . ~ .
= %Ž" & . %~"& [2]
!! ! !
q" Ž % ~ %
= %Ž" & . %~" & [3]
q! ! !
Affinity laws for a family of geometrically similar pumps:

n" Ž ~ %
= Ž" . %~" & [1]
n! ! !
!" Ž . ~ .
= %Ž" & . %~"& [2]
!! ! !
q" Ž % ~ 6
= %Ž" & . %~" & [3]
q! ! !
Note: This last set of equations also applies to fans
where:
1: Pump 1
2: Pump 2
Q: Volumetric flowrate (m3/s)
N: Impellor speed (rpm)
D: Impellor diameter (m)
H: Head (m)
P: Pump power (kW)
These laws assume that the pump efficiency remains constant. The laws work well for
constant diameter pumps but are less accurate for constant speed pumps.

Pumping – Pumps in Series and Parallel
Example:
A pump impellor is changed while the pump speed is kept constant.
Calculate the final flow rate and head. The initial flow was 100 gpm
at a head of 100 ft and 5 bph. The initial and final impellor
diameters were 8 and 6 inches respectively
Solution:
The final flow rate:
q2 = q1(D2/D1) = (100 gpm)(6 inches/8 inches) = 75 gpm
The final head:

h2 = h1(D2/D1)2 = (100 ft)(6 inches/8 inches)2 = 56.3 ft
Example:
The speed of a pump is changed while the impeller size is kept
constant. Calculate the final flow rate and head. The initial flow
was 100 gpm at a head of 100 ft and 5 bph. The initial and final
speeds were 1750 rpm and 3500 rpm respectively
Solution:
The final flow rate:
q2 = q1(N2/N1) = (100 gpm)(3500 rpm/1750 rpm) = 200 gpm
The final head:

h2 = h1(N2/N1)2 = (100 ft)(3500 rpm/1750 rpm)2 = 400 ft
6.7 Pumps in Series and Parallel

6.7.1 Pumps in Series
Figure 6.5: Pumps in series

For pumps in series, add the head.
System Curve
H (m)
Pump curve (2 pumps in series)
Pump curve (1 pump)
Q (m3/s)
Figure 6.6: Pump curve for 2 pumps in series
Doubling the head of the pump curves does not result in a doubling the head for the system.
If we have multiple pumps in series:
Figure 6.7: Pump curve for infinite number of pumps in series
For an infinite number of pumps in series, the flow rate tends to a constant value,
irrespective of the system curve.

6.7.2 Pumps in Parallel
Figure 6.8: Pumps in parallel
For pumps in parallel, add the flow rate.
System Curve
H (m)
Pump curve (2 pumps in parallel)
Pump curve (1 pump)
Q (m3/s)
Figure 6.9: Pump curve for 2 pumps in parallel
Doubling the flow of the pump curves does not result in a doubling the flow for the system.
For an infinite number of pumps in parallel, the head tends to a constant value, irrespective
of the system curve.
Figure 6.10: Pump curve for infinite number of pumps in parallel

When two different pumps are added in series or in parallel, the resulting pump curve is as
below:
NEW Pump curve
Pump curve 2
H (m)
Pump curve 1
3
Q (m /s)
Figure 6.11: Pump curve for different sized pumps; added in series
Pump curve 2
NEW Pump curve
H (m)
Pump curve 1
3
Q (m /s)
Figure 6.12: Pump curve for different sized pumps; added in parallel

Example:
Water is to be pumped in the system shown below:
2m
7m
1m
1.5 m
Table 1 gives the head loss due to friction in the pipeline at various flow rates. Table 2 gives Q-H data for a certain 10cm
diameter pump running at 3000 rpm.
a) What flow rate will be obtained using this pump in the system? (as from previous example)
b) At what speed would the pump need to run to give half this flow rate?
c) What flow rate will be obtained if the pump is replaced by two pumps in series if:
a. Both pumps are 10 cm in diameter running at 3000 rpm;
b. Both pumps are geometrically similar to the pump on Table 2, but are both 15cm in diameter and
run at 2500 rpm?
c. One pump is 10 cm in diameter running at 3000 rpm and one is 15 cm in diameter and runs at
2500 rpm
d) What flow rate would be obtained using two 10cm/3000 rpm pumps in parallel?
Table 1: Head loss in Pipeline

Q (m3/s) H (m)
0.02 6
0.08 25
0.12 57
0.16 87
Table 2: Head loss for a 10cm diameter pump running at 3000 rpm
Q (m3/s) H (m)
0 25
0.01 24
0.02 22
0.04 18
0.06 12
0.08 2

Example:
Water is to be pumped through a smooth pipe from one reservoir to another on top of a hill as shown. What is the maximum
flow rate which can be obtained given the pump curve below (see solution) if the pipe ID is 16 cm and the equivalent length of
the pipe is 100 m?
40
m
Solution: We need to draw the system curve onto the pump curve and obtain intersection:
From the mechanical energy balance:
𝑃 𝑣$ ∆𝑃?+7H 𝑃 𝑣$ 𝑊=
o + 𝑧+ s + =o + 𝑧+ s +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 FGH 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 +, 𝑚𝑔
Assuming velocity at inlet & outlet are equal (same diameter pipe), pressures are equal & the reference height is the pump:
𝑧FGH + ℎ7I+JH+F, = ℎ4GK4

𝐿8 𝑣 $ 100 𝑣 $
ℎ4GK4 = 40 + o4𝑓 𝜌 s /𝜌𝑔 = 40 + 2𝑓 . = 40 + 127.42𝑓. 𝑣 $
𝐷 2 0.16 𝑔
Selecting various flows, manipulating as needed and determining the head from this: System curve
Flow Re Fanning FF* Hpump
l/sec m/s - - m
0 0 0 - 40
2 0.099 15915.49431 0.00682258 40.009
4 0.199 31830.98862 0.00574756 40.029
6 0.298 47746.48293 0.00523253 40.059
8 0.398 63661.97724 0.00490797 40.099
10 0.497 79577.47155 0.00467657 40.147
12 0.597 95492.96586 0.00449944 40.204
14 0.696 111408.4602 0.00435742 40.269
16 0.796 127323.9545 0.00423976 40.342
*Using the Haaland equation – assuming e = 0
Plotting H vs Q (l/sec) on the given pump curve:

50
40
30
Meters
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Litres/second
Kevin Harding
Therefore, (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)
the flowrate is approx. equal to 6 litres per second 186
Pumping – Cavitation
6.8 Cavitation
In a pump, if you no longer have a liquid due to phase change, i.e., liquid changes to a gas,
you will no longer have flow. Pvap is the lowest pressure (at a particular temperature) at
which flow is possible.
If pressure is less than the vapour pressure (Pvap) at pump temperature, vaporisation will
occur. This results in bubble formation which is known as cavitation. Gasses are
compressible so pumping becomes more difficult. Further, this results in mechanical
damage to the pump.
When the bubbles formed from cavitation collapse, there is a high localized mechanical
energy release which causes impellor corrosion and pitting.
Cavitation leads to:

i) Vibration;
ii) Noise; and
iii) Loss of head (power).
6.9 Pressure Change along a Pumped System
E F
C
A B D
a) Draw the velocity change along the length of the pipe.

b) Draw the pressure change along the length of the pipe.

Pumping – Pressure Change along a Pumped System
Velocity
A B C D E F
Length along system
Figure 6.13: Velocity profile across a pumping system
Because of the conservation of mass, and incompressible fluid, the velocity along the system
remains constant.
Pressure
A B C D E F
Length along system
Figure 6.14: Pressure profile across a pumping system assuming no friction
Inside the pump, there is a sharp decrease in pressure, before an increase.
NOTE: Pressure decreases along the length of a pipe. This is due to friction. If there is no
friction; there is no pressure drop along a pipe of constant height.

Pumping – Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
Patm + rgh
Pressure
Patm
A B C D E F
Length along system
Figure 6.15: Pressure profile across a pumping system (including friction)
6.10 Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

For any pump, the manufacturers specify the minimum value of the net positive suction
head (NPSH) for the suction point of the pump. This is the amount by which the pressure
at the suction point must exceed the vapour pressure of the liquid.
Patm + rgh
NPSHr
Pressure
NPSHa
Patm
Pvap
A B C D E F
Length along system
Figure 6.16: Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
Nett Positive Suction head can be broken into two categories:

NPSH required (NPSHr): The value given by the pump manufacturer.
NPSH actual (NHSHa): The value available because of the system.
Pumping – Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
Note: HPSHa > NPSHr in order to avoid cavitation.
Nett Positive Suction Head can be expressed as:
q—ž– |K* ! qK*

NPSH3 + = + [1]
•A .A •A
where:
vi = velocity at the pump inlet (m/s)
Pin = pressure at the pump inlet (Pa)
Pvap = vapour pressure (Pa)
NOW:
From the mechanical energy balance for the section of pipe between the system inlet (in)
and the pump inlet (out):
P v. F P v. WF
p + z+ r + =p + z+ r +
ρg 2g >?@ mg ρg 2g =, mg
Rearranging and knowing that Ws = 0; since we are looking at the section before the pump:
P v. P v.
p + z + r = p + z + r + h'
ρg 2g =, ρg 2g >?@
Assuming the reference height is the pump AND the velocity of the incoming water is zero
(system is from an open tank)
Therefore:
vin = 0
Pin = Patm
P v. P v.
p + z + r = p + z + r + h'
ρg 2g =, ρg 2g >?@
P3@G P v.
+ z=, = p + r + h'
ρg ρg 2g >?@
BUT the “out” as defined above is the inlet to the pump:

Pumping – Additional Reading
Therefore re-defining ‘in’ as the pump inlet and ‘tank’ as the inlet to the system:
P3@G P v.
+ z@3,M = p + r + h'
ρg ρg 2g =,
Rearranging:
qK* |K* ! qžS€
+ = + z@3,M − h' [2]
•A .A •A
Equating Equation (1) and (2)
P|3l v=, . P=, P3@G

NPSH3 + = + = + z@3,M − h'
ρg 2g ρg ρg
Therefore:
P|3l P3@G
NPSH3 + = + z@3,M − h'
ρg ρg
P3@G P|3l
NPSH3 = J − K + z@3,M − h'
ρg ρg
Note:
The reference height was the pump. It the tank surface is below the pump, z is negative.
Additional Reading
Chemical Engineering, Volume 1, 6th Edition, Elsevier.
and Mass Transfer, 5th Edition, Wiley.

Pumping – Problems
Problems
6.1 A tank farm has several tanks for the storage of diesel, petrol and other fuels. Large road tankers deliver the fuel which is then stored until either smaller tankers, or commercial
farmers collect the fuel. In order to reduce the number of pumps on site, it is required that you design a system of pipes whereby, by only closing a few valves, fuel can be pumped
either from the road the road tanker to tank, or from the tank to road tanker, using a single pump. NOTE: A pump can only pump in one direction.
6.2 Water is to be pumped through the system shown, using a 4 ½“ centrifugal pump connected to a 2880 rpm motor. Pump characteristics for this pump and for a geometrically
similar 5” pump are provided. What flow rate will result and what will be the electricity consumption of a 95% efficient motor? (Obtain the characteristic in two ways and
compare.)
Pipe ID 2” length
100 ft
10 ft
12 ft

6.3 Water is to be pumped from a farm dam to a swimming pool beside the farmhouse, which is on top of a hill as shown. The farmer has available one 2880 rpm motor, one 3450 rpm
motor, one 4 ½“ pump and one 5” pump. What is the maximum flow rate which he can obtain?
Pipe ID 3” length
250 ft
120 ft
6.4 A pump takes water at 15°C from a large reservoir and delivers it to the bottom of an open elevated tank 8 m above the reservoir surface through an 8 cm ID pipe. The inlet to the
pump is located 3 m below the water surface, and the water level in the tank is constant at 11 m above the reservoir surface. The pump delivers 400 L/min. Assume a total
equivalent length for the pipeline of 25 m. If the pump and motor have an overall efficiency of 55%, determine the electrical power required to do the pumping. Assume a Fanning
friction factor of 0.006. [Include a diagram of the system in your solution.]
6.5 Explain your understanding of a pump manufacturer’s curve. Show using a diagram and explain for each of the available head, efficiency and power curves/lines.

a.) Show in a diagram and explain how 2 identical pumps in parallel change the overall pump curve.
b.) Show in a diagram and explain how 2 different pumps in series change the overall pump curve.
c.) What is NPSH? Include in your explanation the difference between NPSH available vs. NPSH required.
6.6 2.27 m3/h of water at 320K is pumped in a 40 mm ID pipe a distance of 150 m in a horizontal direction and then up through a vertical height of 10 m. In the pipe there is a control
valve for which the friction loss may be taken as equivalent to 200 pipe diameters and also other pipe fittings equivalent to 60 pipe diameters. The pipe also has a heat exchanger
across which there is an additional loss in head of 1.5 m of water.
a.) Ignoring the velocity head, calculate the total head loss (in metres) in the system.
b.) From the calculation in (a), what power (W) must be supplied to the pump if it is 60 per cent efficient in order to deliver the required flow?
c.) What is the percentage error in the head calculation (as in part a above) due to the assumption of ignoring the velocity head?
d.) The mass flowrate needs to double in the system. What do you expect to happen to the head in the pipe? Explain in terms of pressure, velocity, frictional and total head
loss.
Additional information:
At 320K, water has a viscosity of 0.65 x 10-3 Ns/m2
The Fanning friction factor which can be used in this system is 0.008.
The roughness of the pipe is 0.2 m
6.7 A junior engineer has been asked to increase both the flowrate and head of a certain line by adding additional pumps to the current system. In a warehouse, he finds two additional
pumps of the same size as the currently installed one. The pump curve (for a single pump) and system curve data are given below.
a.) He decides to add to the current system a second pump in parallel. What is the new flowrate and head? Show graphically.
b.) It is suggested that he rather adds the second pump in series. What is the flowrate and head of this system? Show graphically.
c.) Give one reason why it might be better to add the pumps in parallel rather than series.
d.) The engineer decides to use all available pumps and suggests the setups below. Rank these in order of highest to lowest flowrate as well as the highest to lowest head.
Design 1)

Design 2)
Design 3)
Design 4)

Pump and system curve data:

Flow l/sec 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Pump curve m 70 68 65 61 56 50 53 35 26 15 0
System curve m 40 43 47 52 58 65 73 82 92 103 115
6.8 Water at 20°C is pumped from Tank A to tank B as shown in Figure 1 (not to scale) through a 10 cm pipe. On its way from A to B, the water passes through a gate valve, pump and
gate valve respectively. All bends in the pipe are 90° elbows. Roughness in the pipe is given as 248.8 µm.
a.) Assuming diameter of tank A is much larger than the diameter of the pipe leaving it, prove that the velocity in the tank is approximately zero.
b.) Instead of using a Moody chart, friction can be calculated using the Haaland equation (turbulent region only). Calculate the friction factor assuming water is flowing at
5000 kg/hr.
',
# B.E 8 -
Haaland: = −3.6𝑙𝑜𝑔#D 5 M8 + H%.N@I 6
L7
c.) Using the friction factor above (i.e. assume it is constant at all flow rates), derive an expression for the system curve (Q-H) of the tank setup given. Ignore the effects of
sudden enlargement and contraction.
d.) Given the attached pump curve, what is the head and flow of the system with the pump supplied? Draw on the given diagram to indicate how you obtained this.
e.) If the pump is replaced by 2 identical pumps in series, what is the new flowrate and head achieved? Include a new pump curve on the given diagram.
f.) If the pump is replaced by 2 identical pumps in parallel, what is the new flowrate and head achieved? Include a new pump curve on the given diagram.

Given: Le/D (gate valve): 7 Le/D (90° elbow): 20
Tank A
Pump curve
0.25
15 m
0.2
10 m 5m 5m
0.15
5m
H (m)
0.1
25 m
0.05 35 m
0 Tank B
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003 0.0035 0.004 0.0045
Q (m3/s)
Aerial view of Tank A and B to be used in Question 5. (NOTE: There is no change in horizontal height from A to B.)
Solution:
a.) Mass in = Mass out
[(Volumetric flow rate). Density]in = [(Volumetric flow rate). Density]out
Since density is constant: [Volumetric flow rate]in = [Volumetric flow rate]out
[Linear velocity × Cross sectional area]in = [Linear velocity × Cross sectional area]out
[Linear velocity]in = [Linear velocity × Cross sectional area]out/[Cross sectional area]in
But since the tank diameter is MUCH larger than the pipe diameter, XSAout/XSAin à 0
And: [Linear velocity]in à 0
b.) Calculating required values:
Volumetric flowrate: 5m3/hr = 0.0013889m3/s
XSA pipe: 0007854 m2
Velocity in pipe: 0.17683 m/s
Viscosity: 1 cP = 0.001 Pa.s
Reynolds number (Re)= rvD/µ = 17683.883
Therefore (from Haaland): ff = 0.0100

/8 6 )
c.) 𝐻 = 2𝑓 @ O
NOTE: No change in height, no pumping, no change in pipe diameter.
#DD 6)
𝐻 = 2.0.001 H D.# + 2 ∗ 7 + 4 ∗ 20I E.P#
𝐻 = 2.303 𝑉 $
Dividing by A2
𝐻 = 36157.53 𝑄$
d.) Q = 0.0015; H = 0.08 (see diagram)
e.) Q = 0.0017; H = 0.15 (see diagram)
f.) Q = 0.002; H = 0.13 (see diagram)
0.6
0.5
0.4
System curve
H (m) 0.3
Pump curve
Pumps in series
0.2 Pumps in parallel
0.1
0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003 0.0035 0.004 0.0045
Q (m3/s)

Flow Measurement – Introduction
7 Flow Measurement
7.1 Introduction
Measurement of velocity is typically done using:
i) Pitot Tube;
ii) Flow through a constriction (orifice meter, Venturi meter, nozzle);
iii) Flow through a variable area meter (rotameter);
iv) Weirs (or notches); or
v) Other flow measurement methods.
7.2 Flow through a Constriction

Measurement of velocity using a constriction is typically done using:
i) Orifice meter;
ii) Venturi meter; or
iii) Nozzle
From the mechanical energy balance we have:
q,>?@
v. F v. dP WF
pgz + r + = pgz + r − ~ +
2 >?@ m 2 =, q,=, ρ m
Typically, the unknown value is the velocity – which is not easy to measure when inside a
metal pipe. However, if we know the pressure and height terms, we can calculate this.
If we assume there is no friction (sometimes not a good assumption) AND no work, the
energy balance becomes:
v. v. P=, P>?@
pgz + r = pgz + r + −
2 >?@ 2 =, ρ ρ
oQRS ! oK* ! qK* qQRS

− = g(z=, − z>?@ ) + − [1]
. . • •
Now:
From a mass balance; mass in = mass out
Min = Mout
ρv=, A=, = ρv>?@ A>?@

Flow Measurement – Flow through a Constriction
Assuming an incompressible fluid:

v=, A=, = v>?@ A>?@
A>?@
v=, = v>?@
A=,
Substitute into [1]:
V>?@ . V>?@ . A>?@ . P=, P>?@

− . = g(z=, − z>?@ ) + −
2 2A=, ρ ρ
V>?@ . A>?@ . P=, P>?@
p1 − . r = g(z=, − z>?@ ) + −
2 A=, ρ ρ
Ÿ Ÿ
..•A(•K* #•QRS )- K* # QRS ‘
.
V>?@ = [2]
&#
Assuming a horizontal pipe: zin = zout
1
2. 2 ρ ( P=, − P>?@ )3
V>?@ . = .
A
1 − % A>?@ &
=,
!
( qK* #qQRS )
V>?@ = ! [3]
L
&#Y QRS Z
LK*
7.2.1 Orifice Meter

An orifice plate is a device used to constrict the flow through a pipe. By manipulating the
flow, we also manipulate the pressure and, by the calculations above, we can thus measure
the flow rate.

1 0 2 3
Orifice Plate Pipe
U-Tube Manometer
where:
1: Point before the orifice plate where the pressure and density (r or v) equals the
original pressure and density, i.e., before any influence of the orifice meter
0: Point of the orifice plate
2: Vena contracta. Point where the flow diameter is at its minimum
3: Pount after the orifice plate where the pressure and density (r or v) equals the
original pressure and density, i.e., after the fluid has returned to its original
flow patterns
Rules of Thumb: (orifice plates work best under these conditions)

- An orifice should be 50D (50 times the pipe diameter) away from the nearest fitting (to
allow for settling of flow and pressure measurements)
- Pipes should be at least 150 mm in diameter to allow for turbulent flow conditions
Pressure drop is difficult to recover, and orifice plates are inefficient.
Calculating flow rate using an orifice meter:

It was shown earlier that:
2
( )
ρ P=, − P>?@
V>?@ =¡ .
A
1 − % A>?@ &
=,
Using notation for orifice meters:

!
( q" #q! )
V. = L ! [4]
&#P ! Q
L"
Defining: G = mass flow rate = ṁ = rv2A2
Into Equation [4]:

!
( q" #q! )
G = ṁ = ρA. L ! [5]
&#P ! Q
L"
Now: The diameter of the vena contracta is not measured easily. Therefore, define the co-
efficient of contraction:
A.
Ck =
A/
where:
Cc: co-efficient of contraction
A0: Area of the orifice plate
A2: Vena contracta. Area where the flow diameter is at its minimum
Therefore: A2 = CcA0
Substituting onto [5]:

!
( q" #q! )
G = ṁ = ρCE A/ ¡ L ! [6]
&#P D . Q
L"
The flow before, inside and after the orifice plate may be laminar and/or turbulent.
Therefore, we need to re-introduce the alpha (a) term to account for turbulence.
2α.
( )
ρ P& − P.
G = ṁ = ρCE A/ ¡
α CE A/ .
1 − α. % A &
& &
[7]
& &
Reminder: • ≡ γ and : ’ ≡ ρ

CE A/ 2α. . γ( P& − P. )
G = ṁ =
γ ¤ α CE A/ .
1 − α. % A &
& &
In order to account for all the unknown terms and the unknown co-efficient of contraction,
new term is defined: Co-efficient of Discharge (CD)
This is effectively a fudge factor to take in to account the unknowns, turbulent and laminar
flow, frictional losses, and alpha (a) terms.
Now, from (7):

2
( )
ρ P& − P.
G = ṁ = ρC~ A/ ¡
A .
1 − %A / &
&
[8]
CD is obtained from a graph.
Figure 7.1: CD graph for Orifice meters
Additional Notes:
1) If the orifice meter diameter is much smaller than the diameter of the pipe:
D0 << D1
\A0 << A1

This means that:
A/ .
1−J K → 1
A&
And Equation (8) becomes:

2
G = ṁ = ρC~ A/ ( P − P. )
ρ &
G = ṁ = C~ A/ i2ρ( P& − P. )
2) Pressure can be recorded as a height:

G = ṁ = C~ A/ i2ρ( P& − P. )
But:
∆P = ρgh
\G = ṁ = C~ A/ ρi2gh
NOTE: The height here is the equivalent height of the fluid in the pipe. This can be
converted to a height of mercury (or other material) as required.

Example:
Water flows through an orifice meter at a rate of 300 cm3/s. Calculate the height of a mercury manometer
(pressure drop) given a pipe diameter of 75 mm and an orifice diameter of 25mm as in the figure below.
dorifice = 25 mm
Water
3
300 cm /s
dpipe = 75 mm
h=?
𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = . (25)$ = 491 𝑚𝑚$ = 4.91 𝑥 10": 𝑚$
4
𝑐𝑚%
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 300 = 3.0 𝑥 10": 𝑚% /𝑠
𝑠
3.0 𝑥 10": 𝑚% /𝑠
∴ 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 0.61 𝑚/𝑠
4.91 𝑥 10": 𝑚$
𝜌𝑣𝐷 1000 𝑥 0.61 = 25 𝑥 10"%

𝑅𝑒 = = = 15 250
𝜇 1 𝑥 10"%
𝑑FI+7+J8 0.025 1
= =
𝑑4+48 0.075 3
Cd = 0.61 (from graph)
2
( )
𝜌 𝑃# − 𝑃$
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶@ 𝐴D „ $
𝐴
1 − H𝐴D I
#
𝐴D $ 25 $
1−O P = 1 − O P = 0.994 ≈ 1
𝐴# 75
\𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝐶@ 𝐴D 𝜌u2𝑔ℎ
#D./ K0 #DDD0O
𝑚̇ = 3.0 𝑥 𝑥 = 0.30𝑘𝑔/𝑠
= K0
":
0.30 = (0.61 𝑥 4.91 𝑥 10 𝑥 1000)√2.9.81. ℎ
√ℎ = 0.266
ℎ = 0.051𝑚 𝐻$ 𝑂 = 51𝑚𝑚 𝐻$ 𝑂
Converting to mmHg
Pressure of water = Pressure of Mercury
𝜌𝑔ℎR>H8I = 𝜌𝑔ℎSO
1000. 9.81. ℎR>H8I = 13 600.9.81. ℎSO
1000. ℎR>H8I = 13 600. ℎSO
ℎSO = 3.75 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
Example:
Sulphuric acid flows through a pipe of diameter 50 mm. An orifice plate of 10 mm is used determine the flow. If a mercury
manometer gives a reading of 0.1 m, what is the mass flowrate through the pipe?
dorifice = 10 mm
H2SO4
dpipe = 50 mm
h = 0.1m
Checking if 1 – (A0/A1)2 is equal to 1:

$
$ 0.01 $ $
𝐴D $ 𝜋𝑟D$ 𝜋H I (0.005)$ 0.000025 $
1 − O P = 1 − o $s = 1 − C 2 F = 1 − o s = 1 − O P = 1 − 0.04$ = 0.9984 ≈ 1
𝐴# 𝜋𝑟# 0.05 $ (0.025)$ 0.000625
𝜋H 2 I
Therefore:
)
( U' "U) ) $
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶@ 𝐴D ˆ1 2 ) → 𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶@ 𝐴D Š5 ( 𝑃# − 𝑃$ ) [1]
#"W2, X
'
Now:
𝜌S$YZ: = 1300 𝑘𝑔/𝑚%
0.01 $
𝐴D = 𝜋 O P = 7.85398 𝑥 10"[ 𝑚$
2
𝑃# − 𝑃$ = ∆𝑃 = ∆𝜌𝑔ℎ = (13600 − 1300). 9.81.0.1 = 12066.3 𝑃𝑎
Cd à Guess value of 0.61
Into [1]:
2 2
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶@ 𝐴D ˆ ( 𝑃# − 𝑃$ ) = 1300. (0.61). 7.8539 𝑥 10"[ . ˆ ( 12066.3) = 0.0622√18.563 = 0.268345𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝜌 1300
Now check value of Cd:

Calculating Reynolds number:
𝑚̇ 0.268345 0.268345
𝑣= = = = 2.628211𝑚/𝑠
𝜌. 𝑋𝑆𝐴 1300. 𝐴D 1300.7.8539 𝑥 10"[
Viscosity of sulfuric acid = 26.7 cP
𝜌. 𝑣. 𝐷 1300. (2.68345). 0.01
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1279.653 ≈ 1.28 𝑥 10%
𝜇 0.0267
D0/D1 = 0.2
Which gives a new Cd value of: 0.68
Repeating the above steps for new Cd

2 2
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶@ 𝐴D ˆ ( 𝑃# − 𝑃$ ) = 1300. (0.68). 7.8539 𝑥 10"[ . ˆ ( 12066.3) = 0.0694√18.563 = 0.299139𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝜌 1300
𝑚̇ 0.299139 0.299139
𝑣= = = = 2.929809𝑚/𝑠
𝜌. 𝑋𝑆𝐴 1300. 𝐴D 1300.7.8539 𝑥 10"[
𝜌. 𝑣. 𝐷 1300. (2.929809). 0.01
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1426.499 ≈ 1.426 𝑥 10%
𝜇 0.0267
Which gives a new Cd value of: 0.65 (Which is the same as previous Cd value)
Therefore, mass flow

Kevin Harding rate is: 0.299 kg/s
(kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)
206
Flow Measurement – Flow Through a Variable Area Meter
Example:
Sulphuric acid flows through a pipe of diameter 50 mm. An orifice plate of 10 mm is used determine the flow. If
we assume the ratio of (A0/A1)2 is negligible and a mercury manometer gives a reading of 0.1 , the mass flow rate
can be shown to be 0.299139 kg/s. What is the relative error of this reading due to the simplification assumption?
dorifice = 10 mm
H2SO4
dpipe = 50 mm
h = 0.1m
2
( )
𝜌 𝑃# − 𝑃$ "[ ˆ
2 ( 12066.3)
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐶@ 𝐴D „ $ = 1300. (0.68). 7.8539 𝑥 10 . 1300 0.9984 = 0.0694√18.5932
𝐴
1 − H𝐴D I
#
= 0.299378𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Therefore, the relative error = (0.299378 – 0.299139)/0.299139 = 0.08%
7.3 Flow Through a Variable Area Meter

7.3.1 Rotameter
A rotameter is a tapered device placed vertically (or at an angle) in a length of pipe to
determine the flow rate of the fluid in it. A float placed inside the device is pushed upwards
by the water flowing through the pipe. Since the rotameter is slightly tapered, the higher
it is pushed the greater the annulus around the float and the less the force pushing upwards.
Once the forces are balanced (buoyancy, gravity, flow force upwards) the float comes to
rest and a reading of the flow can be taken.

Side View Top View
A1 (total area)
A2 (annulus area)
Afloat (float area)
NOTE: Taper is
exaggerated
i) Tapered tube with smallest diameter at the bottom with free-flowing float inside
ii) When fluid is flowing, float will rise until force upward balances with gravity
iii) Pressure difference across float is equal to its weight divided by maximum cross-
sectional area in horizontal plane
iv) Area for flow is the annulus between the float and the wall of the tube
v) Consider as orifice meter with variable area
vi) Tube must be tapered otherwise the force upward would be constant (and greater to
gravity) and the float would exit the device
vii) Typically, a rotameter is used instead of an orifice meter since pressure drop is not as
high
From orifice plates the mass flow rate was given by:
2
( )
ρ P& − P.
G = ṁ = ρC~ A/ ¡
A .
1 − %A / &
&
2ρ( P& − P. )
G = ṁ = C~ A/
¤ A .
1 − % A/ &
&
Using a similar derivation as for orifice meters, the relationship as below is obtained for
Rotameters:
2ρ( P& − P. )
G = ṁ = C~ A.
¤ A .
1 − % A. &
&
2ρ(−∆P)
G = ṁ = C~ A.
¤ A .
1 − % A. &
&
[1]
Now:
Pressure drop across the float is given by:
V'[>3@ (ρ'[>3@ − ρ'[?=D )g

−∆P =
A'[>3@
[2]
where:
Vfloat = volume of float
rfloat = density of the float
rfluid = density of the fluid
Afloat = area of the float
Substituting (2) into (1)
2ρ'[?=D V'[>3@ (ρ'[>3@ − ρ'[?=D )g

G = ṁ = C~ A.
¤ A .
A'[>3@ p1 − %A. & r
&
[3]
where:
A1 = area of the pipe at the height of the float
A2 = area of the annulus
CD is dependent on the shape of the float (read off a graph)
Note: If the diameter of the annulus is required, the wetted diameter is to be used.
D2* = D1 – Dfloat
where:
D2* = wetted diameter of the annulus (m)

D1 = diameter of the pipe at the height of the float (m)

Dfloat = diameter of the float (m)
Wetted Diameter (also called the Hydraulic diameter):

The wetted diameter is a concept for flow through non-uniform shapes
and is defined as:
Dh = 4.Area/Wetted Perimeter
The wetted perimeter is the perimeter that is in contact with the fluid
Common wetted diameters include:

πD2
4.
Circular Tube: Dh = 4
=D
πD
789, ) .9! ) :
:.
Annulus: 𝐷` = /
a(@, *@!)
= 𝐷D − 𝐷+
4>)
Square duct: Dh = 4a
=a
Rectangular duct (completely filled): Dh = (2LW)/((L + W)
Channel (open at the top): Dh = (4LW)/((2L + W)
Figure 7.2: CD graph for Rotameters

Solving for A2:

If a question asks to solve for A2 (rotameter or A0 in an orifice meter), there are two potential ways of solving:
Method 1:
Because A2 is unknown, CD is also unknown. Therefore, we need to iterate:
Iteration 1:
Guess CD and assume A2 >> A1
Therefore:
2ρcdefg Vcdhij (ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g
G = ṁ = CA A$ → ṁ = CA A$ u2ρcdefg Vcdhij(ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g
’ A $
Acdhij o1 − H $ I s
A#
Solve for A2,1
Iteration 2:
Using A2,1, calculate the velocity through the annulus, the Reynolds number and CD
$k;<=>? l;<@AB (k;<@AB "k;<=>?)m
Returning to the full form of the equation: G = ṁ = CA A$ ˆ C )
n;<@ABo#"WC)X p
'
Assume A2 in the square root is A2,1 and solve for the other A2 (A2,2)
Repeat until BOTH A2,n = A2,n-1 AND CD is constant.
Method 2:
Again CD is unknown. However, this time instead of iterating for BOTH CD and A2, solve for A2 as below and ONLY
iterate for CD as before.
G = ṁ = CA A$
’ A $
Acdhij o1 − HA$ I s
#
ṁ $ 2ρcdefg Vcdhij (ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g

∴O P =
CA A$ A $
#
ṁ $ 2ρcdefg Vcdhij (ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g

∴O P =
CA A$ A $
#
ṁ$ A$ $ 2ρcdefg Vcdhij (ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g

∴ o $ $ s o1 − O P s =
CA A$ A# Acdhij
$ $ $
ṁ ṁ A$ 2ρcdefg Vcdhij (ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g
∴ $ $− $ $ $=
CA A$ CA A$ A# Acdhij
ṁ$ 2ρcdefg Vcdhij (ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g ṁ$
∴ $ $= +
CA A$ Acdhij CA $ A# $
1 CA $ 2ρcdefg Vcdhij (ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g ṁ$
$ = m$ o + s
A$ ̇ Acdhij CA $ A# $
1
A$ $ = $
CA 2ρcdefg Vcdhij (ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g ṁ$
o Acdhij + s
ṁ$ CA $ A# $
1
A$ =
C $ 2ρ V (ρ − ρcdefg )g ṁ$
ˆ A$ o cdefg cdhijA cdhij + s
ṁ cdhij CA $ A# $
1
A$ =
$
2C ρ V (ρcdhij − ρcdefg )g 1
ˆ A cdefg cdhij + $
ṁ$ . Acdhij A#
Flow Measurement – Additional Reading
Example:
A rotameter has a tube length of 0.3 m and internal diameters of 25 mm (top) and 20 mm
(bottom). The float has a co-efficient of discharge of 0.7, a diameter of 20 mm, density of
4800 kg/m3 and a volume of 6.0 cm3.
What is the mass flow rate through the rotameter if the float is halfway up the tube?
Solution:
Cross sectional area (top of tube): π.(0.025m/2)2 = 4.91 x 10-4 m2
Cross sectional area (bottom of tube): π.(0.020m/2)2 = 3.14 x 10-4 m2
Area of float (Af): 3.14 x 10-4 m2 (same as bottom of tube)
Volume of float (Vf): 6 cm = 6 x 10 m3
3 -6
When the float is half way up the tube (A1): π(0.0225m/2)2 = 3.98 x 10-4m2
Area of annulus (A2): A1 – Af = 0.84 x 10-4m2
Mass flowrate:
2𝜌7?G+& 𝑉7?F>H y𝜌7?F>H − 𝜌7?G+& {𝑔
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝐶@ 𝐴$
’ 𝐴 $
𝐴7?F>H o1 − H𝐴$ I s
#
2(1000)(6 × 10"B )(4800 − 1000)9.81

𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = (0.7)(0.84 𝑥 10": ) $
’ 0.84 × 10":
3.14 × 10": o1 − O P s
3.98 × 10":
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ ≈ 0.072 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Additional Reading
Chemical Engineering, Volume 1, 6th Edition, Elsevier.
Crabtree, M, 2000. Mick Crabtree’s Flow Handbook, 2nd Edition, Crown Publications.
and Mass Transfer, 5th Edition, Wiley.

Flow Measurement – Problems
Problems
7.1 Explain the principle of the rotameter.
a.) Draw a rotameter showing the important features.
b.) Why is the top of the rotameter wider than the bottom?
c.) Is a rotameter placed vertically or horizontally? Could it be placed at 45 degrees?
d.) What is the float? What different floats are available?
e.) What is CD?
f.) Find a graph relating float type/shape to CD.
g.) What is the hydraulic mean diameter?
7.2 Oil flows through a 5” steel pipe at a rate of 300 US gal per minute. In the pipeline is a 3.5” standard sharp-edged orifice plate, to which is attached a mercury manometer. At the
flow temperature, the oil has a specific gravity of 0.87 and a viscosity of 15 cp. What will be the reading on the manometer?
I.D. of pipe = 5.047” US gal = 0.1338 ft3
7.3 Brine of s.g. 1.2 flows through a standard 3” pipe at 185 US gal/min. In order to measure the flow, it is desired to install an orifice meter in the line. The pressure difference is to be
measured on a simple mercury manometer. If the maximum reading is to be 40 cm, what size orifice should be installed? Estimate the accuracy to which it will be possible to
measure the flow by this method.
7.4 Oil of viscosity 11 cp and s.g. 0.9 flows through a 1” orifice installed in a 3” pipe. The pressure difference across the orifice is measured as 1.6” of oil. What is the flow rate in the
pipe?
7.5 A rotameter has a tube 12” long, which has an internal diameter of 1” at the top and 0.75” at the bottom. The float (of type B) has a diameter of 0.75”, a volume 0.4 in3 and a specific
gravity of 4.80. What will be the height of the float when there is a flow of 90 gallons of water per hour through the rotameter?
7.6 Water flows through a 30 cm rotameter (Type A) with an internal diameter of 25 mm at the top and 20 mm at the bottom. The float has a diameter of 20mm, a volume of 6.5 cm3
and a specific gravity of 5.
f.) Assuming that A2/A1 is negligible, what is the area of the annulus when there is a flow of 410 l/hr water?
g.) Recalculate the area of the annulus assuming A2/A1 is not negligible. Assume a constant CD.
h.) Compare and discuss the results of (a) and (b).
i.) Is the assumption of a constant CD valid?

7.7 A rotameter has a scale ranging from 0.014 m3/min to 0.14 m3/min. It is intended to use this meter for metering a gas of density 1.8 kg/m3 within a flow range of 0.0287 m3/min to
0.287 m3/min. A new float of the same dimensions is to replace the old one (density = 1905 kg/m3) in order for this system to work.
Given:
G = ṁ = CA A$
’ A $
#
a.) What density must the new float have? Both the floats can be assumed to have the same volume and shape. Further, it can be assumed that the coefficient of discharge is
constant.
b.) Explain (and include a diagram for) the different area terms in the equation above.
c.) How does a rotameter differ from an orifice place? How is Cd different in each?
Solution:
$5DE$!F 2DE#G% q5DE#G% "5DE$!F rO

a.) Given: 𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝐶@ 𝐴$ ˆ 2 )
)DE#G% o#"W2) X p
'
Simplifying:
D.[
𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝑘u𝜌7?F>H − 𝜌7?G+& = 𝑘y𝜌7?F>H − 𝜌7?G+& {
Where k = all values EXCEPT the square root of density float minus fluid
Using the ratios of the new mass flowrate to the old flowrate and the equation above:
,.J ,.J
K̇"+H D.D$P W 0q5DE#G% "5DE$!Fr X W q5DE#G% "5DE$!F r X
K̇#EF
=
D.D#:
=2= ,.J
"+H
= ,.J
"+H
because K is constant
W 0q5DE#G% "5DE$!Fr X W q5DE#G% "5DE$!Fr X
#EF #EF
,.J
W q5DE#G% "#.Pr X
And: 2 = ( (#ED["#.P),.J)
"+H
#EF
Therefore the density of the float is calculated to be: 8000kg/m3

b.) (See notes above)
c.) Rotameter:
Variable diameter flow meter, (normally) vertically arranged, flow determined by pressure measurement
Co-efficient of Discharge (CD): Based of shape of float, based on Re, relatively constant value, at high Re CD is a constant depending on one of three float types.
Orifice meter:
Fixed diameter flow meter, (normally) horizontally arranged, Flow determined by height measurement

Coefficient of Discharge (CD): Based on diameter of pipe vs. diameter of orifice plate, based on Re, more variable over Re than rotameter, at high Re CD is constant (single)
value
7.8 Water flows through a 30 cm rotameter (Type A) with an internal diameter of 25 mm at the top and 20 mm at the bottom. The float has a diameter of 20 mm, a volume of 6.5 cm3
and a specific gravity of 4.8.
a.) Assuming that A2/A1 is negligible, what is the area of the annulus when there is a flow of 390 l/hr water? Assume CD = 0.97.
b.) Recalculate the area of the annulus assuming A2/A1 is not negligible. Assume a constant CD.
c.) Compare and discuss the results of (a) and (b).
.•z•RK} oz•QžS (•z•QžS #•z•RK} )A

Given: G = ṁ = C~ A. L !
Nz•QžS Y&#P !Q Z
L"
Solution:

a.) Given: 𝐺 = 𝑚̇ = 𝐶@ 𝐴$ ˆ 2 )
)DE#G% o#"W2) X p
'

Assuming A2/A1 is negligible à 𝑚̇ = 𝐶@ 𝐴$ Š )DE#G%
Solving: A2 = 8.99 × 10-5 m2 = 89.9 mm2 (i.e. VERY small and the float is hardly raised)
b.) Iterating, using the full form of the equation:
Iteration 1: 79.29 mm2
c.) Numbers are different. We had to reintroduce the A2/A1 term.

– Problems

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Process engineering fundamentals

Preprint · June 2023

Kevin Graham Harding

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) i

LIST OF TABLES VII

LIST OF FIGURES VII

LIST OF EXCEL TEMPLATES XI

LIST OF TERMS XII

4 ENERGY BALANCES 115

4.1 INTRODUCTION 115

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) iv

5 FLUID FLOW 136

5.1 INTRODUCTION 136

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) v

6.1 INTRODUCTION 175

7 FLOW MEASUREMENT 199

7.1 INTRODUCTION 199

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) vi

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) vii

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) viii

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) ix

List of Excel templates

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xi

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xii

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xiii

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xiv

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xv

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xvi

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xvii

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xviii

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xix

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xx

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) xxi

Interpolation can be achieved by:

Video 1.1: Interpolation (YouTube)

1.1.2 Piecewise Constant Interpolation

The figure below shows six points (triangles) from a dataset:

Figure 1.1: Graphical representation of Piecewise Constant Interpolation (Part 1)

Figure 1.2: Graphical representation of Piecewise Constant Interpolation (Part 2)

Figure 1.3: Graphical representation of Piecewise Constant Interpolation (Part 3)

1.1.3 Linear Interpolation

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) 2

For a graph of Ĥ vs T as above this can be written as:

This can be seen graphically below.

Video 1.2: Linear interpolation (YouTube)

It is also possible to have an effective double interpolation – also called bilinear

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) 3

Using the nomenclature as below:

(T2, Ĥ5)P2 (T4, Ĥ7)P3

Mathematically, it is possible to represent this in a single equation:

$ %$ $ %$" ) %) $ %$ $ %$" )%)"

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za) 4

Video 1.3: Double interpolation (YouTube)

Given (or from steam tables if not given), for 6 bar:

Specific volume: Linear interpolation between 300 and 330°C